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U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

DIVISION  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Bulletin  No.  21. 


(Revised  Edition.) 





**tn***T  '£***• 

Mac? 

R E ? 0 ^ 

ok,  " °F  KlWoro 


O, 


TRIP  TO  AUSTRALIA 


MADE  UNDER  DIRECTION  OF  THE  ENTOMOLOGIST 


TO  INVESTIGATE  THE 


mm,  a-a  u/oa 

Natural  Enemies  of  the  Fluted  Scale, 


ALBERT  KOEBELE. 


. (PUBLISHED  BY  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE.) 


WASH  I NGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1890. 


J-  M.  RUSK, 


A O 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

DIVISION  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Bulletin  No.  21. 

( Revised  Edition.) 


REPORT 


OF  A 

TRIP  TO  AUSTRALIA 

MADE  UNDER  DIRECTION  OF  THE  ENTOMOLOGIST 


TO  INVESTIGATE  THE 

Natural  Enemies  of  the  Fluted  Scale, 


ALBERT  KOEBELE. 


(PUBLISHED  BY  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE.) 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1890. 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


Department  of  Agriculture. 

Division  of  Entomology, 
Washington , D.  C .,  November  22,  1889. 

Sir:  I have  the  honor  to  submit  for  publication  Bulletin  No.  21  of 
this  Division,  being  the  report  of  Mr.  Albert  Koebele  upon  the  Fluted 
Scale  ( Iceryapurchasi  Masked)  and  its  natural  enemies  in  Australia. 
I had  intended  to  incorporate  it  in  my  forthcoming  annual  report,  but 
the  limited  space  alloted  to  that  report  makes  it  necessary  to  publish 
this  as  a separate  bulletin. 

Respectfully, 

C.  Y.  Riley, 

Entomologist. 

Hon.  J.  M.  Rusk, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 


Q. A Ml 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  following  report  by  Mr.  Albert  Koebele,  one  of  the  California 
ageuts  of  the  Division  of  Entomology,  gives  an  account  of  his  trip  to 
Australia,  made  during  the  late  summer  and  fall  of  1888  and  the  winter 
of  1888-’89,  under  instructions  from  this  Department,  for  the  purpose 
of  investigating  the  Australian  natural  enemies  of  the  Fluted  Scale 
(leery a purchasi  Maskell)  with  a view  to  introducing  the  most  efficient 
of  them  into  California. 

Failing  to  secure  a specific  appropriation  from  Congress  for  this  pur- 
pose, although  assisted  in  the  attempt  by  the  California  delegation, 
and  particularly  by  the  Hon.  C.  M.  Felton,  and  failing  also  to  secure 
the  removal  of  the  clause  restricting  travel  to  the  limits  of  the  United 
States,  we  were  led  to  accomplish  the  result  through  the  kindness  of 
the  Department  of  State,  in  connection  with  the  Melbourne  Exposition, 
an  arrangement  having  been  made  whereby  two  of  the  salaried  agents 
of  the  Division  should  be  temporarily  attached  to  the  Commission, 
their  expenses,  outside  the  United  States,  to  be  defrayed  by  the  Com- 
mission, within  the  sura  of  $2,000.  The  warm  thanks  of  this  Depart- 
ment are  due  to  the  Department  of  State  for  this  cooperation,  and  par- 
ticularly to  the  Hon.  Frank  McCoppin,  commissioner-general  to  the 
Exposition,  to  whom  the  matter  was  submitted  by  the  State  Department 
for  approval.  Mr.  McCoppin  at  once  accepted  the  proposition,  and 
upon  Mr.  Koebele’s  arrival  in  Australia  helped  him  in  every  way  possi- 
ble to  make  the  experiment  successful. 

Mr.  Koebele  was  sent,  as  just  stated,  for  the  specific  purpose  of  study- 
ing and  importing  the  natural  enemies  of  the  Fluted  Scale,  while  the 
other  agent,  Mr.  F.  M.  Webster,  was  sent  to  make  a special  report  to 
the  Commission  on  the  agricultural  features  of  the  Exposition.  Mr. 
Webster’s  report  has  been  sent  to  the  Commission,  and  was  formally 
submitted  to  Mr.  McCoppin.  A copy  of  the  present  report,  although 
purely  entomological,  and  having  little  relation  to  the  Exposition  proper, 
has  also  been  transmitted  to  Mr.  McCoppin,  as  the  results  of  the  mis- 
sion are,  and  ever  will  be,  connected  with  his  exposition  work. 

While  a number  of  other  entomological  matters  are  referred  to  in  the 
report,  Mr.  Koebele  never  lost  sight  of  the  main  object  of  his  mission. 
How  successful  it  has  proved  late  reports  already  published  in  Insect 

5 


6 


Life,  and  elsewhere,  have  abundantly  testified.  They  have  more  than 
justified  the  anticipations  expressed  in  my  last  annual  report: 

We  fully  expect  to  learn  of  the  increase  and  rapid  spread  of  this  new  introduction 
as  well  as  some  of  the  other  predaceous  species  which  have  been  introduced,  and  to 
find  that  in  a comparatively  few  years  the  orange  groves  of  southern  California  will 
be  kept  measurably  freed  of  the  pernicious  Fluted  Scale  without  so  great  an  effort  on 
the  part  of  the  growers  or  so  great  expense  in  destroying  it.  That  nature  will,  with 
the  new  conditions  induced  by  these  importations,  come  to  the  relief  of  the  fruit- 
grower, and  that  this  interesting  experiment  will  result  in  the  ultimate  saving  of 
untold  millions  to  the  people  of  the  Pacific  Coast  is  our  sincere  belief  which  we  hope 
to  see  verified.  Not  that  we  expect  the  Icerya  to  be  ever  entirely  exterminated ; 
but  it  will  be  kept  under  subjection  so  as  to  be  comparatively  harmless,  as  it  is  in  its 
native  country. 

One  of  the  insects  imported,  viz,  the  Cardinal  Vedalia  (Vedalia  cardi- 
nalis  Mulsant),  has  multiplied  and  increased  to  such  an  extent  as  to  rid 
many  of  the  orange  groves  from  Icerya  and  to  promise  immunity  in  the 
near  future  for  the  entire  State  of  California.  In  fact,  the  rapid  multi- 
plication and  the  effective  work  of  this  little  beetle  are  almost  incom- 
prehensible until  we  come  to  consider  its  power  of  increase  in  a climate 
like  that  of  southern  California,  where  there  is  scarcely  any  cessation  in 
its  activities. 

A careful  account  of  the  transformations  of  the  Vedalia  has  been  pre- 
pared by  Mr.  Coquillett  and  was  published  in  Insect  Life  for  Sep- 
tember, 1889,  pages  70  to  74.  I reproduce  the  figures  in  connection  with 
Mr.  Koebele’s  report  in  order  to  familiarize  those  who  have  not  yet  seen 
it  with  its  appearance.  I have  also  had  some  other  figures  made  to  ac- 
company the  report. 

The  period  from  the  laying  of  the  eggs  until  the  adults  again  appear 
occupies  less  than  thirty  days  for  the  Vedalia.  At  this  rate  of  increase, 
calculating  that  three  hundred  eggs  are  laid  by  each  female,  and  that 
one  half  of  these  produce  females,  it  will  readily  be  seen  that  in  six 
months  the  offspring  of  a single  female  beetle  may  under  favorable  cir- 
cumstances amount  to  over  twenty-two  trillions.  So  far  it  has  not  been 
noticed  to  prey  upon  any  other  insect  than  the  Fluted  Scale,  a fact  which 
accounts  somewhat  for  its  exceptionally  rapid  work  and  renders  the 
outlook  extremely  encouraging. 

Of  the  other  enemies  of  the  Icerya  referred  to  and  more  particularly 
mentioned  in  the  latter  part  of  Mr.  Koebele’s  report,  none  of  them  have 
so  far  given  much  promise,  and  there  is  risk  of  their  not  being  colonized 
by  virtue  of  the  extraordinary  spread  and  increase  of  the  Vedalia, 
which  has  swept  away  from  whole  regions  the  Fluted  Scale,  upon  which 
they  depend.  This  contingency  should  have  been  avoided  and  I very 
much  regret  that  they  have  not  become  established  in  California,  be- 
cause their  establishment,  and  especially  that  of  the  little  Dipteron, 
Cryptochcetum  iceryce , would  have  helped  in  the  general  subjection  of 
the  pest  and  would  be  particularly  valuable  whenever  the  Vedalia,  for 
whatever  reason,  at  any  time  practically  forsakes  a given  locality. 

Where  possible  1 have  endeavored  by  foot-notes  to  add  to  the  specific 
accuracy  of  the  insects  referred  to. 


C.  V.  R. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 


Alameda,  Cal.,  July  7,  1889. 

Sir  : I herewith  submit  my  report  upon  the  study  of  Icerya  purchasi  in 
Australia  and  New  Zealand  and  the  introduction  of  its  parasites  and 
enemies  into  California,  undertaken  under  your  direction  and  in  ac- 
cordance with  your  letter  of  instructions. *  * 


Respectfully  yours, 


Prof.  C.  Y.  Riley, 

JJ.  S.  Entomologist 


Albert  Koebele, 

Special  A gent. 


*The  following  is  extracted  from  the  letter  of  instructions  : 

Washington,  July  3,  1888. 

* * * As  you  are  already  aware  you  are  sent  to  Australia  for  the  purpose  of  mak- 

ing an  investigation  of  the  parasites  and  other  natural  enemies  of  leery  a purchasi 
with  a view  of  introducing  them  into  California.  It  will  he  necessary  for  you  to  go  to 
Adelaide  to  see  Mr.  Frazer  S.  Crawford,  who  sent  over  t lie  first  Dipterous  parasites 
and  the  Ccelostomas  (or  rather  Monophlochus  craufordi).  This  Dipterous  parasi'e  has  * 
been  named  by  Dr.  Willsiton  Lestophonus  iceryce,  and  at  Adelaide  you  will  probably 
be  able  to  study  this  insect  carefully.  Make  the  most  careful  investigations  where 
you  can  learn  of  the  occurrence  of  Icerya  and  find  all  of  its  natural  enemies  in  Austra 
lia.  Find  out  also  the  periods  at  which  these  parasites  oviposit  and  ascertain  the 
season  at  which  success  in  importation  will  be  most  likely  with  each  and  all  of  them. 
Once  on  the  ground  you  can  see  for  yourself  just  what  will  be  necessary  to  be  done  in 
order  to  bring  about  this  result.  You  should  also  endeavor  to  place  the  Department 
in  correspondence  with  as  many  observers  as  you  can  interest  in  the  subject,  and 
should  by  all  means  endeavor  to  get  at  least  one  man  who  will  be  able  to  devote  some 
time  to  the  matter  and  continue  observations  after  you  leave.  It  is  barely  possible 
that  we  may  be  able  to  re-imburse  some  such  person  for  the  time  expended,  but  for 
this  I will  write  you  later,  if  indeed  I do  not  see  you  personally  in  Australia  in  No- 
vember. You  will,  of  course,  inquire  immediately  upon  arriving  in  Melbourne  concern- 
ing the  largest  orange-growing  districts  in  Australia,  and  also  make  inquiries  as  to  the 
best  places  for  observing  Icerya,  aside  from  Adelaide.  If  you  will  visit  the  Botanic 
Gardens  in  Melbourne  you  will  be  able  to  get  some  information  there.  Baron  von 
Mueller,  formerly  director  of  the  Botanic  Gardens,  is  still  a resident  of  that  city  and 
you  will  find  him  a very  well-informed  person  to  consult.  I inclose  you  letters  of  in- 
troduction both  to  Mr.  Crawford  and  Baron  von  Mueller.  * * * 

On  this  trip  your  salary  will  be  paid  as  usual  by  this  Department,  but  your  ex- 
penses by  the  Department  of  State  through  Mr.  McCoppin.  * * * 


7 


REPORT  OF  THE  FLUTED  SCALE  OF  THE  ORANGE  AND  ITS 
NATURAL  ENEMIES  IN  AUSTRALIA. 


By  Albert  Koebele. 


In  accordance  with  the  commission  received  from  the  Hon.  Norman 
J.  Colman,  United  States  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  and  your  letter 
of  July  3,  1888,  I left  San  Francisco  on  August  25,  and  arrived  at  Auck- 
land, New  Zealand,  on  September  14,  where  some  hours  were  spent  in  get- 
ting information  in  regard  to  Icerya.  I visited  Mr.  W.  Will,  editor  of 
the  New  Zealand  Herald  and  Auckland  Weekly  News , who  then,  and 
subsequently  on  my  later  visit,  gave  me  valuable  information  in  regard 
to  the  occurrence  and  disappearance  of  Icerya  in  the  Auckland  districts, 
as  well  as  many  other  points  of  interest  in  horticulture  ; and  also  Mr.  T. 
F.  Ckeeseman,  curator  of  the  Auckland  Museum,  who  readily  accom- 
panied me  to  a place  full  of  Albizzia  (Acacia)  lopliantlia,  Bentham,  which 
had  been  about  three  years  previously  completely  covered  with  Icerya. 
I made  a careful  search  for  specimens  on  these  trees,  yet  only  four  full- 
grown  females  with  large  egg-sacs  could  be  found.  On  one  of  the  scales 
two  rather  large  mites  were  feeding,  attached  to  the  under  side ; and  the 
masses  of  old  and  moldy  remains  of  Icerya  were  still  visible  on  the 
trunks  of  trees. 

A residence  on  which  formerly  were  many  orange  trees  was  also  vis- 
ited. There  all  of  the  trees  had  been  cut  down  on  account  of  the  num- 
erous scales,  and  at  the  time  of  my  visit  no  Icerya  could  be  found  and 
none  were  observed  during  the  year  as  the  proprietors  informed  me. 
No  one  was  able  to  state  the  exact  reason  of  the  disappearance  of  the 
scales ; some  disease  was  the  supposed  cause. 

The  steamer  left  Auckland  the  following  day  and  arrived  in  Sydney, 
New  South  Wales,  September  20.  I remained  therefor  four  days  in 
search  of  Icerya.  On  my  first  walk  a number  of  them  were  discovered 
at  the  town  hall  premises,  infesting  a Pittosporum  (P.  undulatum ),  and 
the  succeeding  days  a few  more  were  found  in  one  of  the  public  parks, 
also  on  this  Pittosporum.  A large  isolated  acacia  tree  full  of  tbe  scales 
was  found  in  front  of  a private  house  in  tbe  eastern  part  of  Sydney  j 
all  were  full  grown  females  with  more  or  less  developed  egg-sacs  and  ap- 

9 


10 


parently  in  a healthy  condition.  As  the  trees  infested  were  all  inclosed, 
no  proper  examination  could  be  made  and  the  few  obtained  at  the  town 
hall  showed  no  trace  of  parasites.  A trip  was  also  made  to  Parramatta, 
about  14  miles  to  the  west  of  Sydney,  to  look  into  some  of  the  orange 
orchards.  I found  nearly  all  the  trees  badly  infested  with  the  red-scale 
( Aspidiotus  aurantii  Masked,  Fig.  1),  and  still  worse  with  what  I con- 


Fig.  1. — Aspidiotus  aurantii  Mask  ell:  1,  scales  on  leaf  of  orange,  natural  size;  la,  adult  male;  lb, 
scales  of  female;  lc,  scale  of  male — enlarged  (after  Comstock). 

sidered  to  be  Mytilaspis  gloverii  Packard.*  Indeed,  some  of  the  trees 
are  completely  covered  by  this  latter  scale,  having  the  appearance  of 
an  old  coat  of  whitewash  on  the  bark  which  had  partly  fallen  off.  None 
of  the  several  orange- growers  there  visited  had  ever  seen  an  Icerya  or 
was  familiar  with  the  insect.  I left  Sydney  on  the  24th  and  arrived  in 
Melbourne  the  following  day,  having  in  the  meantime,  through  the 
kindness  of  the  United  States  consul,  obtained  a free  pass  over  the  New 
South  Wales  Railway,  which  courtesy  was  shown  me  by  all  the  colonies 
subsequently  visited.  Indeed,  I can  not  speak  too  highly  of  the  kind- 
ness shown  me  by  all  the  Government  officials,  and  of  the  interest  they 
took  in  the  successful  execution  of  my  work.  I remained  in  Melbourne 
for  six  days,  during  which  time  I visited  Baron  Ferdinand  von  Mueller, 
to  whom  you  had  given  me  letters  of  introduction.  This  gentleman 
assured  me  that  the  Icerya  never  became  extensively  injurious  in  A us 

*A  careful  study  of  the  pygidial  characters  of  this  scale  shows  it  to  be  much  nearer 
M.  pomorum  than  M.  gloverii.  It  seems,  however,  to  be  distinct  from  the  former  and 
will  probably  prove  to  be  new. 


11 


tralia..  Occasionally  and  in  certain  spots  they  became  numerous,  but 
always  disappeared  again.  I also  met  Mr.  0.  French,  Baron  von  Muel- 
ler’s assistant,  who  has  had  some  experience  in  entomology.  He 
claims  that  the  scale  has  been  known  to  him  for  thirty-four  years, 
yet  he  has  never  seen  it  in  large  numbers. 

At  the  Zoological  Gardens  I found  on  a species  of  Eucalyptus  a coc- 
cid  in  such  numbers  as  to  cover  the  under  side  of  all  the  larger  branches 
and  the  stem  in  part.  Many  of  the  winged  males  were  secreted  among 
the  crevices  of  bark,  with  their  two  long  white  setous  hairs  protruding. 
Numerous  larvae  of  a coleopter  were  found  under  chips  of  bark  feeding 
upon  the  scales,  apparently  belonging  to  some  clerid.  I never  met 
with  these  larvae  again  in  my  later  researches  nor  with  the  coccid  men- 
tioned. A great  variety  of  scales  was  observed  at  Melbourne ; the 
most  pernicious  amongst  them,  a species  of  Aspidiotus , deserved  atten- 
tion. This  is  A.  rossi  Crawford,  figured  on  his  plate  18  of  the  Coccidae, 
but  as  yet  no  description  has  appeared  to  my  knowledge.  I have  seen 
olive  trees  completely  covered  by  this  scale  ; it  will  attack  almost  any 
kind  of  tree  or  shrub  as  I later  observed.  Many  of  the  shrubs  in  the 
Botanical  Gardens  in  Melbourne  infested  by  this  scale  were  in  a dying 
condition.  The  introduction  of  this  pest  would  be  of  serious  conse- 
quence to  the  United  States  and  we  should  be  on  our  guard  against 
this  as  well  as  a second  species  of  waxy  scale,  probably  a species  of 
Ceroplastes.  This  last  is  covered  by  a thick,  smooth,  white,  waxy  mat- 
ter which  effectually  protects  it.  Nothing  would  destroy  this  scale, 
except  remedies  against  the  newly  hatched  larvae,  which,  before  they 
exude  any  wax,  are  easily  killed.  The  insect  was  observed  all  over 
eastern  Australia,  and  it  was  numerous  in  the  Botanical  Garden  at  Syd- 
ney and  in  the  woods  near  Brisbane.  At  the  Botanical  Gardens  they 
could  find  no  remedy  except  cutting  down  the  infested  plants.  I recom- 
mended a strong  resin  wash  for  the  newly  hatched  larvae.  No  Icerya 
could  be  found  during  my  short  stay  at  Melbourne. 

I arrived  at  Adelaide,  South  Australia,  on  October  2,  with  letters  of 
introduction  to  Mr.  Frazer  S.  Crawford,  of  the  surveyor  general’s  office, 
who  received  me  very  kindly  and  promised  me  his  assistance,  which 
promise  he  honorably  fulfilled  throughout  my  stay  in  Adelaide.  I saw 
the  man  who  discovered  the  parasites  of  Icerya  ( Lestophonus  iceryce ), 
and,  indeed,  felt  very  happy  when  he  promised  to  show  me  a large  col- 
ony of  the  scales  on  the  following  day.  Early  the  next  morning  Mr.  A. 
Molineux,  agricultural  editor  of  the  South  Australian  Register  and  Ade- 
laide Observer , and  proprietor  of  the  Garden  and  Field , showed  me  about 
a dozen  orange  and  lemon  trees  in  a private  garden  in  the  suburbs  of 
Adelaide  all  more  or  less  infested  with  Icerya,  and  had  been  so  for  the 
previous  two  years.  The  scales  were  nearly  all  full  grown,  or  rather 
nearly  all  of  them  had  begun  to  exude  cottony  matter  and  deposit  eggs, 
yet  they  were  not  quite  so  far  advanced  as  those  observed  at  Sydney. 

The  very  first  scale  examined  contained  nine  pupae  of  the  parasitic  fly, 
Lestophonus , and  the  scale  was  still  living.  Nearly  all  of  the  many 


12 


others  examined  proved  to  have  either  larvae  or  puparia  within  them ; 
none  of  the  flies  had  at  that  time  made  their  appearance.  I attended 
the  gardeners’  meeting  at  Adelaide  on  October  6,  in  order  to  get  infor- 
mation as  to  the  occurrence  of  Icerya,  yet  but  very  few  of  the  gentlemen 
were  acquainted  with  the  insect.  To  show  how  rare  Icerya  is  in  Soutfl 
Australia,  Mr.  J.  G.  O.  Tepper,  of  the  museum  at  Adelaide,  a qualified 
entomologist,  who  has  collected  insects  all  his  life,  has  known  Icerya 
only  for  the  last  two  years.  He  never  met  before  this  with  any  speci- 
mens in  all  his  collecting  trips  through  South  Australia.  On  October 
15  I made  a trip  with  Messrs.  Crawford  and  Tepper  to  North  Adelaide, 
where  some  Icerya  were  said  to  exist;  we  found  there  in  one  garden  a 
few  orange  and  lemon  trees  with  the  scales,  which  were  subsequently 
collected  for  shipment.  In  another  garden,  and  also  on  orange,  an  oc- 


Fig.  2. — Vedalia  cardinalis:  a,  full  grown  larva;  b,  pupa,  dorsal 
view,  inclosed  in  last  larval  skin  ; c,  pupa,  naked,  ventral  view — 
all  enlarged  (after  Riley). 


Fig.  3. — Vedalia  cardi- 
nalis, adult— enlarged 
(after  Riley). 


casional  specimen  was  found.  I discovered  there,  for  the  flrst  time, 
feeding  upon  a large  female  Icerya,  the  Lady-bird,  which  will  become 
famed  in  the  United  States — Vedalia  cardinalis  (Figs.  2 and  3).  I called 
tbe  attention  of  both  the  gentlemen  to  this  in- 
sect, yet  neither  of  them  had  ever  seen  it  nor 
knew  the  beetle.  Mr.  Tepper  has  charge  of  a 
large  collection  of  insects,  and  especially  of  Co- 
leoptera,  at  the  South  Australian  Museum.  Mr. 
Smith,  the  proprietor  of  the  nursery,  also  called 
my  attention  to  a beetle,  a curculio,  which  is 
very  destructive  to  olive-trees,  eating  the  young 
shoots  and  leaves  of  the  plants  during  the  night 
and  secreting  itself  in  the  ground  during  the 
day-time  (Fig.  4).* 

Through  the  bureau  of  forestry  at  Adelaide  I 
was  informed  that  a colony  of  Icerya  existed  at 
Mannum,  on  the  Murray  River,  and  a trip  to  that 
place  was  made  on  October  18.  In  two  gardens 
Icerya  was  present;  in  one  of  them  they  ex- 
isted on  only  a few  of  the  many  orange-trees, 
and  none  examined  showed  any  parasites,  while  in  the  other  on  two 

* Dr.  Sharp,  to  whom  we  submitted  specimens,  has  kindly  determined  this  beetle  to 
he  Otiorhyrichns  cribricollis  Gyll.,  a common  pest  to  the  Olive  in  the  Mediterranean 
region. 


Fig  4.  — Olive  Snout-beetle 
( Otiorhynchvs  cribricollis)  — 
enlarged  (original). 


13 


trees  that  were  infested  many  of  the  scales  were  parasitized.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  parasites,  numerous  larvae  and  eggs  of  a lace-winged  fly 
(Chrysopa)  were  observed,  the  larvae  preying  upon  the  scales  and  chiefly 
upon  their  eggs.  They  were  covered  so  much  with  the  cottony  matter 
of  Icerya  as  to  resemble  this  insect  very  closely,  and  were  difficult  to 
pick  out  from  the  torn  masses  of  egg-sacs.  I also  observed  here  a cole- 
opterous ( Goccinellid ) larva,  seen  before  at  Adelaide,  feeding  on  the 
scales,  and  this  proved  to  be  that  of  the  Vedalia.  All  the  scales  here, 
as  well  as  all  the  predaceous  larvae  found  feeding  upon  them,  were  col- 
lected and  taken  to  Adelaide  to  be  shipped  to  California,  together  with 
those  found  at  the  latter  place.  They  were  kept  boxed  in  a cool  cellar. 
The  scales  in  Adelaide  and  suburbs  were  collected  on  October  24  and 
25  at  a place  in  North  Adelaide.  Nearly  every  one  of  the  Iceryas  ex- 
posed to  light  and  sun  contained  parasites,  and  many  of  these  had 
already  left,  as  numerous  holes  were  visible.  Of  the  scales  found  on  a 
small  and  bushy  mandarin  tree,  where  they  were  excluded  from  the 
sun,  only  a few  contained  parasites,  but  the  larvae  of  the  Chrysopa  were 
abundant.  Most  of  the  larger  egg-sacs  of  Icerya  were  torn  by  them 
and  the  contents  devoured. 

I observed  also-  that  many  of  the  young  scales,  only  sufficiently  large 
to  contain  a single  puparium  of  the  fly,  were  infested,  the  expanded 
skin  of  Icerya  forming  a thin  covering  over  the  puparium  of  the  Lesto- 
phonus.  This  was  observed  at  all  places  where  Icerya  occurred.  No 
doubt  the  eggs  of  the  pest  must  be  deposited  while  the  scales  are  yet 
quite  small,  probably  even  before  the  first  molt,  and  certainly  later, 
as  the  scales  will  go  on  feeding  and  increasing  in  size  until  the  larvae 
within  them  pupate.  At  this  time  large  numbers  of  the  scales  were 
hatching  and  also  of  the  flies.  Only  one  living  fly  was  observed  on 
October  24  while  collecting  the  scales,  sitting  between  two  large  egg- 
masses  and  hardly  visible  to  the  eye.  This  and  a second  specimen 
taken  under  similar  circumstances  were  the  only  ones  I observed  in  nat- 
ure. I have  never  met  with  a single  specimen  depositing  eggs  or  even 
sitting  on  an  Icerya  nor  flying  around.  I finished  collecting  for  my 
first  shipment  on  the  25th  and  estimated  that  I had  about  6,000  Icerya, 
which  in  return  would  produce  at  an  average  about  four  parasites  (Les- 
tophonus)  each.  They  were  packed  partly  in  wooden  and  partly  in  tin 
boxes.  Small  branches  generally  full  of  scales  were  cut  so  as  to  fit 
exactly  lengthwise  into  the  box.  With  these  the  boxes  were  filled  and 
all  loose  scales  placed  in  between,  plenty  of  space  remaining  for  any 
of  the  insects  within  to  move  about  freely  without  danger  of  being 
crushed  by  loose  sticks.  Salicylic  acid  was  used  in  small  quantities  in 
the  tin  boxes  to  prevent  mold,  yet  these,  as  I have  been  informed  by 
Mr.  Coquillett,  arrived  in  a more  or  less  moldy  condition,  while  those 
in  wooden  boxes  always  arrived  safe.  In  addition,  Dr.  Schomburgh, 
director  of  the  botanical  gardens  at  Adelaide,  kindly  fitted  up  for  me 
a Wardian  case  which  was  filled  with  living  plants  of  orauges  and  Pit - 


14 


Fig 


-Hhizobius  ventra- 
-enlarged  (orig- 


tosporum  in  pots.  Large  numbers  of  Icerya  were  placed  in  this,  and 
such  larvm  as  were  found  feeding  upon  them,  including  some  of  a ticym- 
nus * (Fig.  5),  only  occasionally  found  with  Icerya,  yet  very  abundant  on 
various  Eucalyptus  scales,  especially  on  Eriococcus 
eucalypti.  Of  this  I sent  large  numbers  to  California 
in  my  later  shipments,  as  they  were  easily  collected 
by  the  hundreds  under  bark  of  Eucalyptus  infested 
with  this  Eriococcus.  Mr.  F.  M.  Webster  brought 
me  the  same  insect  in  numbers  from  Tasmania,  to- 
gether with  the  Eriococcus  on  Eucalyptus.  The 
object  of  this  was  to  have  the  Lestophonus  go  on 
breeding  within  the  case  during  the  voyage.  No 
doubt  many  infested  scales  arrived  in  Los  Angeles. 

I found  on  examining  the  tree,  on  April  12,  1889,  under  which  this 
case  had  been  placed  with  a tent  over  it,  that  from  several  of  the  Iceryas 
the  Lestophonus  had  issued.  This  case,  as  Mr.  Coquillett  informed  me 
in  letter  of  November  30,  arrived  in  good  condition,  except  that  the 
putty  had  been  knocked  off  in  se  veral  places,  leaving  holes  large  enough 
for  the  parasites  to  escape.  Before  opening  the  case  he  found  two  coc- 
cinellid  larvte  crawling  on  the  outside,  and  these  when  placed  with 
the  Icerya  attacked  it  at  once.  He  further  said  that  there  were  only 
about  half  a dozen  living  Chrysopa  adults.  This  would  show  that  the 
Lestophonus  was  still  issuing  on  arrival  in  California  and  all  turned  out 
more  favorably  than  I had  anticipated  on  seeing  the  box  handled  in 
such  a rough  manner  by  the  steamer  hands  at  Sydney,  to  which  point 
I accompanied  this  as  well  as  all  the  subsequent  shipments.  I expected 
little  good  would  come  out  of  this  method  of  sending  and  therefore  con- 
cluded to  send  only  small  parcels  on  ice  thereafter,  as  had  been  partly 
done  at  first.  If  once  the  insects  could  be  placed  in  good  condition  in 
the  ice-house  on  the  steamer  just  before  leaving,  where  a temperature 
of38°Fah.  at  first  and  about  46°  Fah.  on  arrival  in  San  Francisco 
existed,  they  must  arrive  safely.  To  accomplish  this,  the  parasites  with 
their  hosts  were  all  collected  the  last  three  days  before  leaving  Ade- 
laide, and  on  arriving  home  were  immediately  placed  in  a cool  cellar. 
On  the  trip  from  Adelaide  to  Sydney,  which  takes  two  days  by  train, 
my  insects  came  generally  in  an  ice-box  on  the  sleeping-car. 

On  November  2 I made  a trip  to  Gordon,  11  miles  north  of  Sydney, 
Mr.  James  Harold,  agricultural  reporter  of  the  Town  and  Country 
Journal , Sydney,  having  furnished  me  with  the  address  of  a prominent 
fruit-grower  there.  Mr.  Harold  has  traveled  much  over  Australia 
gathering  information  for  his  paper,  yet,  as  he  assured  me,  he  never  met 
with  an  Icerya.  The  same  answer  was  received  from  the  gentleman  at 
Gordon,  who  has  been  living  in  the  colony  for  thirty-four  years  and  has 
raised  oranges  for  thirty-two  years.  He  knew  only  the  three  scales  upon 


* Dr.  Sharp  described  this  as  Scyninvs  r^atitulor  (Insect  Life,  I,  364),  but  has  since 
written  us  that  it  is  identical  with  Rhizobius  ventralis  Er.,  of  the  Munich  catalogue. 
He  states,  however,  that  it  belongs  rather  to  Scymnus  than  to  Rhizobius. 


15 


oranges,  viz:  Lecanium  olece  (Fig.  6)  and  the  Mytilaspis  and  Aspidiotus 
aurantii.  This  latter  is  not  doing  any  serious  damage  to  his  trees,  pro- 
viding they  are  well  taken  care  of,  yet  he  assured  me  that  in  some  parts 
of  the  colony  it  is  impossible  to  raise  oranges  on  account  of  the  ravages 
of  this  scale.  For  the  Mytilaspis  he  uses  sulphur  and  lime  as  a wash, 
applying  it  with  a paint  brush.  This  he  claims  need  only  be  repeated 
every  three  years,  as  during  this  time  the  trees  remain  comparatively 
free.  The  mixture  is  prepared  in  the  following  way : 

Unslacked  lime,  two  parts;  sulphur,  one  part ; water  is  poured  on  this 
in  sufficient  quantities  to  boil  and  unite  with  it.  It  is  applied  as  a 
white-wash  to  the  trees  and  to  prevent  injury  should  not  be  too  strong 


Jl 


Fig.  6.—  Lecanium  olece:  1,  adult  females  on  olive  leaves — natural  size;  la,  female— enlarged  (after 
Comstock). 

Besides -the  scales,  an  Aphis  appears  occasionally  on  orange  and  peach 
trees.  Two  beetles  are  numerous  and  destructive  to  the  melon  vines 
here.  One  of  them  found  at  the  time  is  a Diabrotica , often  received  by 
Mr.  Crawford,  of  Adelaide,  as  doing  great  injury  to  the  melon  tribe. 
This  gentleman,  however,  claims  that  all  injury  can  be  avoided  by  dust- 
ing powdered  lime  over  the  plants.  The  beetles,  he  said,  will  not  at- 
tack leaves  thus  treated.  I found  here,  as  well  as  all  over  Australia 
and  New  Zealand,  the  Woolly- Aphis  ( Schizoneura  lanigera ),  yet  they 
could  be  seen  only  on  the  branches,  as  all  or  nearly  all  the  apples  raised 
in  the  colonies  and  New  Zealand  are  said  to  be  grafted  on  blight-proof 


16 


stock.  For  this  purpose,  the  .Northern  Spy  of  our  continent  is  consid- 
ered the  best ; next  comes  the  Majetin,  as  Mr.  Will,  of  Auckland,  in- 
formed me.  The  Irish  peach  was  standing  completely  free  of  Aphis 
between  badly  infested  trees.  A large  number  of  blight-proof  trees 
are  sold  by  nurserymen  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  and  only  such 
are  planted  in  these  countries  as  far  as  the  roots  are  concerned.  Mr. 
Will  said  that  the  Northern  Spy  will  produce  the  best  roots  ; on  this  is 
grafted  the  Majetin  as  the  stem,  and  any  desired 
variety  may  be  selected  for  the  upper  part  or 
branches.  At  this  place  I observed  a small 
black  and  lemon-yellow  lady-bird  (Fig.  7)  feeding 
upon  the  Woolly- Aphis;  the  same  was  also  ob- 
served at  Toowoomba,  Queensland,  under  similar 
circumstances*  I did  not  meet  with  it  outside  of 
these  places.  No  Icerya  could  be  found  on  the 
orange  trees,  but  the  same  day,  two  young  spec- 
ie. 7.—  Leis conform™, found  imens  were  found  in  the  woods,  about  2 miles 

feeding  on  Woollv  Aphis — 7 

enlarged  (original).  distant,  one  of  them  on  a pea- vine  and  the 

second  on  a species  of  Salix , both  near  the  ground. 

November  5 I visited  Mr.  Joseph  Purser  at  Castle  Hill,  to  the  west 
of  Sydney,  also  a prominent  fruit-grower.  No  Icerya  were  found  on  the 
numerous  orange  trees  at  this  place.  Mr.  Purser  reports  having  met 
with  an  occasional  specimen  only  on  his  orange  trees,  never  more  than 
half  a dozen.  A short  distance  from  the  orchard  I noticed  a small  pond 
on  the  edge  of  which  were  growing  a few  small  bushes  of  Acacia.  On 
examination  I found  two  large  Iceryas  with  egg  sacs  and  several  empty 
skins  of  scales.  Mr.  Purser  informed  me  that  in  former  years  he  has 
often  seen  the  scales  upon  trees  growing  along  river  banks.  During  this 
same  day,  while  searching  through  the  bush,  I found  upon  the  needle- 
bush  Halcia  acicularis , growing  amongst  numerous  Acacia  longifolia , a 
well  developed  Icerya  fastened  to  the  main  stem.  A careful  search 
was  made  on  all  the  plants  growing  there,  yet  with  the  exception  of  a 
peculiar  Coelostoma  upon  Acacia,  no  scales  could  be  found.  One  speci- 
men of  Icerya  was  found  on  this  Acacia  at  the  botanical  gardens  in 
Adelaide.  Mr.  Purser,  who  is  also  much  troubled  with  the  Mytilaspis 
mentioned,  used  as  a remedy  kerosene-tar,  1 pint;  soft-soap,  3 pounds; 
sulphur,  5 pounds.  These  are  boiled  in  10  gallons  of  water  and  the 
trees  washed  with  this  mixture  with  a paint-brush,  only  the  trunk  and 
larger  limbs  being  treated.  The  gentleman  claims  that  all  the  scales 
on  trees  so  treated  will  be  killed  and  the  trees  will  remain  free  from 
scales  from  seven  to  nine  years. 

I returned  to  Adelaide  on  November  8,  as  I considered  that  the  best 
field  to  obtain  the  material.  On  the  15th  a trip  was  made  about  300 
miles  north  of  Adelaide,  but  I found  nothing  of  interest  in  the  insect 
line  on  this  journey,  with  the  exception  along  the  road  of  large  num- 

* This  species  is  Leis  conformis  Boisd.,  according  to  Dr.  Sharp,  to  whom  we  sent 
specimens. 


17 


bers  of  locusts  traveling  south  in  search  of  food,  nothing  being  left  for 
them  in  the  interior  to  feed  upon.  The  country  around  Quorn  was  so 
dry  and  hot  that  some  Eucalyptus  rostrata  in  a dry  river-bed  were  all 
the  green  vegetation  that  could  be  seen,  and  the  locusts  still  met  with 
were  unable  to  feed.  Finding  the  search  for  Icerya  in'  this  district  use- 
less, I returned  to  Adelaide,  where  subsequently  new  colonies  were 
discovered  for  shipment.  In  conversation  about  the  grasshoppers  en 
route,  a gentleman  remarked  that  only  in  such  unusually  dry  seasons 
as  the  present  would  the  locusts  migrate,  there  being  no  food  left  for 
them  in  the  interior  of  . South  Australia.  Those  around  Quorn,  he  re- 
marked, left  in  a southeasterly  direction  down  the  valley  toward  Ade- 
laide, while  those  coming  from  the  interior  went  towards  Spencer’s 
Gulf.  On  my  trip  I observed  them  most  abundantly  about  Black  Bock 
traveling  south,  not  in  clouds  but  scattered  and  never  very  high,  simi- 
lar to  our  Caloptenus  devastator  in  California  in  1885.* 

November  29  I began  collecting  material  for  my  second  shipment. 
Already  on  some  of  the  trees,  well  exposed  to  sun,  about  90  per  cent, 
of  the  flies  had  left  the  scales,  while  on  the  trees  in  more  shady  places 
more  than  half  of  the  parasites  were  still  within  their  hosts.  Not  a 
single  fly  was  observed,  and  yet  they  must  have  been  about  in  large 
numbers.  Instead  of  this,  I noticed  sitting  and  walking  about  the 
scales  a peculiar  Chalcidf  (Fig.  8) ; this  was  suspected  to  be  a secondary 


parasite,  and  during  the  day  I noticed  them  ovipositing  in  the  infested 
Iceryas.  The  Lady-birds  were  at  that  time  quite  abundant  in  egg, 
larva,  pupa,  and  imago  states,  and  special  pains  were  taken  not  to 
miss  any  of  these  during  the  collecting.  The  following  four  days  were 

* As  kindly  determined  by  M.  Henri  de  Saussure,  of  Geneva,  Switzerland.  This  is 
the  Chortologa  australis  of  his  monograph  of  the  Tryxalidse,  not  yet  completed. 

t This  is  the  species  referred  to  in  our  annual  report  for  1888,  p.  92,  under  the  MS. 
name  JEuryischia  lestophoni. 

14134— No.  21 2 


18 


spent  m gathering  Icerya  and  its  enemies.  Many  of  the  secondary  par- 
asites were  again  noticed,  yet  not  a single  Lestophonus.  I gathered 
during  this  time  probably  six  thousand  scales,  and  hardly  a specimen 
was  noticed  among  them  that  was  not  parasitized  by  the  Lestophonus. 
All  of  them  contained  either  puparia  of  the  fly  or  empty  holes  where  the 
flies  had  issued.  Knowing  that  if  we  should  introduce  the  secondary 
parasite  the  good  work  of  Lestophonus  on  Icerya  would  be  greatly  re- 
stricted, I sent  the  following  notice  to  Mr.  Coquillett,  and  also  to  your 
office. 

On  account  of  a parasite  of  Lestophonus  iceryce,  remove  the  infested  scales  that  I 
send  from  the  tree  they  were  placed  on,  after  six  weeks,  and  transfer  into  large  glass* 
jars;  examine  daily  by  stupefying  the  insects  that  have  issued,  with  chloroform  or 
ether,  empty  contents  on  table,  pick  out  the  flies  and  destroy  their  parasites.  Form 
a new  colony  with  every  consignment  you  receive. 

In  your  letter  of  January  3 in  regard  to  this  secondary  parasite  you 
wrote: 

The  parasite  bred  from  Kermes  and  the  one  from  confined  Icerya  and  which  you 
think  to  be  parasitic  upon  Lestophonus  are  different  species  of  the  same  genus.  The 
genus  is  an  entirely  new  one  belougiug  to  the  Chalcid  subfamily  Elasmince.  This  sub- 
family is  an  extremely  interesting  one,  and  up  to  the  present  time  has  contained  only 
the  typical  genus  Elasmus,  so  that  this  finding  of  a new  genus  is  important.  Elasmus 
contains  both  secondary  and  primary  parasites,  so  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  secure 
pretty  good  evidence  regarding  this  new  form  before  we  can  accept  it  as  either  one 
or  the  other. 

From  seventy-five  specimens  of  Kermes  no  Lestophonus  was  bred.  On 
the  26th  I left  Adelaide  on  my  way  to  Sydney,  with  what  I considered 
even  a better  shipment  than  the  first.  Unfortunately  this  lot  arrived 
in  a bad  condition  at  San  Francisco,  owing  to  a gale  on  the  route  when 
the  parcels  fell  off  the  shelving  in  the  ice-house,  in  which  they  had 
been  placed,  and  most  of  them  were  crushed  by  cakes  of  ice  falling  on 
them.  In  my  opinion,  even  such  severe  treatment  as  this  would  not 
destroy  so  very  many  of  the  pupse  of  Lestophonus , which  are  not  soft, 
and  if  crushed  out  of  the  scale  will  produce  flies  if  properly  taken 
care  of  later,  as  I had  ample  opportunity  to  observe  while  in  Australia, 

Among  this  lot  of  things  were  also  about  fifteen  hundred  eggs  of  the 
Chrysopa  which  were  collected  on  Kangaroo  Acacia  (A.  armata)  infested 
by  a Dactylopius , which  is  often  taken  to  be  Icerya.  The  scale  is  some- 
times so  abundant  that  the  plants  are  entirely  covered  with  it.  This 
was  the  case  during  my  visit,  and,  as  Mr.  Crawford  informed  me,  also  in 
1882.  Mr.  Maskell,  to  whom  specimens  were  forwarded  by  Mr.  Craw- 
ford, said  that  the  insect  belongs  to  the  Dactylopinw.  The  eggs  of  the 
Chrysopa  were  so  abundant  that  often  from  twenty  to  thirty  could  be 
counted  on  a single  small  outer  branch  of  a few  inches  in  length,  yet 
many  of  these  had  already  hatched.  The  number  of  Lady-birds  in  all 
stages  sent  with  this  lot  amounted  to  several  hundred.  The  weather 
was  unusually  hot  during  two  days  of  collecting,  the  thermometer  regis- 
tered 108°  Fah.  in  the  shade,  and  from  one  small  box  left  in  room 
over  night,  where  the  temperature  had  not  been  below  90°  Fah.,  about 


19 


fifty  of  the  flies  issued  during  the  night  and  early  morning.  They 
were  crawling  on  the  window  at  6 a.  m.  Many  more  were  found  within 
the  box,  with  wings  not  yet  developed. 

I returned  again  to  Adelaide  within  four  days,  the  time  taken  in 
making  the  trip.  I wrote  to  the  United  States  consular  agent,  Mr. 
George  Harris,  at  Brisbane,  Queensland,  to  ascertain  for  me  the  occur- 
rence of  Icerya  in  that  district.  Through  the  department  of  forestry 
at  Adelaide  I was  informed  that  Icerya  existed  at  Stansbury,  on  the 
Yorka  Peninsula,  at  the  place  of  Mr.F.  Wurm.  Accordingly  a trip  was 
made  across  the  water  on  October  1,  and  I was  kindly  and  hospitably 
received  by  Mr.  Wurm.  That  gentleman  showed  me  a small  orange- 
tree  completely  covered  with  Icerya,  but  aside  from  this,  not  a single 
specimen  could  be  found  for  miles  around,  nor  had  they  ever  been  ob- 
served before  this.  The  tree  infested  with  the  scales  was  completely 
covered  witlUa  small  black  ant,  so  much  so  that  several  could  be  count- 
ed upon  each  of  the  scales  at  the  same  time.  Upon  examination  only 
two  specimens  of  the  Icerya  were  found  to  be  parasitized  by  the  Les- 
tophonus , and  these  had  already  left.  No  doubt  the  abundance  of  the 
ants  upon  the  scales  prevented  the  flies  from  ovipositing.  I recom- 
mended keeping  the  ants  off  the  tree  as  the  scales  would  then  dis- 
appear. 

How  often  must  the  mother  flies  have  been  hovering  over  this  young 
tree  in  their  attempt  to  lay  eggs,  and  how  many  of  them  must  have 
been  carried  oft'  as  food  for  the  young  of  the  industrious  ants!  Mr. 
Wurm  also  informed  me  that  Icerya  had  been  found  by  him  upon  the 
roots  of  black  grass.  On  examination,  however,  this  proved  to  be  an 
entirely  different  coccid,  Lecanium  olece , which  had  found  its  way  to 
this  place  in  small  colonies  on  olive-trees.  The  cut- worms  had  done 
considerable  damage* to  fruit-trees,  grape-vines,  and  other  vegetation 
during  November.  Some  of  the  apple  trees  were  completely  stripped 
of  their  foliage.  Melolouthid  larvae  had  been  very  injurious  to  the 
wheat  crop  by  eating  the  roots.*  The  common  grasshopper  was  also  in 
abundance  here.t 

On  December  6,  from  four  large  specimens  of  Icerya  that  had  been 
inclosed,  thirty-four  flies  ( Lestophonus ) and  five  parasites  of  the  latter 
had  issued.  I examined  condition  of  Icerya  on  place  from  which  last 
sending  was  made,  and  from  which  nearly  every  one  of  the  old  and 
infested  scales  had  been  removed,  the  trees  at  the  time  being  full  of 
large  Iceryas;  yet  at  this  date  but  very  few  of  them  were  left,  the  coc- 
cinellid  larvse  and  the  Chrysopa  in  conjunction  doing  good  work,  eat- 
ing, no  doubt,  the  healthy  as  well  as  the  infested  scales.  Some  of  them 
had  apparently  gone  through  second  molt,  yet  the  greater  part  were 

* Three  species  of  Melolonthid  beetles  were  collected  at  this  point  by  Mr.  Koebele, 
and  being  unknown  to  our  fauna  were  sent  to  Dr.  Sharp,  who  has  found  them  to  be 
Scitala  nigrolineata  Boisd.,  S.  pruinosa  Dalm.,  the  third  species  representing  a new 
genus  near  Scitala. 

tThe  same  undetermined  species  referred  to  on  p.  17. 


20 


still  in  the  first  stage.  Only  very  small  larvje  of  the  Lesiophonus  were 
found  within  scales  after  first  aud  second  molts.  Within  a nearly  full- 
grown  specimen  on  trunk  of  lemon-tree,  the  only  large  one  found  there, 
two  larvae  of  the  fiy  were  nearly  full-grown. 

I left  on  December  10  fjr  Melbourne,  seeing  that  it  was  necessary  to 
hunt  up  a new  field.  There  I had  hopes  of  gathering  a sufficient  quan- 
tity for  a shipment.  The  largest  colony  I was  able  to  discover  at  Mel- 
bourne existed  in  a church-yard  on  Collins  street,  upon  small  trees  of 
Pittosporum  undulatnm,  I could  not  find  the  proper  person  to  apply  to 
for  admittance,  and  a policeman  whom  I consulted  in  regard  to  getting 
the  tempting  specimens  advised  me  “not  to  jump  from  the  fence  as 
they  surely  would  have  me  arrested.” 

I left  them  undisturbed  and  went  in  search  of  others.  A few  speci- 
mens existed  in  the  gardens  of  the  government  buildings ; an  occa- 
sional specimen  in  the  park  adjoining  the  Exposition  grounds ; some  on 
a hedge  in  front  of  a hotel,  aud  single  specimens  were  found  on  trees 
in  a park  at  St.  Kilda,  while  at  the  same  place  on  a garden  hedge  quite 
a number  were  found  ; all  these  on  Pittosporum undulatum  and P.  (engeni- 
oidesf).  At  the  last-named  place  the  lady-birds  were  found  at  work, 
and  all  were  gathered  later  for  shipment.  I went  east  of  Melbourne  as 
far  as  Bairnsdale,  yet  no  Icerya  could  be  found.  A strong  attempt 
was  made  to  find  out  the  whereabouts  of  the  Monophloebids  of  which 
Mr.  Crawford  had  sent  specimens  to  California.  They  could  not  be  dis- 
covered in  numbers  in  the  woods,  yet  in  the  parks  at  St.  Kilda  I was 
soon  rewarded,  by  finding  the  insects  looked  for,  viz. : Monophlcebus 
craufordi  Masked  (Fig.  9),  under  loose  bark  of  various  Eucalypti,  em- 
bedded in  cottony  matter,  and  the  single,  (often  2 inches)  long,  white, 
setous,  anal  hairs  sticking  out.*  Only  a few  dozen  of  the  monstrous 
scales,  however,  could  be  gathered  in  a hard  day’s  work.  Up  in  the  tree- 
tops  I often  found  a similar  Monophlcebid,  only  varying  in  color  some- 
what* It  is  as  large,  or  even  larger,  than  711.  crawfordi , and  sits  fast- 
ened to  the  branches  and  exposed  without  any  cottony  attachments, 
although  sometimes  under  chips  of  bark. 

On  my  way  home  in  the  evening  one  of  these  scales  came  hurriedly 
running  down  on  the  trunk  of  a tree.  So  the  next  day,  at  the  northern 
park  at  Melbourne,  the  ground  at  the  base  of  the  Eucalypti  was  ex- 
amined. Here  I found,  sometimes  lying  loose  on  top  and  dead  (in  this 
case  always  destroyed  by  Lestophonus)  and  below  ground  to  a depth  of 
3 inches,  in  a small  cave  nicely  embedded  in  loose  cottony  matter  if 
healthy,  or  generally  mixed  up  with  the  ground  if  parasitized,  large 
numbers  of  these  scales.  These,  Mr.  Coquillett  informed  me  on  my  re- 
turn to  Los  Angeles  in  April,  gave  the  best  results  in  Lestophonus , as 
these  parasites  were  still  issuiug  then,  four  months  after  they  were  col- 

* Not  mentioned  in  the  description  of  Monophlcebus  crawfordi.  See  “ On  some  New 
South  Australian  Coccidse,”  by  W.  M.  Maskell.  (From  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  South  Australia  1888.) — A,  K. 


21 


lected.  I have  counted  as  many  as  sixty-two  holes  in  one  of  these 
scales,  showing  what  a number  of  parasites  they  are  able  to  support.  A 
third  species  of  these  large  Coccids  was  found  attached  to  the  roots  and 
base  of  Eucalyptus  below  ground,  even  larger  than  the  two  preceding. 
About  forty  specimens  of  these  produced  no  parasites.  One  specimen, 
probably  of  this  latter  species,  was  found  embedded  under  bark  between 
the  forks  of  a very  large  Eucalyptus  about  8 feet  from  the  ground.  This 
measured  fully  1 inch  in  length,  and  was  about  two- thirds  as  broad, 
being  nearly  round. 


Fig.  9.—Monophloebus  crawfordi:  a, female  from  above;  &,  same  from  below— enlarged ; c,  antenna; 
d,  tarsus  of  same— still  more  enlarged  (original). 

I left  for  Sydney  on  the  24th  to  place  the  insects  in  an  ice-house  previ- 
ous to  shipment.  In  the  meantime  a letter  had  been  received  from  Bris- 
bane stating  that  Icerya  occurred  there  occasionally  in  numbers,  'and 
having  had  a letter  from  you  in  which  you  expressed  the  hope  that  I 
would  be  able  to  visit  Mr.  Carl  H.  Hartmann,  a correspondent  of  yours 
at  Toowoomba,  who  had  found  Icerya  on  his  oranges  in  1886, 1 started 
for  Queensland  on  December  29  and  arrived  at  Toowoomba  early  on 
January  1, 1889,  During  the  same  day  a full-grown  female  Icerya  was 
discovered  in  the  woods  about  three  miles  from  this  place  on  Acacia 
decurrens.  During  a search  of  several  hours  no  other  specimens  were 
found.  I visited  the  Range  nursery  the  following  day  and  met  the  son 
and  the  brother  of  Mr.  Hartmann,  who  himself  had  died  from  the  effects 


22 


of  fever  contracted  while  on  a scientific  trip  to  New  Guinea.  I also 
met  the  man  who  had  been  employed  at  the  time  in  188G  when  Mr.  Hart- 
mann received  an  illustration  from  Brisbane  of  Icerya, and  directed  him 
to  look  over  the  trees  for  specimens,  when  several  scales  were  found. 
Since  then,  however,  none  have  been  found.  While  looking  over  the 
lemon  and  orange  trees  I found  one  single  nearly  full-grown  specimen, 
but  aside  from  this  no  trace  of  them.  A peculiar  Coccid  resembling 
Icerya  somewhat  in  structure  was  found  on  an  apple-tree.  The  gentle- 
man informed  me  that  Icerya  was  always  most  noticeable  in  wet  seasons, 
but  that  it  never  appeared  in  such  numbers  as  to  be  injurious. 

I found  here  in  abundance  the  large  hemipterous  insect  so  destruct- 
ive to  the  orange  in  Queensland  and  New  South  Wales.  A second 


Fig.  10. — Mictis  pro- 
/ ana  — natural  size 
(original). 


Fig.  11. — Thalpochares  cocciphaga- 
slightly  enlarged  (original). 


species  somewhat  smaller  than  this,  yet  equally  mischievous,  was  found 
at  Adelaide  (Fig.  10).  Trees  were  observed  at  this  place  with  all  the 
fruit  and  most  of  the  young 
shoots  destroyed.  Both  spe- 
cies live  and  grow  upon  the 
sap  of  fruit  and  tender 
twigs.*  Aspidiotus  aurantii 
was  present  here  in  numbers 
and  also  Lecanium  olece , both 
upon  oranges;  the  latter, 
however,  is  kept  well  in 
check  by  a lepidopterous 
( Noctuid ) larva,  Thalpochares 
cocciphapa , Meyrick  (Fig.  11). 

Several  young  orange  trees  had  been  completely  cleaned  by  larvae,  and 
eight  chrysalids  were  found  upon  a young  plant.  Mr.  H.  Hartmann 
also  informed  me  that  near  Brisbane  a dipterous  larva  existed  which 
occasionally  destroyed  all  the  orange  crops,  and  in  1886,  which  was  a 
very  wet  season,  a dipterous  larva  destroyed  not  only  all  the  oranges 
but  also  nearly  all  the  other  fruits,  even  the  apples  and  pears.  He  also 
gave  me  the  following  list  as  blight-proof  apple-trees:  “Northern  Spy, 
Majetin,  Irish  Peach,  Streaked  Peach,  Hartmann’s  Seedlings  Nos.  1 and 
5,  New  England  Pigeon,  Shepherd’s  Perfection,  Chubb’s  Seedling,  Can- 
vade,  Flushed  Peach.” 

On  January  5,  having  obtained  free  passes  for  the  Queensland  rail- 
ways, I left  Toowoomba  for  Brisbane.  On  my  arrival  at  the  hotel  I met 
with  specimens  of  Icerya  on  au  ornamental  plant  in  the  passage-way. 
This  and  a few  other  specimens  found  in  gardens  through  the  city  were 
all  I could  find,  yet  in  damp  seasons  they  occur  sometimes  in  numbers, 
as  I learned  from  several  gentlemen  acquainted  with  the  insect. 

Mr.  Henry  Tryon,  assistant  curator  of  the  Museum,  kindly  introduced 
me  to  several  persons  in  Brisbane.  He  himself  was  about  to  publish  a 


* The  second  of  these  insects  is  Mictis  profana  Fabr.,  and  the  other  is  a species  of 
Aspongopus. 


23 


paper  on  Icerya  and  its  parasites,  of  which  he  has  shown  me  a small  Olial- 
■cid  of  which  he  bred  several  specimens  from  Icerya  inclosed  iu  paper 
box,  saying  it  was  a true  parasite.*  I bred  this  same  insect  from  a few 
specimens  of  an  Icerya  sent  to  me  by  Dr.  Bancroft,  of  Brisbane,  as  feed- 
ing upon  mangrove  tree  (Avicennia  officinalis , Linn.).  This  scale  dif- 
fers in  coloration  from  the  true  I.  purchasi  and  may  prove  to  be  a new 
species.  Mr.  Masked,  to  whom  the  insect  was  shown,  thinks  it  only  a 
variety.  It  would  be  an  interesting  one,  however,  for  of  all  the  I. 
purcliasi  that  I have  seen,  none  show  such  a uniform  bright  yellow 
color.  No  specimens  found  on  mangrove  at  Auckland  show  such 
bright  yellow  color.  Mr.  Tryon  is  of  the  opinion  that  Icerya  originated 
in  China,  from  the  fact  that  nearly  all  specimens  he  found  at  Brisbane 
were  upon  plants  from  that  country.  Dr.  Bancroft,  in  his  paper  on 
Coccidse  (Philosophical  Society  of  Queensland,  vol.  1,  August,  1869), 
referred  to  the  then  undescribed  Icerya,  and  at  that  time,  as  he  assured 
me,  he  had  been  acquainted  with  the  insect  for  several  years.  The 
doctor  further  mentioned  the  occurrence  of  a scale  on  the  sugar-cane 
in  Queensland  living  on  the  roots  of  the  youug  plants,  and  as  these  be- 
came larger,  behind  the  leaves.  It  had  been  imported  with  the  canes 
from  Mauritius.  He  promised  to  secure  specimens  for  me.  No  doubt 
this  will  prove  to  be  I.  sacchari. t 

In  the  woods  around  Brisbane  but  few  Coccids  were  found  during  my 
Brief  stay.  The  white  waxy  scale  ( Ceroplastes ) so  abundant  on  various 
plants  in  cultivation  was  here  observed  iu  large  numbers  upon  a small 
shrub.  Of  the  Monophlcehus , which  I had  been  informed  was  almost 
always  numerous  around  Brisbane,  only  an  occasional  specimen  could 
be  found.  Everything  was  so  extremely  dry  that  I gave  up  my  in- 
tended trip  by  steamer  further  north,  and  as  there  was  little  prospect 
of  obtaining  sufficient  material  for  a shipment  at  this  place,  I returned 
slowly  towards  Melbourne,  making  occasional  stops  along  the  road,  yet 
without  discovering  any  Icerya.  At  Melbourne  I was  fortunate  in  finding 
many  more  of  the  Monophlcehus.  On  a few  trees,  under  the  bark,  they 
occurred  by  the  dozens,  often  many  together,  but  they  were  all  dried  up 
and  the  flies  had  left  sometime  previous.  Those  in  ground  were  still 
in  good  condition.  A large  number  of  them  had  deposited  their  eggs 
and  were  shriveled  up,  yet  during  the  two  days  a fair  number  were  found 
parasitized.  At  Sydney,  January  21  to  23,  a number  of  Iceryas  with 
parasites,  and  probably  two  hundred  or  more  of  the  Lady  birds  iu  all 

* Mr.  Tryon  has  recently  published  in  a pamphlet  entitled  “Report  on  Insect  and 
Fungus  Pests,  No.  1,”  a general  description  of  this  parasite,  but  without  attempt  to 
name  or  properly  place  it.  From  the  description  it  seems  to  be  identical  with  a true 
parasite  of  Icerya,  which  we  have  received  from  Mr.  Crawford,  and  which  we  have 
characterized,  since  the  above  was  in  type,  as  Ophelosia  craicfordi,  n.  g.,  n.  sp. 

t We  find  among  Mr.  Koebele’s  Brisbane  material  a small  Coccinellid  not  here  re- 
ferred to,  but  which  is  labeled  “feeding  on  Icerya.”  Dr.  Sharp,  to  whom  we  sent  a 
specimen,  determines  it  as  Cryptolcemus  montrouzieri  Mills. 


24 


stages,  were  collected,  most  of  them  iii  the  Town  Hall  garden.  I found 
here  also  feeding  upon  the  Scales  a few  specimens  of  a small  Scymuus 
in  all  its  stages  which  were  iuclosed.*  The  first  brood  of  leery  as  in 
warm  and  exposed  places  at  Sydney  had  by  this  time  become  nearly 
grown,  some  of  them  beginning  to  exude  cottony  matter,  while  others 
in  more  secluded  spots  were  quite  small.  The  isola:ed  acacia  tree,  so 
full  of  Icerya  in  September,  had  become  entirely  clear,  nothing  but  a 
few  old  and  torn  egg-masses  being  visible.  With  this  I finished  col- 
lecting the  parasites  and  enemies  of  Icerya  in  Australia,  as  from  letters 
received  from  Mr.  Crawford,  at  Adelaide,  dated  January  11  and  12,  there 
was  little  hope  of  obtaining  sufficient  material  at  that  place  for  another 
consignment,  nor  would  it  have  paid  to  search  for  Monophlcebus  in  the 
ground,  as  at  the  time  they  could  not  be  found  in  large  numbers  in  the 
woods.  Moreover,  many  of  their  parasites  had  already  left,  while  the 
Icerya  still  known  to  me  at  Melbourne  and  Sydney  were  not  sufficient 
to  make  a good  shipment. 

A letter  received  at  this  time  from  you  in  which  you  directed  me  ta 
visit  New  Zealand  and  study  Icerya  there  until  the  arrival  of  the  next 
steamer  for  San  Francisco,  in  case  the  exposition  commission  would  pay 
expenses,  was  shown  to  Hon.  Frank  McOoppin,  who  at  once  consented  to 
my  proposed  trip.  I therefore  left  Sydney  on  the  steamer  of  January  23 
with  some  hope  of  clearing  up  the  mysterious  disappearance  of  Icerya 
in  New  Zealand,  Arrived  at  Auckland  on  the  28th,  the  Scales  with 
parasites  and  Lady-birds  were  repacked  from  tin  into  wooden  boxes,  and 
were  found  in  excellent  condition.  Everything  within  the  tin  boxes  had 
the  appearance  of  being  placed  there  only  a few  hours  previous.  There 
was  no  indication  of  any  mold.  Some  fresh  Iceryas  found  in  a private 
garden  at  Auckland,  on  Acacia  decurrens , were  inclosed  as  food  for  the 
Lady-bird  larvae.  These  latter  Scales  were  in  a small  colony  all  close 
together  on  a few  small  branches,  and  numbered  about  eight  hundred 
specimens.  No  insects  preying  upon  them  were  found.  At  the  United 
States  consulate  a letter  was  found  awaiting  me  from  Mr.  B.  Allan 
Wight,  dated  October  10,  1888,  in  which  the  writer  mentioned  various 
localities  infested  with  Icerya,  wishing  me  to  visit  Hawke’s  Bay,  at 
Napier,  where  the  Scales  were  still  numerous,  although  fast  disappear- 
ing, and  where  a good  field  for  observation  would  be  open.  I therefore 
left  Auckland  on  January  30,  overland,  the  New  Zealand  Government, 
through  our  consul,  having  furnished  me  with  a free  pass  for  four 
months.  On  this  trip  not  many  observations  could  be  made. 

The  Cabbage  Aphis  was  found  in  large  numbers  all  over  the  northern 
island  of  New  Zealand  as  well  as  in  Australia.  A Coccinellid  was  found 
subsequently  at  Napier  feeding  upon  this  Aphis  in  large  numbers.  It 
is  described  by  Mr.  W.  Colenso  as  C.  nova  Zealand ica  (Fig.  12).  About 
fifty  specimens  of  these  were  collected  and  placed  in  empty  pill-boxes.  Of 
these  twenty-one  were  still  living  on  my  arrival  at  Alameda,  where  they 
were  liberated.  A second  species  was  found  feeding  upon  the  Aphis  in 

* Specimens  of  this  insect  were  also  sent  to  Dr.  Sharp,  and  determined  as  belong- 
ing to  a new  species  of  a new  genus. 


25 


small  numbers;  tins  is  C.tasmanii (Fig.  13).  The  Cabbage  Plutella  (Plu- 
tella  crucifer  arum  Zell.)  was  here  as  well  as  all  over  Australia,  observed 
to  be  very  abundant.  Mr.  French,  of  Melbourne,  had  a specimen  ou  exhi- 
bition with  the  name  of  44  Plmia  crucifera”  as  injurious  to  cabbage.  The 
small  Tineid,  so  destructive  to  potatoes  in  California,  and  no  doubt 
already  distributed  over  the  most  of  the  Western  States,  has  been  known 
in  New  Zealand  for  years,  and  it  is  doing  the  same  mischief  all  over 
Australia,  where  it  originated.  In  conversation  with  a merchant  from 
Denver,  Colo.,  recently,  he  said  that  a year  ago  he  received  three  car- 
loads of  California  potatoes,  infested  with  these  worms  to  such  a de- 
gree that  they  could  not  be  sold.  I also  met  here,  wherever  apples  are 
grown,  with  what  is  probably  Mytilaspis  pomorum  Bouche,  the  species 
previously  referred  to  as  such. 


Fig.  12. — Coecinellanova-zealandica,  larva  and  adult — 
enlarged  (original). 


Fig.  13. — Coecinella  tasmanii , 
adult— enlarged  (original). 


Mr.  A.  Hamilton,  curator  of  the  museum  at  Napier,  who  had  been 
informed  by  Mr.  Wight  of  my  intended  trip,  awaited  me  and  at  once 
showed  me  a number  of  infested  Acacia  trees.  Icerya  was  here  still  in 
countless  numbers.  Before  breakfast  the  next  morning  this  gentleman 
showed  me  one  of  the  Australian  Lady-birds,*  saying  that  he  found  it 
among  Icerya.  On  investigation  they  were  found  in  large  numbers  in 
every  place  visited  at  Napier  aud  several  miles  out  in  the  country.  I 
left  Napier  for  Wellington  on  the  11th  to  visit  Mr.  Maskell.  This  gen- 
tleman had  never  had  the  opportunity  of  studying  the  enemies  of  Icerya, 
as  the  scales  are  not  found  anywhere  within  80  miles  of  Wellington.  It 
had  been  the  firm  belief  of  some  persons  in  New  Zealand  that  certain 
Ichneumonids  were  the  destroyers  of  the  Scales.  I saw  dozens  of  sev- 
eral species  of  these  upon  one  orange  tree  infested  with  Icerya  near 
Napier,  not  injuring  them  in  any  way,  but  devouring  the  sweet  exuda- 
tion from  them.  Larger  numbers  of  flies  were  present  than  Ichneu- 
monidse,  and  even  Crambidse  were  engaged  in  the  same  perform- 
ance, yet  these  received  no  share  in  the  compliments.  Mr.  Maskell  had 
received  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  about  two  hundred  specimens 
of  several  species  of  Coccinellids,  which,  as  the  sender  informed  him, 


VedaJia  cardinal^  Mills. 


26 


were  all  preying  upon  Icerya.  They  were  sent  to  Nelson  and  placed 
under  tent  with  the  Scales.  A few  days  later,  how- 
ever, the  wind  took  away  the  tent  and  nothing  more 
has  been  seen  since  of  the  Oocciuellids.  Several 
species  of  these  beetles  which  Mr.  Maskell  kindly 
presented  me  with  were  left  with  you  at  Washington. 
Amongst  them  I could  not  find  the  Rodolia  iceryce , 
Janson  (Fig.  14),  which  is  destroying  the  Scales  at  the 
Cape  and,  with  the  possible  exception  of  one  species, 
I do  not  think  they  will  feed  upon  Icerya. 

My  time  was  too  short  to  visit  Nelson,  and  Mr.  Masked  kindly  promised 
to  secure  for  me  a box  full  of  scales  from  that  district,  so  as  to  enable 
me  to  find  out  whether  some  parasites  or  enemies  existed  there.  This 
box  was  sent  to  me  on  board  the  steamer  at  Auckland  and,  on  opening 
the  same,  several  flies  were  found  that  had  issued  en  route.  Only  one 
of  them  was  in  perfect  condition  ; ad  the  others  were  crippled.  They 
had  crawled  in  among  the  paper  used  in  making  up  the  parcel.  No 
other  specimens  were  bred  and  no  holes  were  observed  in  the  scales,  so 
the  only  possibility  remains  in  the  larva  of  this  fly  being  predaceous 
upon  the  eggs  of  Icerya.  Apart  from  these  flies  no  other  insects  were 
observed  from  the  Nelson  Scales.  On  my  return  to  Napier  I got  at  once 
to  work  gathering  the  Cocciuellids  in  ad  stages.  They  were  in  such 
numbers  that  I fouud  it  not  very  difficult  to  collect  here  about  six 
thousand  specimens  during  the  three  days  (February  14  to  16).  As 
many  as  eight  eggs  of  the  Lady-bird  were  observed  on  the  upper  side 
of  the  female  Icerya  just  beginning  to  exude  cottony  matter.  Oppo- 
site to  this  on  the  small  branch  of  Acacia,  five  young  larvae  of  the 
Lady-bird  were  feeding  on  the  underside  of  a half-grown  scale;  in  one 
instance  even  nine  Coccinellid  larvae  were  found  attached  to  a small 
Icerya.  The  mature  beetles  were  not  numerous, 
but  every  branch  full  of  scales  had  a greater  or 
less  number  of  eggs  and  larvae.  The  eggs  are 
chiefly  deposited  among  the  vigorous  half-grown 
scales.  Here  the  largest  number  of  the  eggs  and 
young  larvae  were  found.  They  are  generally 
single,  thrust  in  between  the  scales  and  fastened 
onto  the  branch,  on  the  scale  itself,  and  often  on 
the  under  side  of  the  scale,  as  the  mother  Lady- 
bird will  sometimes  raise  the  Icerya  with  her  hind 
legs  and  thrust  the  egg  under  it.  At  times  two 
or  more  are  fouud  together,  always  lying  flat  and 
Aside  from  this  valuable  Coccinellid,  a small 
Scymuus  was  observed  here  feeding  upon  the  scales,  but  in  small  num- 
bers only.  This  was  named  for  me  later  by  Captain  Broun,  as  S cymnus 
fagus  (Fig.  15). 

I left  Napier  with  my  valuable  lot  of  Lady  birds  on  the  17th.  They 


I 

Tig.  15. — Scymnus  fagus — en- 
larged (original). 


in  irregular  position. 


Pig.  14  — Rodolia  icer- 
yce — enlarged  (after 
Riley). 


27 


were  placed  in  the  ice-house  on  the  steamer,  and  as  soon  as  Auckland 
was  reached  I went  to  the  freezing  house  and  there  my  Coccinellids  were 
placed  in  a cool  room  with  a temperature  of  38°  Fah.  Having  been 
informed  that  Iceryas  had  been  very  numerous  almost  a year  ago  at  a 
gentleman’s  place  near  Lake  Togabuna,  several  miles  out  of  Auckland, 
a,  trip  was  made  as  soon  as  my  Lady-birds  were  safe,  for  I was  very 
anxious  to  get  at  the  fact  as  to  what  had  destroyed  the  Scales  around  Auck- 
land, and  if  it  were  not  the  same  insect  found  at  Napier.  I was  shown 
a couple  of  Acacia  trees,  one  of  which  had  been  destroyed  by  the  Scales, 
and  a second,  still  living,  which  had  many  Iceryas  upon  it.  All  the 
Scales  on  this  small  tree  were  examined,  and,  with  the  exception  of  a 
small  Coleopterous  larva  within  one  of  the  egg-masses,  no  enemies  could 
be  observed.  Both  these  trees  were  growing  among  old  pine  trees  and 
were  much  shaded  by  them,  in  fact  so  much  so  that  no  sun-loving  in- 
sect like  the  Lady-bird  would  venture  into  them.  Close  by  about  a 
dozen  orange  trees  were  growing  in  an  open  field,  and  on  my  inquiring 
if  no  Scales  were  upon  these  trees,  the  gentleman  remarked  that  only 
about  nine  months  since  they  were  full  of  them,  but  that  all  had  disap- 
peared. These  I wanted  to  see,  and  on  the  first  tree  reached,  while 
yet  at  some  distance,  I could  see,  exposed  to  the  sun  on  the  upper  side 
of  a leaf,  a black  glistening  spot,  which  was  the  insect  looked  for,  the 
Australian  Lady  bird.  On  this  tree  more  Coccinellids  than  Iceryas  were 
found.  The  Lady  birds,  if  not  at  rest  on  top  of  a leaf  in  the  hot  sun, 
were  busily  running  or  flying  about.  This  is  an  interesting  fact.  All 
the  orange  trees  in  the  open  field  were  completely  cleaned  of  the  thou- 
sands of  Scales  by  the  Coccinellids,  while  closely  adjoining,  among  the 
dark  and  shady  pines  ( Pinus  insignis  Douglas),  a large  Acacia  tree 
( Acacia  decurrens ) was  destroyed  by  the  Scales,  even  the  adjoining 
branches  of  the  pine  trees  being  dead,  and,  as  stated  by  the  proprietor, 
from  the  effects  of  Icerya. 

As  yet  the  scales  have  not  been  observed  to  my  knowledge  on  pine 
trees  in  California,  yet  Mr.  Maskell  also  told  me  of  having  seen  pine 
trees  loaded  with  them.  I observed  here  also  an  Aspidiotus  very  in- 
jurious to  apple  trees.  The  following  day  the  place  visited  on  my 
first  arrival  in  Auckland  was  examined  again,  but  only  a few  large 
females  could  be  found.  The  young  were  just  hatching,  and  many 
eggs  were  still  present.  Mr.  Cheeseman  had  been  informed  by  Mr. 
Purchas  and  others  that  Icerya  existed  abundantly  in  the  woods  at  the 
English  church  cemetery  (Paeroa),  infesting  Sophora  tetraptera.  He 
kindly  accompanied  me  to  the  place,  and  before  long  pointed  out  the 
tree,  which  is  closely  related  to  the  Acacias.  We  soou  succeeded  in 
finding  the  scales  in  large  numbers  on  a few  of  the  trees,  when  a care- 
ful investigation  was  made  and  a few  specimens  of  the  small  Scymnus 
fagus  were  found.  A small  hemipterous  insect  was  present  among  the 
egg-masses  in  all  stages,  the  young  being  found  within  them,  and  two 
species  of  small  spiders  had  built  their  houses  among  the  egg-masses 


28 


also.  From  the  many  remains  of  the  young  Iceryas  it  was  evident  that 
they  fed  also  on  these.  The  Australian  Coccinellid  had  not  yet  discov- 
ered this  colony  of  scales,  yet  it  must  have  existed  here  in  numbers- 
for  at  least  four  years.  Only  a few  scattered  specimens  were  found 
on  other  shrubs,  but  they  had  spread  to  the  Mangrove  bushes  growing 
close  by  in  large  numbers.  On  this  plant  they  thrive  remarkably  well. 

Captain  Broun,  at  Drury,  the  authority  on  New  Zealand  Coleoptera, 
was  visited  and  asked  in  regard  to  the  Australian  Lady  bird.  He  did 
not  know  the  insect,  nor  had  he  ever  met  with  it,  but  he  had  the  small 
Scifmnus  fagus,  which  seems  to  be  more  widely  spread  and  lives  upon 
various  Scales ; neither  had  he  met  with  the  common  C.  nova-zealandica 
which  I found  at  Napier.  During  a ramble  in  the  woods  with  the  cap- 
tain I found  a large  Coccinellid  in  all  stages  feeding  upon  Ctenochiton 
viridis  Maskell  infesting  Coprosma  lucida.  This  Coccinellid  was  identi- 
fied by  him  as  Leis  antipodum  Mulsant  (Fig.  16).  Upon  the  same  tree  was 
also  found  in  abundance  a second  and  smaller  Scale  of  the  same  genus  ; 
this  is  C.  perforatus.  The  captain  kindly  promised  to  send  me  a number 
of  living  specimens  of  the  Coccinellid,  and  he  kept  his  promise,  though, 
unfortunately,  the  insect  had  become  so  rare  that  with  assistance  he 
was  able  to  find  only  six  specimens.  These  came  in  an  ice-chamber  well 
packed  in  a large  box,  but  only  one  of  them  was  living  on  arrival  here. 


Fig.  16 .—Leis  antipodum,  two  varieties— enlarged  (original.) 


On  February  25  the  steamer  was  ready  to  sail.  Having  made  ar- 
rangements with  the  butcher  on  board  the  previous  day  as  to  the  most 
convenient  time  of  receiving  my  insects  into  the  ice-house,  they  were 
transferred  from  the  freezing-house  on  board  the  steamer,  which  did 
not  take  more  than  ten  minutes,  and  the  insects  were  not  disturbed  in 
their  dormant  stage  during  the  time.  Every  day  on  the  voyage  I re- 
ceived the  answer  from  the  butcher,  to  my  inquiries  about  the  parcel, 
“Your  bugs  are  all  right.”  On  March  10,  after  leaving  Honolulu,  one 
of  the  boxes  with  the  Lady  bird  larvje  was  examined  and  found  in  ex- 
cellent condition;  no  dead  larvae  could  be  found  among  them,  and  this 
was  twenty-four  days  after  the  first  were  collected.  On  Saturday  eve- 
ning, March  16,  we  arrived  at  San  Francisco,  too  late  to  have  the  in- 
sects forwarded,  and  1 could  not  send  them  oft  before  Monday  evening, 
March  18.  They  were  probably  received  and  opened  by  Mr.  Coquillett 
two  days  later.  This  would  make  thirty-four  days  that  they  were  in- 


29 


closed,  and  yet  they  arrived  in  excellent  condition,  better  than  any  pre- 
viously received.  Having  been  on  ice  for  tweuty-nine  days,  no  doubt 
many  of  the  eggs  arrived  here  before  hatching,  and  the  larvae  under 
such  conditions  would  make  little  progress  in  their  growth. 

As  will  be  seen  from  these  notes  (and  such  is  my  firm  belief),  Icerya 
is  indigenous  to  Australia,  having  spread  from  that  country  to  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  New  Zealand,  and  our  continent,  and  no  doubt  with  some 
plants  brought  here.  The  pursers  on  steamers  running  between  San 
Francisco  and  Sydney  informed  me  that  with  every  trip  a greater  or 
less  number  of  plants  are  brought  over.  On  these  no  one  would  notice 
Icerya;  even  an  expert  would  overlook  a few  of  the  tiny  young  scales 
if  not  especially  searching  for  them.  At  the  time  Icerya  was  first  ob- 
served here  many  oranges  were  brought  over.  Mr.  Sutton,  of  the 
Alameda,  informed  me  that  in  1873  the  entire  market  in  San  Francisco 
was  supplied  with  Australian  oranges.  All  this  matters  little.  We 
have  the  pest,  and  now  the  most  effective  enemies  of  it.  Before  long 
the  work  of  the  latter  will  be  appreciated  all  over  the  State.  At  this 
date  small  colonies  of  the  Lady-birds  have  been  established  in  almost 
every  district  infested  with  Icerya,  and  at  Los  Angeles  they  must  be 
present  already  by  the  thousands. 

It  was  difficult  in  Australia  to  ascertain  which  was  the  most  effect- 
ive enemy  of  Icerya,  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  the  latter  insect  dur- 
ing the  unusually  dry  season  of  my  visit.  It  is  safe  to  say,  however, 
that  the  Lestophonids  are  always  and  at  any  time  ready  for  any  Icerya, 
since  they  breed  upon  so  many  and  varied  Scales  infesting  the  Euca- 
lypti and  Acacias,  of  which  the  Australian  woods  chiefly  consist. 
Often  Icerya  will  appear  in  large  numbers  in  some  private  garden  in  a 
oity,  and  yet,  as  I have  been  informed,  they  will  be  out  of  sight  in  a 
short  time  again.  This  entire  clearing  up  is  the  work  of  the  Lady- 
birds, for  in  most  cases  the  infested  scales  will  produce  eggs,  and  the 
flies  are  never  able  to  entirely  clear  a tree  of  them,  in  which  case  t.  e 
Lady-bird  steps  in  aud  devours  Scales,  flies,  and  all.  It  is  only  in  such 
protected  places  that  the  scales  sometimes  become  numerous,  as  it 
takes  time  for  their  enemies  to  establish  themselves.  The  Lestophonus 
no  doubt  would  in  time  increase  here  so  as  to  keep  the  Icerya  iu  check, 
but  this  would  be  years,  for  only  two  broods  of  it  were  observed  in 
Australia,  as  many  as  that  of  its  host,  the  Icerya,  the  parasite  appear- 
ing about  the  same  time  as  the  young  of  the  latter.  I have  seen  about 
«ight  species  of  Monophlcebidse  upon  which  Lestophonus  will  undoubt- 
edly breed. 

Dr.  Diez,  of  the  Adelaide  Museum,  has  shown  me  several  specimens 
of  a species  of  these  scales,  which  he  assures  me  were  fully  2 inches  in 
length  when  received  alive  from  the  interior  of  South  Australia.  He 
had  written  to  the  party  who  sent  them  for  information  regarding  the 
monstrous  scale-bug,  yet  the  only  light  he  received  upon  the  subject 
was  that  the  discoverer  of  the  Scale  was  found  dead  in  the  bush  near 


30 


Baroota,  and  Lie  assumes  that  they  came  from  that  district.  Such  a 
large  Coccid  would  be  able  to  support  several  hundred  of  the  Lesto- 
plionus.  I have  also  bred  this  fly  from  a species  of  Goelostoma  found 
on  a shrub  at  Mount  Lofty,  South  Australia,  where  two  specimens  of 
Icerya  were  found,  both  invested  by  Lestophonus  on  a species  of  Acacia. 
In  California  we  have  to  my  knowledge  no  Scales  upon  which  this  fly 
would  breed,  with  the  exception  of  Pulvinaria  and  Bactylopius.  Of  the 
latter  there  are  many  species  found  almost  everywhere;  a large  species 
almost  equal  in  size  to  Icerya  exists  upon  our  Redwood  trees  {Sequoia). 
This  no  doubt  will  in  time  be  attacked  by  the  flies.  I have  not  the  least 
doubt  that  in  time  this  Lestophonus  will  do  effective  work  upon  Icerya 
even  if  slow  (too  slow  for  the  Americans,  as  Mr.  Wolfskill  remarked). 
So  far  1 have  seen  little  progress  of  it.  On  my  visit  to  Los  Angeles  (April 
12),  it  seemed  that  very  few  remained  of  the  vast  number  of  flies  re- 
ceived here  in  good  condition.  All  had  been  placed  under  one  tent, 
erected  over  a tree  for  the  purpose  of  propagating,  instead  of  forming 
a new  colony  with  every  consignment  received;  yet.it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  very  many  of  the  flies  have  escaped  from  the  tent. 

As  far  as  the  Lady-bird  is  concerned  it  will  show  itself,  or  rather  has 
done  so  already.  They  never  were  found  by  the  writer  except  feeding 
upon  Icerya,  and  yet  there  must  surely  exist  in  Australia  some  other 
scales  upon  which  they  feed.  The  work  this  little  insect  is  able  to  accom 
plish  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  by  chance  it  went  over  to  Auckland,  New 
Zealand,  where  the  Icerya  was  in  a flourishing  state,  having  destroyed 
nearly  everything  about  flve  years  or  so  since,  and  there  cleared  nearly 
the  whole  district  around  Auckland  within  about  two  years.  From  here 
it  has  spread  south  as  far  as  Hawk’s  Bay  without  any  artificial  help, 
everywhere  increasing  in  numbers  as  long  as  the  food  would  last.  I 
shall  be  greatly  mistaken  if  this  one  insect  alone  is  not  master  of  the 
situation  within  two  years’  time,  although  we  have  comparatively  few 
to  battle  with.  It  will  need  thousands  everywhere  to  clean  up  the  mill- 
ions of  scales.  I has  no  time  while  in  the  field  to  study  much  of  the 
life-history  of  this  valuable  insect.  My  first  motto  was  always  “get  as 
many  as  possible.”  If  once  established  here,  the  life  history  may  be 
studied  at  leisure. 

I will,  however,  relate  part  of  the  doings  of  oue  pair  of  these  insects. 
On  February  9 a few  beetles  and  pupae  were  collected  in  a glass  jar. 
Two  male  Lady-birds  were  noticed  running  and  pushing  around  one  of 
the  pupae  in  which  one  of  the  female  Lady-birds  had  just  issued  and 
was  within  the  case  with  soft  and  tender  wings  and  about  helpless.  Soon 
the  male  succeeded  in  pushing  her  out,  and  immediately  after  this  had 
been  accomplished,  one  of  them  united  with  her  at  about  3 p.  m.  This 
pair  were  placed  in  a small  wooden  box  and  they  remained  in  copula 
until  the  following  morning  at  7.  They  were  left  in  this  box  until 
February  17,  when  they  were  placed  in  a large  jar  with  twigs  of  Acacia 
full  of  Iceryas.  No  eggs  were  observed  in  the  box,  which  was  completely 


31 


clean,  with  the  exception  of  the  numerous  red  spots  produced  by  the 
Lady-bird,  for  they  had  subsisted  on  their  own  eggs  during  their  confine- 
ment. As  soon  as  the  female  Lady-bird  was  among  the  scales  she  be- 
came quiet,  stopped,  and  deposited  an  egg  upon  the  twig.  As  soon  as 
this  was  done  she  turned  around  and  devoured  the  same,  which  took 
her  about  a half  a minute.  A few  moments  were  spent  in  cleaning  her- 
self and  then  another  egg  was  brought  forth  and  eaten.  After  this  and 
another  wash  she  attacked  and  devoured  a half  grown  scale.  This  was 
eaten  into  from  the  back,  very  quietly  at  first,  yet  in  a little  time  she 
became  lively,  almost  furious,  tearing  the  scale  off  from  its  hold  by  the 
beak  and  turning  it  up  and  down  in  the  air  with  the  mouth-parts,  as- 
sisting in  this  with  the  anterior  legs.  In  about  one  minute  this  was 
devoured  and  nothing  but  the  empty  skin  left,  after  which  she  went  to 
work,  business-like,  and  deposited  eggs  quietly,  sitting  at  rest  upon  the 
scales,  and  every  few  minutes  thrusting  an  egg  in  between  or  generally 
under  them.  A very  large  scale  was  lifted  with  the  posterior  legs  and 
the  egg  thrust  beneath.  All  the  strong  attempts  at  love  affairs  by  the 
lively  and  not  hungry  male  were  resisted.  I was  careful  to  see  that 
twigs  with  nothing  but  Icerya  on  them  were  selected  for  food;  at  least 
no  young  larvae  could  be  observed  on  them  ; yet  the  second  day  after 
the  Coccinellids  were  placed  in  with  them,  young  larvae  were  seen,  and 
they  came  out  so  fast  that  within  a few  days  my  jar  was  a living  mass 
of  them. 

On  February  22  a few  of  the  larvae  were  fall  grown  and  settled  down 
in  a quiet  place,  fastening  the  ends  of  their  bodies  down  with  a thick 
and  sticky  substance  and  remaining  in  this  way,  becoming  shorter  and 
stouter,  for  four  days.  On  the  25th  the  first  pupa  was  observed ; from 
this  the  mature  beetle  hatched  in  the  evening  of  the  28th.  Another 
appeared  the  following  day.  Again,  on  March  3,  a pair  of  the  bred 
Lady-birds  were  placed  together,  with  clean  food,  and  the  next  day, 
March  4,  eggs  were  observed  which  hatched  on  the  8th.  This  I could 
not  carry  through,  as  the  food  began  to  dry  up ; in  fact,  on  March  18, 
many  grown  and  hungry  larvae  were  devouring  each  other  in  this  jar, 
and  even  the  mother  of  them,  which  was  still  living,  was  noticed  devour- 
ing one  of  her  young,  a larva.  Three  times,  at  intervals,  this  pair  were 
observed  in  copulation.  Eleven  beetles  of  this  last  brood  reached  matu- 
rity, having  had  nothing  to  feed  upon  but  one  supply  of  scales  that 
had  already  been  boxed  up  for  eight  days,  the  beetles  having  been  born 
and  forced  to  live  upon  one  another.  Taking  four  days  for  the  eggs  to 
hatch,  about  eight  days  for  the  larvae  to  grow,  three  days  until  pupa- 
ting, and  four  days  more  for  the  pupa  to  emerge,  this  would  oul3Tmake 
nineteen  days  from  the  egg  to  the  mature  insect,  providing  the  weather 
is  warm.  No  doubt  we  will  see  cases  where,  in  less  time  than  this, 
all  the  stages  are  gone  through  at  Los  Angeles  in  hot  weather,  and  we 
may  expect  at  least  fifteen  broods  annually  of  this  insect  to  two  of 
Icerya. 


32 


Another  most  important  insect  is  the  moth  Thalpochares  cocciphaga 
Meyrick.  It  is  greatly  to  be  hoped  that  this  insect  will  be  introduced 
here,  I have  been  able  to  get  about  a hundred  larvte  here  in  good  con- 
dition, yet  what  became  of  them  I am  not  able  to  state  as  yet.  The 
insect  is  apparently  easy  to  breed.  Five  of  the  larvae  were  placed  in  a 
pill  box  in  the  field  during  January  and  overlooked.  During  April,  on 
opening  the  box  at  Alameda,  I found  that  four  of  the  moths  had  issued, 
copulated,  and  deposited  many  eggs.  The  young  larvae,  however,  had 
already  left  the  box  and  no  trace  of  them  could  be  found.  It  would 
have  been  easy  with  the  number  received  here,  had  a little  care  been 
bestowed  upon  them,  to  breed  and  introduce  them  upon  most  any  of 
our  larger  Scales. 

The  Chrysopa,  of  which  eggs  and  larvae  were  sent  over  with  every 
shipment,  excepting  the  last,  have  been  successfully  introduced.  In 
April,  while  in  Los  Angeles,  several  of  the  insects  were  noticed  upon 
orange  trees  in  Mr.  Wolfskin’s  orchard. 

Several  species  of  Scymnus , about  six  in  number,  that  were  sent,  all 
live  upon  Coccidce.  The  largest  of  them  was  abundant  in  Brisbane  upon 
various  soft  scales,  and  was  also  found  at  this  place  upon  Icerya. 

Mr.  Webster  brought  to  me  from  Tasmania  a box  full  of  Eucalyptus 
twigs  with  Eriococcus  eucalypti , the  Scymnus  so  numerous  at  Melbourne, 
and  sent  here  in  numbers,  together  with  two  small  moths,  aPyralid  and 
a Tiueid,  which  were  feeding  upon  the  Eriococcus .*  These,  as  all  other 
insects,  were  turned  over  to  Mr.  Coquillett.  Various  other  beneficial 
insects  were  observed  during  my  four  months’  work  in  Australia,  all  of 
which  if  introduced  here  would  be  of  great  value.  One  of  these  de- 
serves to  be  mentioned.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  Lady-birds,  and  had 
cleaned  whole  apple  orchards  of  the  Woolly  Aphis  in  South  Australia 
and  Victoria.  They  were  also  observed  to  feed  upon  Lecanium. 

All  material  collected  and  studied  in  Australia  relating  to  this  sub- 
ject and  otherwise  of  importance  will  be  mounted  and  sent  to  you  with 
the  notes  thereon. 

* ThesQ  moths  we  have  bo  means  of  bow  determining,  even  if  described.  The 
Tiueid  much  resembles  Euclemtnsia  bassettella  of  this  country,  and  the  other  is  a Phy- 
eid  near  Ddkruma. 


o 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

DIVISION  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Bulletin  No.  22. 


REPORTS 


vy 


OBSERVATIONS  AND  EXPERIMENTS 


THE  PRACTICAL  WORK  OF  THE  DIVISION, 


UNDER  THE  DIRECTION  OF  THE  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


(PUBLISHED  BY  THE  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE.) 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1890. 


v.dSfo  i. 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OFvAG£ICULTURE. 

DIVISION  OF  ENTOMOLOGY?  : 


Bulletin  Mo.  5}£R-, 


RETORTS 


OBSERVATIONS  AND  EXPERIMENTS 

IN 

THE  PRACTICAL  WORK  OF  THE  DIVISION, 

MADE 


UNDER  THE  DIRECTION  OF  THE  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


(PUBLISHED  BY  THE  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE.) 


WASH INGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1890. 


1 


CONTENTS, 


Page. 

Introduction 7 

Report  on  various  Methods  for  destroying  the  Red  Scale  of  Cali- 
fornia  D.  W.  Coquillett. . 9 

Report  on  Insects  of  the  Season  in  Iowa Herbert  Osborn..  18 

Report  on  Observations  upon  Insects  affecting  Grains. E.  M.  Webster..  42 
Entomological  Notes  from  Missouri  for  the  Season  1889,  Mary  E.  Murt- 

feldt  73 

Report  on  California  Insects Albert  Eoebele. . 85 

Report  on  Nebraska  Insects Lawrence  Bruner . . 95 


3 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 


Department  of  Agriculture, 

Division  of  Entomology, 
Washington , 1).  O.,  January — , 1890. 

Sir  : I have  the  honor  to  submit  for  publication  Bulletin  No.  22  of 
this  Division.  Owing  to  the  necessities  of  the  case  I was  able  to  include 
in  the  annual  report  only  a general  summary  of  the  work  of  the  field 
agents  of  the  Division,  reserving  their  full  reports  on  the  work  of  the 
year  for  subsequent  publication.  They  are,  therefore,  here  presented, 
Respectfully, 

C.  Y.  Riley, 
Entomologist . 

Hon.  J.  M.  Rusk, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

5 


C\ 


INTRODUCTION. 


This  bulletin  comprises  the  reports  of  the  field  agents  of  the  Division 
of  Entomology  which  were  necessarily  omitted  from  the  annual  report) 
in  which  it  has  been  our  previous  custom  to  publish  some  or  all  of 
them. 

Mr.  Goquillett  has  reported  upon  several  phases  of  his  work,  and  we 
print  here  only  the  portion  relating  to  the  experiments  which  he  made 
in  the  destruction  of  the  Red  Scale  of  California  ( Aspidiotus  [Aonidia] 
aurantii  Maskell)  by  the  use  of  washes.  A portion  of  his  report  re- 
lating to  experiments  with  gas  treatment  for  this  scale  insect,  resulting 
in  the  great  cheapening  of  the  use  of  this  process,  has  been  printed  in 
the  double  number  of  Insect  Life  for  January  and  February,  1890. 
Another  section  of  his  report  relating  to  the  attempted  colonization  of 
the  insects  preying  upon  leery  a piirclicisi,  imported  by  Mr.  Koebele  from 
Australia,  has  also  been  published  in  part  in  Insect  Life  for  October, 
1889,  and  the  remainder  is  reserved  for  future  use.  The  experiments 
with  washes  were  undertaken  with  a view  of  presenting  a practical 
illustration  of  their  utility  to  the  fruit-growers  of  southern  California 
who  had  apparently  ignored  the  previous  results  obtained  and  pub- 
lished in  our  reports  for  1886  and  1887.  These  late  experiments  were 
performed  by  instruction  of  Assistant  Secretary  Willits,  and  the  Red 
Scale  was  particularly  chosen  on  account  of  its  importance  as  a pest, 
and  for  the  further  reason  that  the  Fluted  Scale  seems  at  present  to  re- 
quire no  further  experimentation,  since  the  Yedalia  is  overcoming  it  so 
rapidly. 

Professor  Osborn,  in  obedience  to  instructions,  has  taken  up  the 
study  of  insects  injurious  to  grasses  in  addition  to  his  regular  work 
upon  the  insect  parasites  of  domestic  animals,  and  reports  at  this  time 
upon  the  leaf-hoppers  injuring  forage  plants.  This  is  a comparatively 
new  and  important  field  of  investigation. 

Professor  Webster  continues  his  studies  of  grain  insects  and  reports 
here  upon  certain  points  connected  with  the  economy  of  a few  well- 
known  pests. 

Miss  Murtfeldt  sends  in  a general  report  upon  the  insects  of  the  sea- 
son in  eastern  Missouri,  brings  out  a number  of  interesting  facts,  and 
gives  the  life  history  of  a beetle  injuring  Spinach  and  also  the  histories 
of  two  interesting  Saw-flies. 


8 


Mr.  Koebele  returned  from  Australia  in  March  and  came  on  to  Wash- 
ington for  special  work,  returning  to  Alameda,  Cal.,  April  15.  He 
spent  considerable  time  in  writing  out  his  report  on  his  Australian 
work  (published  in  Bulletin  No.  21  of  this  Division)  and  in  assisting  to 
rear  and  distribute  the  Vedalia. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  season  he  did  considerable  field  work 
and  reports  upon  a number  of  injurious  species.  Perhaps  the  most  in- 
teresting feature  in  his  report  is  his  work  upon  the  enemies  of  the  Cod- 
ling Moth  in  California.  He  has  reared  four  entirely  new  parasites  of 
this  species,  two  of  which  are  primary  and  two  secondary.  The  egg 
parasite  seems  to  be  a very  important  feature  in  the  life  of  the  Codling 
Moth  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  we  know  from  previous  experience  with 
egg-parasites  of  the  same  genus  that  they  are  capable  of  very  rapid 
development  and  are  consequently  very  beneficial  insects  where  they 
attack  injurious  species.  We  need  only  refer  to  the  case  mentioned  in 
the  Fourth  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Entomological  Commission,  where 
by  the  work  of  Trichogramma  pretiosa  Riley,  the  fifth  brood  of  Cotton 
Worm  was  almost  completely  annihilated  in  Florida,  where  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fourth  brood  less  than  one-half  of  the  eggs  had  been  de- 
stroyed. By  almost  complete  annihilation  we  mean  that  less  than  10 
per  cent,  of  the  Cotton  Worm  eggs  throughout  a large  section  remained 
unstung. 

Professor  Bruner  treats  of  the  insects  of  the  year  and  enters  upon 
the  consideration  of  insects  detrimental  to  the  growth  of  young  trees  on 
tree  claims  iu  Nebraska  and  other  portions  of  the  West,  an  important 
subject  which  has  not  before  received  treatment. 

c.  v.  r. 


REPORT  ON  VARIOUS  METHODS  FOR  DESTROYING  THE 
RED  SCALE  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


By  D.  W.  Coquillett,  Special  Agent. 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 

Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  October  30,  1889. 

Sir  : I herewith  submit  my  annual  report  on  some  of  the  results  obtained  by  me 
during  the  past  year. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  year  nearly  my  whole  time  was  occupied  in  propagat- 
ing and  distributing  the  Lady-birds  ( Vedalia  cardinalis  Mulsant)  recently  imported 
from  Australia  by  this  Division.  So  thoroughly  have  these  insects  destroyed  the 
Fluted  or  Cottony-cushion  Scale  ( Icerxja  purchasi  Maskell)  that  at  the  present  time  it 
is  difficult  to  find  a living  specimen  in  any  portion  of  the  southern  part  of  this  State. 
From  the  129  Lady-birds  received  from  the  30th  of  November  to  the  24th  of  January 
and  colonized  under  a tent  covering  au  orange  tree  in  this  city,  by  the  following  mid- 
summer I had,  with  the  help  of  Mr.  J.  W.  Wolfskill  and  Mr.  Alexander  Craw,  dis- 
tributed nearly  15,000  of  these  insects  to  various  parts  of  the  State,  which  will  give 
some  idea  of  the  great  fecundity  of  these  insects.  My  first  attempt  at  colonizing 
them  on  trees  in  the  open  air  was  made  in  the  35-acre  orange  grove  belonging  to  Col. 
J.  R.  Dobbins,  and  located  in  the  San  Gabriel  Valley  in  this  county.  I colonized  35 
of  the  Lady-birds  on  one  of  the  trees  February  22  and  about  100  more  on  the  20  th  of 
March,  and  Colonel  Dobbins  writes  me  that  they  had  practically  freed  his  grove  of 
the  Iceryas  by  the  31st  of  July. 

The  large  Chapman  orange-grove,  also  located  in  the  San  Gabriel  Valley,  and  com- 
prising 150  .acres  of  citrus  trees,  has  likewise  been  practically  cleared  of  the  Iceryas 
by  these  Lady-birds,  the  first  colony  of  which  I placed  in  this  grove  on  the  20th  of 
March.  As  might  naturally  be  expected,  this  freeing  of  the  orange-groves  from  one 
of  the  greatest  pests  with  which  they  were  ever  infested  removes  a great  burden 
from  the  shoulders  of  our  orange- growers  ; or,  as  one  of  them,  Mr.  A.  Scott  Chapman, 
writes  to  me:  “ They  have  taken  more  than  an  oppressive  burden  off  of  the  orange- 
growers*  hands,  and  I,  for  one,  very  much  thank  the  Division  of  Entomology  for  the 
Vedalia  cardinalis— the  insect  that  has  worked  a miracle.” 

One  of  the  most  important  results  obtained  by  me  the  past  season  has  been  the  dis- 
covery of  a method  whereby  trees  could  be  treated  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  at  a 
price  scarcely  exceeding  one-third  of  what  it  has  heretofore  cost  by  the  old  method. 
As  the  great  expense  attending  the  use  of  this  gas  has  been  the  one  great  objection 
to  its  being  universally  employed  for  the  destruction  of  scale-insects  infesting  trees, 
this  objection  having  been  now  overcome  we  may  naturally  expect  to  see  this 
method  coming  into  more  extended  use  than  has  been  the  case  heretofore.  As  I have 

9 


10 


given  a full  account  of  this  new  discovery  in  the  report  which  follows,  it  will  be  need- 
less to  more  than  call  your  attention  to  it  in  this  place.  * 

As  heretofore,  I am  indebted  to  yourself  for  suggestions  and  other  help. 
Respectfully,  yours, 

D.  W.  COQUILLETT. 

Prof.  C.  V.  Riley, 

U.  S.  Entomologist . 


RESIN  SOAPS  AND  COMPOUNDS  FOR  THE  DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  RED 

SCALE. 

Early  in  July  of  the  present  year  I received  a letter  from  Mr.  L.  O. 
Howard,  acting  entomologist  during  the  absence  of  Professor  Riley, 
instructing  me  to  obtain  permission  from  some  person  owning  a number 
of  large-sized  orange  trees  which  were  thickly  infested  with  the  Red 
Scale  ( Aspidiotus  aurantii  Maskell),  and  then  have  the  trees  sprayed 
with  one  of  the  most  approved  resin  sprays  obtainable,  the  spraying 
to  be  repeated  as  often  as  would  be  found  necessary  in  order  to  prac- 
tically free  the  trees  of  these  pests,  or  at  least  to  prevent  them  from 
becoming  so  numerous  as  to  interfere  with  the  healthy  growth  of  the 
trees,  the  object  sought  for  being  to  demonstrate  that  citrus  trees  badly 
infested  with  these  pests  can  be  cleaned  and  kept  in  a healthy,  grow- 
ing condition  by  the  use  of  the  resin  spray. 

Before  entering  upon  this  work  I concluded  to  make  a series  of  pre- 
liminary tests  with  various  preparations,  containing  resin  and  other  in- 
gredients in  varying  proportions,  with  a view  of  ascertaining  the  best 
and  most  desirable  preparation  to  use  in  my  field  work  referred  to 
above.  Accordingly  I went  down  to  Orange,  in  the  adjoining  county, 
which  bears  the  same  name,  and,  on  the  17th,  18th,  and  19th  of  July, 
made  fourteen  tests  with  various  preparations,  repeating  one  of  these 
and  making  several  additional  tests  on  the  7th  and  8th  of  the  following 
month.  The  one  giving  the  best  results  was  used  a trifle  too  strong, 
as  I subsequently  ascertained  that  it  produced  a discoloration  on  the 
underside  of  some  of  the  oranges,  or  wThere  they  came  in  contacjb  with 
each  other  or  with  a leaf  or  branch.  For  this  reason  a slightly  weaker 
solution  would  produce  better  results,  and  doubtless  the  following  pro- 
portions will  be  found  the  most  effectual  to  use  during  the  hotter  part 


of  the  year : 

Resin pounds . . 18 

Caustic  soda  (70  per  cent,  strength) do 5 

Fish  oil pints.. 

Water  to  make .gallons..  100 


The  necessary  ingredients  are  placed  in  the  boiler  and  a sufficient 
quantity  of  cold  water  added  to  cover  them  ; they  are  then  boiled  until 
dissolved,  being  occasionally  stirred  in  the  mean  time,  and  after  the 

* This  portion  of  Mr.  Coquillett’s  report  has  been  published  in  advance  in  Insect 
Life,  Vol.  II,  double  No.  6 and  7 (January  and  February  1890). — c.  v.  R. 


11 


materials  are  dissolved  the  boiling  should  be  continued  for  about  an 
hour,  and  a considerable  degree  of  heat  should  be  employed  so  as  to 
keep  the  preparation  in  a brisk  state  of  ebullition,  cold  water  being 
added  in  small  quantities  whenever  there  are  indications  of  the  prepa- 
ration boiling  over;  too  much  cold  water,  however,  should  not  be  added 
at  one  time,  or  the  boiling  process  will  be  arrested  and  thereby  delayed, 
but  by  a little  practice  the  operator  will  learn  how  much  water  to  add 
so  as  to  keep  the  preparation  boiling  actively.  Stirring  the  preparation 
is  quite  unnecessary  during  this  stage  of  the  work.  When  boiled  suffi- 
ciently it  will  assimilate  perfectly  with  water  and  should  then  be  di- 
luted with  the  proper  quantity  of  cold  water,  adding  it  slowly  at  first 
and  stirring  occasionally  during  the  process.  The  undiluted  prepara- 
tion is  pale  yellowish  in  color,  but  by  the  addition  of  water  it  becomes 
a very  dark  brown.  Before  being  sprayed  on  the  trees  it  should  be 
strained  through  a fine  wire  sieve,  or  through  a piece  of  swiss  muslin, 
and  this  is  usually  accomplished  when  pouring  the  liquid  into  the  spray- 
ing tank,  by  means  of  a strainer  placed  over  the  opening  through  which 
the  preparation  is  introduced  into  the  tank. 

The  preparing  of  this  compound  would  be  greatly  accelerated  if  the 
resin  and  caustic  soda  were  first  pulverized  before  being  placed  in  the 
boiler,  but  this  is  quite  a difficult  task  to  perform.  Both  of  these  sub- 
stances are  put  up  in  large  cakes  for  the  wholesale  trade,  the  resin  be- 
ing in  wooden  barrels,  each  barrel  containing  a siugle  cake  weighiug 
about  375  pounds,  while  the  caustic  soda  is  put  up  in  iron  drums  con- 
taining a single  cake  each,  weighing  about  800  pounds.  The  soda  is 
the  most  difficult  to  dissolve,  but  this  could  doubtless  be  obviated  by 
first  dissolving  it  in  cold  water  and  then  using  the  solution  as  required. 

It  has  been  very  generally  supposed  that  the  finer  the  spray  could  be 
thrown  upon  the  tree  the  better  would  be  the  results  obtained,  but 
after  conversing  with  several  persons  who  make  the  spraying  of  trees 
their  special  work  I was  somewhat  surprised  to  learn  that  each  of  them 
were  in  favor  of  a rather  coarse  spray.  In  nearly  every  instance  they 
had  started  out  with  the  impression  that  a fine  spray  was  the  best,  but 
had  gradually  adopted  one  somewhat  coarser,  finally  adopting  one  that 
threw  a moderately  coarse  spray  with  considerable  force.  After  care- 
fully investigating  the  subject  I found  that  their  reasons  for  preferring 
a rather  coarse  spray  to  a fine  one  were  well  founded. 

The  object  sought  for  is  not  so  much  to  simply  sprinkle  and  wet  the 
tree  as  it  is  to  paint  or  varnish  it  over  with  the  compound  used,  and 
this  can  best  be  accomplished  by  the  use  of  a rather  coarse  spray,  which 
enables  them  to  throw  the  liquid  upon  the  tree  with  considerable  force, 
so  that  when  it  strikes  any  portion  of  the  tree  it  spreads  out  and  covers 
the  adjoining  parts  with  a thin  film,  as  if  put  on  with  a brush.  It  also 
strikes  many  of  the  leaves  with  such  force  as  to  cause  them  to  expose 
to  the  spray  portions  of  their  surfaces  that  would  otherwise  escape. 
Besides  this,  by  the  use  of  a moderately  coarse  spray  the  tree  can  be 


12 


wet  or  varnished  over  in  a much  shorter  space  of  time  than  when  a 
finer  spray  is  used,  and  all  of  the  operators  that  I have  conversed  with 
on  this  subject  were  unanimous  in  their  statements  that  the  time  thus 
saved  much  more  than  compensated  for  the  somewhat  larger  quantity 
of  the  preparation  that  was  required  when  the  coarse  spray  was  em- 
ployed as  compared  with  a finer  spray.  The  evidence,  therefore, 
appears  to  be  decidedly  in  favor  of  a rather  coarse  spray. 

But  whatever  may  be  the  character  of  the  preparation  used,  or  the 
nature  of  the  spraying  nozzle  employed,  the  success  of  the  operation 
will  depend  very  largely  upon  the  thoroughness  with  which  the  prepa- 
ration has  been  applied.  In  the  case  of  small  trees  it  is  comparatively 
^asy  to  wet  every  part  of  them,  but  when  the  trees  are  20  feet  or  more 
in  height  and  have  not  been  properly  pruned  it  is  not  only  difficult  but 
quite  impossible  to  wet  every  portion  of  them  ; and,  unfortunately,  the 
tendency  is  to  use  as  little  of  the  preparation  upon  the  tree  as  is  abso- 
lutely necessary.  On  tall  trees  the  operation  of  spraying  is  made  more 
effectual  by  the  use  of  tali  ladders,  so  that  the  various  parts  of  the  trees 
can  be  sprayed  from  above  as  well  as  from  below. 

It  is  well  known  among  those  who  have  had  any  experience  in  trying 
to  destroy  the  Red  Scale  with  sprays  of  any  kind  that  the  scale  insects 
which  are  located  upon  the  fruit  are  less  affected  by  the  different 
liquid  preparations  than  those  located  upon  the  leaves  or  bark. 
The  reason  for  this  appears  to  lie  in  the  fact  that  those  located  upon 
the  fruit,  having  an  abundance  of  food  always  within  easy  reach,  are 
more  healthy  and  vigorous  than  those  located  upon  the  other  parts  of 
the  tree,  and  consequently  are  better  prepared  for  resisting  the  destruc- 
tive effects  of  the  spray.  That  healthy,  vigorous  insects  are  capable  of 
resisting  the  effects  of  a destructive  agency  that  has  proved  fatal  to 
their  less  vigorous  comrades  there  can  be  no  doubt.  An  instance  of 
this  kind  is  given  in  my  report  to  Professor  Riley  for  the  year  1888,  as 
published  in  the  Annual  Report  of  this  Department  for  that  year.  On 
page  128,  in  speaking  of  the  effects  of  arseniuretted  hydrogen  gas  upon 
the  Fluted  or  Cottony-cushion  Scale  [Iceryct purchasi,  Masked),  the  state- 
ment is  made  that  “ Subsequent  experiments  made  upon  perfectly 
healthy  trees  and  insects  showed  that  when  the  gas  was  used  strong 
enough  to  have  proved  fatal  to  all  of  the  Icerya  on  the  neglected  trees 
it  did  not  kill  one-lialf  of  those  on  the  vigorous  trees.”  Owing  to  this 
fact  it  would  be  advisable  to  refrain  from  irrigating  and  cultivating  in- 
fested orange  trees  for  several  weeks  before  spraying  them,  were  it  not 
for  the  other  fact  that  in  the  case  of  bearing  trees  such  a course  would 
seriously  interfere  with  their  bearing  qualities  or  operations.  Unlike 
deciduous  fruit  trees,  our  citrus  trees  do  not  take  a rest  of  several  months’ 
duration  between  the  ripening  of  the  fruit  and  the  blossoming  of  the 
trees  for  another  crop  ; only  a few  weeks  at  the  most  intervening  between 
these  two  periods  in  the  case  of  orange  trees,  while  on  healthy  bearing 
lemon  trees  both  blossoms  and  fruit  are  to  be  found  at  every  season  of 
the  year. 


13 


In  the  case  of  bearing  orange  trees  it  would  appear  that  the  season 
of  tho  year  when  the3r  could  be  sprayed  with  the  least  amount  of  in- 
jury to  themselves  and  with  the  greatest  fatality  to  the  red  scales  infest- 
ing them  would  be  at  a time  when  they  were  in  blossom,  after  all  of 
the  fruit  of  the  preceding  season  had  been  removed  from  them.  There 
would  at  such  a time  be  no  fruit  on  the  trees  for  the  scale-insects  to 
locate  upon,  so  that  all  these  insects  that  could  be  reached  by  the  spray 
would  be  destroyed  without  at  the  same  time  injuring  any  portion  of 
the  tree.  Several  persons  who  had  sprayed  their  orange  trees  at  a time 
when  the  latter  were  in  full  bloom  informed  me  that  to  all  appearances, 
none  of  the  blossoms  were  injured  by  the  spray,  providing  that  the 
latter  was  not  used  so  strong  that  it  injured  the  leaves,  being  unani- 
mously of  the  opinion  that  the  blossoms  were  as  hardy  as  the  leaves. 
The  young  fruit  is  much  more  susceptible  to  the  effects  of  the  spray  than 
are  either  the  leaves  or  the  blossoms,  and  this  is  the  case  until  it  becomes- 
at  least  half-grown.  It  has  been  my  experience,  and  also  the  experience 
of  others  with  whom  I have  conversed  upon  the  subject,  that  where  the 
conditions  are  equal  an  orange  tree  is  more  susceptible  to  the  effects 
of  a given  spray  than  a lemon  tree,  the  foliage  of  the  latter  being 
hardier ; whereas  in  the  case  of  frosts  the  reverse  of  this  is  true,  lemon 
trees  being  greatly  injured  by  frosts  that  would  produce  little  or  no 
effect  upon  orange  trees  growing  under  similar  conditions. 

It  is  a well-established  fact  that  any  given  spray  will  not  be  so  fatal 
to  the  scale  insects  during  the  cooler  portion  of  the  year  as  it  will  if 
applied  during  the  hotter  portion.  On  this  account  it  will  evidently  be 
found  necessary  during  the  winter  months  to  use  a somewhat  stronger 
solution  than  indicated  in  the  formula  given  above  ; and  probably  the 
proper  proportions  to  use  during  this  season  would  be  obtained  by  ad- 
ding water  sufficient  to  make  only  80  gallons,  instead  of  100  gallons  as 
given  in  the  above  formula. 

What  is  true  in  regard  to  the  effects  of  the  solution  upon  the  insects 
is  equally  true  of  its  effects  upon  the  tree,  the  same  solution  that  would 
not  iujure  the  tree  if  applied  during  cool  weather  might  injure  it  very 
severely  if  applied  during  very  warm  weather.  As  bearing  upon  this 
subject,  I can  not  do  better  than  to  give  the  experience  of  one  of  my 
correspondents,  Mr.  F.  G.  Eyan,  an  intelligent  orange-grower  of 
Anaheim,  in  the  adjoining  county  of  Orange.  Mr.  Eyan  used  the  resin 
compound  quite  extensively  for  the  destruction  of  the  Black  Scale 
(Lecaniwn  olece  Bernard),  and  under  date  of  February  7, 1889,  he  writes 
me  as  follows : 

I want  to  tell  you  of  a disappointing  experience  I had  with  the  resin  compound. 
On  January  21  and  22  I sprayed  twelve  trees  in  one  quarter  of  the  grove  aud  eight  in 
another  with  a compound  composed  of  1 pound  of  caustic  soda,  8 pounds  of  resin  aud 
32  gallons  of  water.  After  doing  this  a hot,  drying  wind  arose  and  stopped  our  work. 
The  wind  continued  for  several  days,  becoming  milder  each  succeeding  day,  and  on 
the  fourth  day  I noticed  some  leaves  dropping  from  these  trees ; this  dropping  of  tho 
foliage  has  continued  and  increased  until  now  there  is  scarcely  half  the  foliage  left 


14 


on  two  or  three  of  the  trees,  and  the  others  show  a loss  of  from  15  to  50  per  cent.  I 
argue  that  as  the  trees  first  sprayed  show  a lesser  loss  than  the  others,  the  probabili- 
ties are  that  the  water  and  compound  were  not  thoroughly  mixed,  and  as  it  is  my  cus- 
tom to  keep  the  inlet  pipe  of  the  pump  near  the  top  of  the  solution  to  avoid  the  sedi- 
ment, these  trees  received  a weaker  solution,  as  the  compound  would  remain  at  the 
bottom  of  the  tank  until  thoroughly  mixed  and  suspended  in  the  water.  No  condi- 
tions of  health  of  trees  or  soil  affected  the  loss  of  foliage,  since  similar  results  are 
shown  by  the  trees  in  the  other  part  of  the  grove.  My  conclusion  is  that  the  cause 
exists  in  too  strong  a solution,  followed  by  hot,  dry  winds  for  several  days.  Since 
the  date  of  spraying  there  has  been  no  rain  nor  even  a fog  or  cloud  until  two  days 
4igo.  I am  happy  to  say,  though,  that  the  bugs  are  dead. 

That  this  disastrous  result  to  the  foliage  was  the  direct  effect  of  the 
hot  drying  wind  appears  to  admit  of  no  doubt,  since  Mr.  Ryan  informs 
me  that  when  no  such  wind  prevailed  he  had  sprayed  a large  number  of 
his  orange  trees  with  a compound  made  precisely  like  the  one  used 
above,  and  the  trees  thus  sprayed  dropped  scarcely  a leaf.  The  fact 
that  the  latest  trees  sprayed  suffered  the  most  indicates  not  so  much 
that  they  were  sprayed  with  a stronger  solution  than  the  others,  but 
rather  that  being  sprayed  later  and  being  still  wet  with  the  solution 
they  would  naturally  be  more  affected  by  the  hot  winds  than  those 
which  were  sprayed  earlier,  and  from  which  the  surplus  solution  had 
had  time  to  drip  off,  while  the  remainder  would  be  quite  dry  before  the 
hot  wind  occurred. 

Following  is  an  account  of  a number  of  experiments  which  I made 
with  various  resin  compounds  and  resin  soaps  for  the  destruction  of  the 
Red  Scale  ( Aspidiotus  aurantii  Maskell) ; they  were  made  at  Orange,  in 
the  adjoining  county  of  Orange,  upon.trees  kindly  placed  at  my  disposal 
by  Mr.  H.  F.  Gardner.  The  trees  in  experiments  181-194  contained  no 
fruit,  but  there  were  green  oranges  on  all  of  the  other  trees  experi- 
mented upon. 

Iu  making  each  of  these  solutions  the  necessary  ingredients  were 
placed  in  the  boiler,  covered  with  water,  and  boiled  briskly  from  two  to 
three  hours,  after  which  they  assimilated  well  with  water ; the  solution 
was  then  diluted  with  the  proper  quantity  of  water,  strained  through  a 
piece  of  barley  sack,  and  then  sprayed  upon  the  tree.  In  each  instance 
only  a small  quantity  of  solid  or  semi-solid  matter  was  strained  out  of 
the  different  solutions.  An  exception  to  this  occurs  in  experiments  185 
and  186,  in  wdiicli  the  resin  was  simply  dissolved  in  water  over  a hot 
fire,  after  which  the  necessary  quantity  of  water  was  added  and  the 
solution  strained,  as  described  above.  In  dissolving  the  resin  I used 
3 gallons  of  water  for  each  pouud  of  the  resin ; at  first  I tried  to  dissolve 
it  at  the  rate  of  1 pound  of  resin  to  2 gallons  of  water,  but  a portion  of 
the  resin  would  not  dissolve  until  more  water  had  been  added.  The 
solution  was  of  a milky-white  color,  and  assimilated  well  with  water. 

The  cost  per  100  gallons  of  the  different  preparations  as  given  below 
is  based  upon  wholesale  prices  of  the  different  ingredients,  furnished 
me  by  the  Los  Angeles  Soap  Company,  of  this  city.  The  rate  on  resin 
is  by  the  10-barrel  lot  of  375  pounds  per  barrel ; of  caustic  soda,  by  the 


15 


drum  of  800  pounds;  of  fi.sh.-oii,  by  the  barrel  of  50  gallons;  of  potash, 
by  the  cask  of  700  pounds;  and  of  tallow,  by  the  barrel  of  375  pounds. 

(181)  Resin,  25  pounds;  caustic  soda,  3 pounds;  water  to  make  100 
gallons;  costs  65  cents.  The  diluted  solution  was  of  a light  brown  color. 
Sprayed  on  an  orange  tree  at  11.30  a.  m.,  July  17,  sun  shining,  light 
breeze.  August  6,  foliage  uninjured;  found  a great  many  live  scales. 

(182)  Resin,  33  pounds;  caustic  soda,  4 pounds;  water  to  make  100 
gallons  ; costs  84  cents.  Sprayed  on  an  orange  tree  at  11.45  a.  m.,  July 
17,  sun  shining,  light  breeze.  August  6,  foliage  uninjured;  found  great 
many  live  scales. 

(199,200)  Resin,  25  pounds;  caustic  soda,  6 pounds;  water  to  make 
100  gallons;  costs  77  cents.  Sprayed  on  two  orange  trees  at  10.45  and 
and  11  a.  m.,  August  7,  sun  shining,  light  breeze.  September  2,  found 
great  many  live  scales,  especially  on  the  fruit;  leaves  uninjured;  many 
of  the  half-grown  oranges  have  rusty,  brownish  spots  on  their  under 
sides,  or  where  they  came  in  contact  with  each  other  or  with  a branch 
or  other  object.  These  spots  were  still  present  October  19,  but  whether 
they  will  disappear  or  not  before  the  fruit  ripens  remains  to  be  seen. 

(201)  Resin,  33  pounds;  caustic  soda,  8 pounds;  water  to  make  100 
gallons;  costs  $1.  Sprayed  on  an  orange  tree  at  11.15  a.  m.,  August 
7,  sun  shining,  light  breeze.  September  2,  same  as  in  the  preceding 
experiment. 

(190)  Resin  16  pounds,  fish-oil  6 pints,  caustic  soda  6 pounds,  water 
to  make  100  gallons,  costs  85  cents.  The  diluted  solution  was  of  a very 
dark  brown  color.  Sprayed  on  a lemon  and  orange  tree  ( i . e.  orange 
budded  to  lemon,  but  the  orange  branches  not  cut  away)  at  1:30  p.  m., 
July  18,  sun  shining,  light  breeze.  August  6,  leaves  and  newest  growth 
uninjured ; found  ten  live  scales. 

(191)  Resin  22  pounds,  fish  oil  1 gallon,  caustic  soda  8 pounds,  water 
to  make  100  gallons;  costs  $1.15.  Sprayed  on  an  orange  tree  at  2 p.  m., 
July  18,  sun  shining,  light  breeze.  August  6,  a few  of  the  older  leaves 
have  brownish  spots  on  their  under  sides ; found  three  live  scales. 

(192,195)  Resin  20  pounds,  fish  oil  3 pints,  caustic  soda  6 pounds, 
water  to  make  100  gallons  ; costs  80  cents.  Sprayed  on  a lemon  and 
on  an  orange  tree  at  1 and  at  12:10  p.  m.,  July  19,  and  August  7 ; sun 
shining  in  the  first,  cloudy  in  the  second  experiment,  light  breeze. 
August  6,  in  first  experiment  leaves  uninjured;  found  two  live  scales. 
September  2,  in  second  experiment  leaves  uninjured;  found  12  Jive 
scales  on  the  fruit  and  8 on  under  side  of  the  leaves  where  they  had 
evidently  escaped  the  spray.  In  both  experiments  the  fruit  was  as 
described  in  experiment  199  above,  but  to  a less  degree. 

The  formula  in  these  two  experiments  was  the  same,  except  that  in 
192  one  pound  more  of  the  resin  was  used  than  in  195;  but  this  small 
quantity  in  100  gallons  could  scarcety  have  affected  the  results.  This 
is  the  same  formula  used  on  September  3 of  the  present  year  (1889) 
for  spraying  twenty-five  orange  trees,  in  accordance  with  instructions 


16 


from  Mr.  Howard,  referred  to  above.  Two  of  the  trees  were  5 feet 
tall  by  4 in  diameter,  while  the  others  ranged  from  14  to  18  feet  tall 
by  from  12  to  16  feet  in  diameter.  They  were  sprayed  between  the 
hours  of  3 and  5.30  p.  in.;  sun  shining,  light  breeze.  Three  hundred 
gallons  of  the  diluted  compound  were  used.  A tree  16  feet  tall  by  14 
feet  in  diameter  required  about  14  gallons  of  the  compound,  and  three 
men  and  a spraying  outfit  will  spray  about  800  gallons  in  a day.  The 
cost  of  materials  and  labor  in  spraying  with  this  compound  a tree  of 
the  size  indicated  above  amounts  to  about  24  cents  per  tree.  I exam- 
ined the  above-mentioned  trees  September  24,  and  again  October 
19,  and  found  that  the  leaves  and  fruit  were  uninjured,  but  a few  of 
the  oranges  had  small  brown  spots  on  them  as  described  above  in  ex- 
periment 199.  Nearly  all  of  the  scales  located  on  the  leaves  and  bark 
were  dead,  but  about  one-fourth  of  those  located  upon  the  fruit  were 
still  alive, 

(193,  196)  Resin  28  pounds,  fish  oil  4 pints,  caustic  soda  8 pounds, 
water  to  make  100  gallons ; costs  $1.10.  Sprayed  on  two  orange  trees 
at  1.15  and  12.20  p.  in.,  July  19  and  August  7;  sun  shining  in  the 
first,  cloudy  in  the  second,  light  breeze.  August  6,  September  2, 
and  October  19,  leaves  uninjured;  some  of  the  oranges  had  brown 
spots  on  them  as  described  above  in  experiment  199 ; found  only  one 
live  scale  on  the  leaves,  and  three  on  the  fruit. 

(202)  Resin  21  pounds,  fish  oil  3 pints,  crude  potash  4 pounds,  water 
to  make  100  gallons;  costs  85  cents.  Sprayed  on  an  orange  tree  at 
12.30  p.  m.,  August  8;  sun  shining,  light  breeze.  September  2, 
leaves  uninjured;  some  of  the  oranges  had  brown  spots  on  them  as  de- 
scribed above  in  experiment  199;  found  many  live  scales  both  on  the 
leaves  and  fruit. 

(203)  Resin  28  pounds,  fish  oil  4 pints,  potash  5J  pounds,  water  to 
make  100  gallons;  costs  $1.15.  Sprayed  on  an  orange  tree  at  1 p.  m., 
August  8 ; sun  shining,  light  breeze.  September  2,  same  as  in  the 
preceding  experiment. 

(183)  Resin  20  pounds,  tallow  6J  pounds,  caustic  soda  6J  pounds, 
water  to  make  100  gallons;  costs  98  cents.  Sprayed  on  a lemon  tree 
at  12  m.,  July  17 ; sun  shining,  light  breeze.  August  6,  a few  of  the 
older  leaves  were  injured  ; found  great  many  live  red  scales. 

(184)  Resin  25  pounds,  tallow  8 pounds,  caustic  soda  8 pounds,  water 
to  make  J00  gallons  ; costs  $1.22.  Sprayed  on  an  orange  tree  at  12.30 
p.  m.,  July  17  ; sun  shining,  light  breeze.  August  6,  leaves  uninj ured ; 
found  three  live  red  scales. 

(188)  Resin  17  pounds,  tallow  6 pounds,  caustic  soda  6 pounds,  water 
to  make  100  gallons;  costs  88  cents.  Sprayed  on  an  orange  tree  at  1 
p.  m.,  July  18;  sun  shining,  light  breeze.  August  6,  leaves  and  newest 
growth  uninjured  ; found  twelve  live  red  scales. 

(189)  Resin  22  pounds,  tallow  8 pounds,  caustic  soda  8 pounds,  water 
to  make  100  gallons;  costs  $1.16.  Sprayed  on  a lemon  tree  at  1.15 


17 


p.  m.  July  18;  sun  shining,  light  breeze.  August  G,  leaves  uninjured  ; 
found  fourteen  live  red  scales.  The  pupae  and  recently  transformed 
adults  of  the  Chalcid  fly,  Dilophogaster  californica  Howard,  which  in- 
fested fully  80  per  cent,  of  the  black  scales  (Ltcanium  olecu  Bernard) 
on  this  tree,  were  all  of  them  destroyed  by  this  spray. 

(187)  Resin  2§  pounds,  tallow  14  pounds,  crude  potash  5J  pounds, 
water  to  make  100  gallons;  costs  $1.10.  Sprayed  on  a lemon  tree  at 
4.30  p.  m.,  July  17  ; sun  shining,  light  breeze.  August  G,  leaves  unin- 
jured; found  three  live  red  scales. 

(185)  Resin  19  pounds,  water  to  make  100  gallons;  costs  38  cents. 
Sprayed  on  an  orange  tree  at  4 p.  m.,  July  17 ; sun  shining,  light  breeze. 
August  G,  leaves  and  newest  growth  uninjured,  but  few  of  the  red  scales 
were  destroyed. 

(186)  Resin  22  pounds,  water  to  make  100  gallons;  costs  44  cents. 
Sprayed  on  a lemon  tree  at  4.15  p.  in.,  July  17  ; sun  shining,  light  breeze. 
August  6,  same  as  in  the  preceding  experiment. 

EFFECTS  OF  THE  EUREKA.  INSECTICIDE  ON  THE  RED  SCALE. 

On  the  1st  of  August  of  the  present  year  I received  a letter  from 
Acting  Entomologist  Howard,  dated  July  25,  1889,  requesting  me  to 
make  a test  of  the  u Eureka  Insecticide,”  put  up  by  E.  Bean,  of  Jack- 
sonville, Fla.,  who  would  forward  me  a few  sample  cans  of  the  insecti- 
cide for  this  purpose.  These  samples  reached  me  in  due  time,  and  I 
carefully  tested  the  preparation  according  to  directions.  One  pound 
of  it  was  emptied  into  a vessel,  6 gallons  of  cold  water  added,  and  the 
whole  frequently  stirred.  After  the  lapse  of  one  hour  I allowed 
the  insoluble  portion  to  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  poured  off 
the  clear  liquid  portion,  and  sprayed  it  upon  an  orange  tree  at  2 p.  in., 
August  7 ; cloudy,  light  breeze.  September  2 the  leaves  were  unin- 
jured, and  I could  not  discover  that  any  of  the  red  scales  ( Aspidiotus 
aurantii  Masked)  that  were  encased  in  a scale  or  shell  at  the  time  the 
application  was  made  had  in  the  least  been  affected  by  the  spray. 

In  a circular  received  from  the  proprietor  it  is  stated  that  this  insecti- 
cide is  sulphur  in  solution,  a patented  process,  and  that  it  u is  abso- 
lutely fatal  to  the  rust  mite,  and  also  to  the  scale  insect  during  the 
breeding  or  migratory  periods,”  providing  that  the  applications  extend 
through  the  entire  season.  It  is  possible  that  this  insecticide  would 
prove  fatal  to  the  recently  hatched  red  scale,  but  as  this  becomes  cov- 
ered over  with  a shell  inside  of  twenty-four  hours  after  leaviug  the 
parent,  and  as  the  young  ones  appear  during  almost  every  day  in  the 
year,  it  follows  that  in  order  to  be  effective  it  would  be  necessary  to 
apply  this  insecticide  every  day  for  three  or  four  months  consecutively 
— a task  which  very  few  of  our  fruit-growers  would  be  williug  to  per- 
form. 

23479 — No.  22- 2 


KEPOBT  ON  INSECTS  OF  THE  SEASON  IN  IOWA. 


By  Prof.  Herbert  Osborn,  Special  Agent. 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


Iowa  Agricultural  College, 

Ames,  December  11,  1889. 


Sir:  I beg  to  submit  herewith  my  report  upon  the  season’s  observations  and  study 
for  1889. 

I have  during  the  season  made  a series  of  tests  ofX.  O.  Dust  under  directions  from 
your  office;  reports  of  which  were  transmitted  immediately  on  completion  of  the 
tests,  and  have  continued  to  work,  conjointly  with  yourself,  on  the  insects  affecting 
domestic  animals.  As  bearing  upon  the  same  general  subject,  and  connected  with  one 
of  the  most  important  industries  of  the  State,  and,  indeed,  of  a large  part  of  the 
United  States,  I have  given  such  time  as  I could  to  the  study  of  insects  affecting 
meadows  and  pastures.  Believing,  however,  that  more  could  be  accomplished  by 
giving  attention  to  some  particular  group,  and  considering  the  great  importance 
of  the  Leaf-hoppers  and  other  Homoptera,  and  the  fact  that  they  have  been  but 
slightly  studied  in  this  connection,  I have  spent  most  of  the  time  upon  this  group. 

The  study  of  these  is  rendered  more  difficult  in  consequence  of  the  great  number 
of  species  as  yet  undescribed,  and  the  lack  of  any  complete  literature  upon  known 
American  species.  But  for  these  very  reasons  there  is  the  more  need  of  their  being 
investigated.  My  results  seem  meager  for  the  time  devoted,  but  I believe  that  with 
the  material  now  brought  together  much  more  rapid  progress  can  be  made  in  future 
studies. 

Thanking  you  for  the  many  favors  received  from  your  office,  I am 
Very  respectfully, 


Herbert  Osborn. 


Prof.  C.  V.  Riley, 

U.  S.  Entomologist. 


GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

While  no  wide-spread  devastation  has  occurred  in  the  State  during 
the  past  season  there  has  been  a considerable  amount  of  damage  from 
a number  of  different  species  affecting  various  crops  and  operating  in 
different  parts  of  the  State. 

Cut- worms  of  different  species  were  unusually  abundant,  and  I re- 
ceived specimens  and  inquiries  regarding  them  from  different  parts  of 
the  State.  They  were  quite  troublesome  in  gardens,  nurseries,  and 
fields  in  this  locality. 

The  Turf  Web  worms  ( Crambus  exsiccatus ),  reported  on  in  detail  two 
years  ago,  were  again  quite  abundant,  but  not  so  numerous  or  destruc- 
tive as  in  1887.  An  allied  species  ( Crambus  laqueatellus)  was  quite 
18 


19 


abundant  in  the  adult  form  in  the  latter  part  of  May,  and  there  is  good 
reason  to  believe  that  the  larvae  have  the  same  destructive  habit  in 
grass,  and,  from  the  occurrence  of  the  imago  so  early  in  the  season,  it 
would  seem  probable  that  as  in  exsiccatus  there  are  two  broods  each 
season. 

Another  moth  nearly  related  to  these  web- worms  occurred  this  sea- 
son in  great  numbers  in  pastures  and  meadows,  and  though  I have  not 
had  opportunity  to  study  the  larval  stage,  it  may  be  well  to  call  attention 
to  it  as  a probable  grass  pest  that  may  prove  as  troublesome  as  the  spe- 
cies of  Cr ambus.  This  is  the  Nomophila  noctuella , and  it  was  noticed  in 
greatest  abundance  from  May  18  to  22  (1889).  The  species  has  been 
observed  as  abundant  in  previous  seasons  and  is  probably  a pretty  con- 
stant inhabitant  of  grass  land. 

During  the  latter  part  of  May  and  first  part  of  June  the  Blue  Grass 
in  the  vicinity  suffered  from  the  trouble  called  “ Silver  Top,”  the  head 
and  upper  joint  of  the  stalk  turning  whitish.  I examined  a number  of 
these  withered  and  partly  wilted  stalks  and  in  a few  cases  found  Thrips 
present,  and  in  some  cases  swollen  joints  appearing  as  if  affected  with 
Meromyzci , the  adults  of  which  were  very  plentiful  on  grass  a little 
earlier.  If  due  to  Thrips , I think  they  must  leave  the  grass  almost  as 
soon  as  it  begins  to  wither,  as  in  the  cases  where  I found  them  I selected 
stems  that  were  just  beginning  to  turn  white. 

The  Clover-seed  Midge  has  appeared  in  this  State,  and  the  present 
year  is  the  first  I think  that  it  has  been  destructive.  It  has  been  re- 
ported in  a few  localities  and  I swept  the  adults  from  clover  in  consider- 
able numbers  May  25.  A very  few  were  bred  from  clover  heads  in  1888. 

Epitrix  cucumeris  was  very  abundant  on  potatoes,  but  as  the  vines 
had  a very  vigorous  growth  in  the  early  part  of  the  season  no  serious 
damage  resulted. 

Diabrotica  vittata  and  D.  12  punctata  were  exceedingly  plentiful  and 
furnished  me  material  for  some  tests  of  X.  O.  Dust  hitherto  reported. 
I also  tried  for  these  a mixture  of  London  purple  and  kerosene  emulsion 
for  the  purpose  of  killing  the  beetles  gathered  on  the  squash  vines  and 
preventing  the  complete  destruction  of  foliage,  depending  upon  the 
London  purple  to  kill  the  beetles  gathering  on  the  vines  later.  After 
this  application  the  vines  did  very  well  and  I think  the  plan  a success. 
The  beetles  will,  some  of  them,  fly  away  before  the  kerosene  takes  effect, 
but  they  probably  all  die  in  a short  time.  I have  since  noticed  that 
Prof.  John  B.  Smith  has  used  a similar  plan  for  treating  the  Elm-leaf 
Beetle,  and  it  would  seem  to  be  applicable  in  many  cases  where  the 
expense  is  not  an  obstacle  and  where  it  is  desired  to  kill  the  bulk  of  the 
insects  gathered  on  plants  before  they  have  time  to  destroy  foliage, 
which  they  must  do  to  some  extent  when  treated  with  London  purple. 

Plant  lice  of  many  species  were  abundant  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
season.  Of  these  the  Thorn-tree  Aphid  ( Schizoneura  cratccgi  Oest.)  was 
especially  conspicuous  by  its  abundance  on  thorn  trees.  The  common 


20 


Willow  Plant- louse  ( Melaxanthus  salicis)  was  brought  or  sent  me  a num- 
ber of  times,  showing  that  it  attracted  unusual  attention,  and  the  eggs 
deposited  by  the  oviparous  females  were  to  be  found  in  numbers  under 
the  buds  of  willow  twigs  in  late  autumn.  Of  all  the  species  noticed, 
however,  the  swarms  of  the  Dogwood  Aphid  (Schizoneura  corni  Fab.) 
were  most  remarkable.  This  species  is  referred  to  more  particularly  in 
another  place. 

OBSERVATIONS  ON  INSECTS  AFFECTING  GRASSES. 

The  importance  of  the  pastures  and  meadows  in  this  State  will  be 
conceded  by  every  one  familiar  with  its  agriculture.  Perhaps  no  other 
single  element  is  of  greater  importance,  furnishing,  as  it  does,  the  basis 
for  the  stock  industry  of  the  State. 

The  insects  infesting  meadows  and  pastures  are  therefore  of  the 
greatest  importance,  and  while  their  depredations  are  perhaps  less  con- 
spicuous than  those  from  insects  affecting  some  other  crops,  I think  it 
can  be  clearly  shown  that  the  average  annual  loss  in  pastures  and 
meadows  from  insect  injuries  is  equal  to  if  not  greater  than  the  crop  har- 
vested or  the  amount  consumed  by  cattle,  horses,  or  sheep  in  pasture, 
and  probably  furnishing  a total  annual  loss  greater  than  in  any  other 
crop.  In  ordinary  pasturage  it  is  common,  I believe,  to  allow  two  acres 
of  land  to  each  cow,  or,  for  convenience,  let  us  say  that  one  acre  will 
half  support  a cow.  At  the  same  time  that  this  cow  is  feeding  there 
are  a million  insects,  more  or  less,  of  various  kinds  feeding  upon  the 
same  area  by  day  and  night  from  the  time  the  snow  melts  in  spring  till 
winter  forces  them  to  suspend  their  work. 

The  only  compensation  they  can  offer  is  that  when  dead  (and  they 
die  young),  their  million  little  carcasses  dropping  on  the  surface  of  the 
soil  return  to  it  some  of  the  material  which  has  been  built  into  their 
tissues,  increasing  its  richness  and  helping  to  support  succeeding  gene- 
rations. 

In  my  report  upon  the  Turf  Web -worm  two  years  ago,  I gave  the  count 
of  burrows  that  had  been  opened  by  squirrels  as  twenty-five  in  one 
instance  and  fifty  in  another,  within  a square  yard,  and  it  is  not  prob- 
able  that  every  burrow  within  those  areas  had  been  opened  by  squirrels. 
The  web-worms  were,  however,  uncommonly  abundant  that  season.  If 
we  reduce  the  mean  of  these  figures  by  one-half  and  allow  two  web 
worms  to  each  square  foot  it  means  87,120  to  the  acre,  and  then  consider 
that  these  worms  cut  down  quantities  of  grass  that  they  do  not  devour, 
it  would  seem  hardly  too  much  to  suppose  that  these  alone  would  prove 
a pretty  even  match  for  one  half  a cow  in  disposing  of  the  grass  grow- 
ing on  an  acre. 

All  are  familiar  with  the  depredations  of  white  grubs,  and  it  is  hardly 
necessary  to  ask  whether  in  seasons  when  these  are  plentiful  they  do 
not  destroy  as  much  or  more  than  would  support  at  least  half  a cow. 

Cutworms  and  Army  worms  are  a constant  source  of  loss  in  grass 


21 


land,  and  these  with  the  grasshoppers,  familiar  to  everybody,  are  capa- 
ble of  mowing  down  a quantity  of  grass  during  a season  which  ought 
to  be  appreciated  by  the  farmer.  Grasshoppers  need  not  be  remarkably 
plentiful  to  place  a dozen  to  a square  yard,  over  50,000  to  the  acre,  and 
is  it  any  wonder  that  pastures  run  short  in  seasons  when  rain  is  scarce 
or  grasshoppers  a little  more  plentiful  than  usual  ? 

The  kinds  of  insects  so  far  mentioned  perform  their  work  in  a way 
that  causes  an  actual  lessening  of  bulk  in  the  crop,  but  there  is  another 
host,  less  noticeable  in  size  as  well  as  in  method  of  work,  whose  actual 
damage  in  reduction  of  available  food  for  stock  must  be  of  very  great 
importance.  These,  like  the  Chinch  Bug,  which  is  one  of  their  number, 
simply  puncture  the  leaves  or  stems  of  the  grass  and  pump  out  its 
juices,  thereby  abstracting  much  of  the  best  food  material  even  where 
they  do  not  cause  a checking  of  growth  and  shriveling  of  the  plants. 
Many  of  these  are  insects  of  very  minute  proportions,  but  like  the 
Chinch  Bug  make  up  in  numbers  for  their  diminutive  size.  It  is  no 
exaggeration  I think  to  say  that  they  occur  by  the  million  to  the  acre. 

A million  mouths  against  a half  a mouth,  and  is  it  necessary  that  the 
individual  mouth  be  a very  large  one  to  make  the  aggregate  food  con- 
sumed equal  that  of  the  half  cow  ? 

In  order  that  my  figures  may  not  seem  purely  fanciful,  I may  state 
that  they  are  derived  in  part  from  actual  count,  but  in  all  cases,  when 
count  has  been  made,  the  circumstances  have  been  such  as  to  make  the 
numbers  fall  short  of  the  actuality. 

I have  captured  leaf-hoppers  on  grass  by  throwing  a net  down  verti- 
cally and  counting  the  number  caught  within  the  area  inclosed  by  the 
ring,  and  while  it  is  hardly  possible  in  this  way  to  secure  all  that  were 
actually  within  that  area  the  average  of  a number  of  such  captures 
gives  nearly  a million  to  the  acre. 

I have  many  times  observed  them  when  plentiful  and  tried  to  count 
the  number  within  a given  area,  but  their  activity  makes  this  difficult. 
•By  approaching  them  very  slowly  and  keeping  very  quiet,  I have  on 
some  occasions  been  able  to  observe  them  closely  and  have  on  different 
occasions  been  able  to  count  many  within  the  area  of  a few  square  inches ; 
often  two  or  more  to  a single  blade  of  grass,  and  consequently  I feel  sat- 
isfied that  the  estimate  based  on  the  numbers  captured  are  far  below 
the  actual  numbers  frequently  occurring  during  seasons  when  they  are 
ordinarily  abundant  and  greatly  under  the  number  in  seasons  when 
they  have  multiplied  to  any  unusual  degree.  It  may  perhaps  be  urged 
that,  even  allowing  them  to  abound  in  this  degree  every  season,  they 
are  too  small  to  consume  a very  great  amount  of  food.  Possibly  a mill- 
ion leaf-hoppers  would  not  exceed  in  bulk  the  half  of  an  average  cow, 
but  it  should  be  remembered  also  that  they  grow  very  rapidly  and  must 
consequently  use  proportionately  large  quantities  of  food,  and  that  they 
extract  the  most  nutritious  parts  of  the  grass.  That  grass  forms  the 
bulk  of  their  food  has  not  1 think  been  questioned,  but  to  be  certain  on 


22 


this  point  I have  observed  them  carefully  and  examined  with  partic- 
ular care  the  grass  blades  on  which  1 have  seen  them  established. 

On  September  7,  1889,  I swept  grass  where  no  other  living  plants 
were  to  be  seen  and  collected  numerous  Hemiptera  of  a number  of  dif- 
ferent species,  mostly  Homoptera.  The  grass  was  very  dry,  brown,  and 
in  many  places  appearing  dead,  but  evidently  still  furnishing  support 
for  the  leaf-hoppers.  There  were  but  few  other  insects  present,  scarcely 
any  that  could  be  supposed  to  feed  upon  grass,  except  some  grasshop- 
pers ( Caloptenus  femur-rubrum , species  of  ffidipoda,  etc.).  The  species 
of  Homoptera  collected  may  I think  be  considered  as  unquestionably 
grass  feeders.  No  other  vegetation  that  could  furnish  them  support 
had  been  on  the  ground  swept  for  weeks,  and  the  insects  swarmed  on 
every  square  foot.  The  grass  commenced  turning  brown  in  patches 
long  before  it  should  be  expected  to,  if  affected  only  by  want  of  rain,  as 
it  showed  within  a short  time  after  the  last  rains,  which  had  been  quite 
regular  and  copious,  previous  to  the  dry  period  of  that  time,  and  its  dry- 
ing up  must  have  been  hastened  by  losses  due  to  the  presence  of  in- 
sects. The  ground  was  not  yet  dry  enough  so  that  the  grass  could 
have  suffered  from  lack  of  moisture  alone.  Their  presence  on  grass 
seems  to  show  its  effect  in  two  ways,  though  for  one  of  them  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  draw  the  line  between  the  effects  of  leaf-hoppers  and  dryness. 
In  one  the  effect  of  punctures  shows  in  numerous  pale  and  dry  spots  on 
the  blades  of  grass  resembling  effects  produced  by  related  Homoptera 
on  other  plants,  apple-trees,  pear-trees,  grape-vines,  etc.  Such  spots 
can  not  be  found,  however,  in  such  numbers  as  would  be  expected  if 
there  were  one  for  every  puncture  by  the  millions  of  these  insects  that 
occur  in  every  piece  of  grass  land.  But  the  great  bulk  of  the  grass  is 
withered  or  dead  down  to  a certain  point  near  the  ground  (or  to  the 
ground),  which  would  naturally  be  the  appearance  if  the  leaf  withered 
from  the  lower  punctures  to  the  tip,  thus  obliterating  all  punctured 
spots  on  the  terminal  portion. 

The  difference  between  grass  withering  from  punctures  and  from  lack 
of  moisture  is  perhaps  not  sufficiently  different  to  furnish  a very  safe 
basis  for  deduction,  but  in  the  latter  case  it  is  naturally  more  gradual 
and  holds  for  a longer  time  the  green  color  of  hay,  so  that  for  withered 
grass  not  too  long  exposed  I believe  we  should  be  able  to  distinguish  in' 
some  degree  the  difference  between  that  killed  by  leaf-hoppers  and  that 
dried  by  excessive  heat  and  lack  of  moisture  in  the  ground. 

While  this  may  fall  short  of  actual  demonstration,  I think  a careful 
study  of  the  effects  in  the  field  will  convince  any  one  that  my  conclusions 
are  justified  by  the  facts  and  that,  taking  year  after  year,  the  amount  of 
injury  caused  by  insects  of  various  kinds  is  fully  equal  to  the  amount 
consumed  by  the  stock  ordinarily  pastured  on  the  same  land.  It  is  evi- 
dent, then,  that  the  prevention  or  the  reduction  of  the  insect  injuries 
would  add  an  equivalent  amount  to  the  return  from  such  land.  Instead 
of  one  cow  requiring  two  acres  for  pasturage, pastures  comparatively  free 


23 


from  insects  should  support  a cow  to  each  acre  through  the  entire  sea- 
son. It  is  certain  that  much  of  this  loss  can  be  prevented  by  simple 
and  inexpensive  means.  The  capturing  of  the  moths  of  Turf  Web- worms 
and  Cut-worms  will  help  much  in  reducing  their  number.  Grasshop- 
pers can  be  destroyed  at  the  same  time  that  Leaf-hoppers  are,  and  by 
use  of  the  same  means,  and  it  would  seem  certain  that  a method  costing 
but  2 to  10  cents  per  acre  might  be  applied  with  great  profit  for  these 
insects  alone.  It  is  my  object  here,  however,  to  treat  in  detail  only  of 
the  remedies  tried  or  proposed  for  Leaf-hoppers. 

APPEARANCE  AND  HABITS  OF  LEAF-HOPPERS  (JASSIDiE). 

The  insects  embraced  in  this  group  are  almost  all  small  and  rather 
slender  insects,  with  blunt  or  pointed  heads  and  well-developed  wings, 
which  at  rest  lie  parallel  along  the  back,  usually  sloping  like  a roof, 
or  partly  inclosing  the  body.  One  of  the  most  characteristic  features, 
however,  is  their  habit  of  leaping  when  disturbed.  All  the  species  pos- 
sess this  habit,  though  some  do  not  leap  as  readily  as  others.  The  largest 
species  common  to  grass  are  not  over  half  an  inch  in  length,  while  the 
smaller  ones  are  less  than  an  eighth  of  an  inch  long.  Many  of  the  spe- 
cies are  extremely  light  and  slender,  almost  invisible  except  when  care- 
fully observed,  while  others  have  short,  thick  bodies.  Their  colors  are 
well  adapted  to  furnish  them  protection,  many  being  green,  others 
yellowisn  or  brownish,  and  in  many  cases  they  will  not  be  noticed  at 
all  on  the  grass  until  they  leap,  and  then  it  is  usually  because  of  the 
swarm  that  rise  together  that  they  become  noticeable.  All  feed  by 
puucturing  the  plant  and  sucking  out  the  juicy  contents  of  the  leaves 
or  stems.  All,  so  far  as  known,  puncture  leaves  or  stems  of  plants  to 
deposit  their  eggs,  frequently  placing  them  under  the  epidermis  only. 
The  larvm  are  commonly  somewhat  spiny  at  first  and  have  the  general 
form  of  the  adults,  passing  by  gradual  development  with  little  change 
through  pupa  stage  to  adult.  Most  of  the  species,  if  not  all,  pass  the 
winter  as  adults. 


REMEDIES  FOR  LEAF  HOPPERS. 

Burning.— For  those  species  of  leaf-hoppers  which  hibernate  in  grass, 
and  especially  those  which  are  active  there  during  late  fall  and  early 
spring,  a thorough  burning  over  should  prove  of  great  advantage. 
The  Leaf-hoppers  leap  readily,  but  do  not  ordinarily  fly  any  distance, 
and  especially  when  the  weather  is  cool  would  be  unable  to  escape  from 
the  flames.  In  two  pieces  of  grass  land  burnt  over  last  spring  and  con- 
venient for  observation  one  showed  fairly  good  results,  keeping  its  color 
well  till  late  in  summer,  though  surrounded  by  grass  land,  unburnt,  on 
three  sides.  The  other,  a pasture  of  some  size,  was  in  poor  condition 
all  summer;  but  in  this  Turf  Web-worms  and  Cut-worms  were  so 
plenty  that  they  alone  were  sufficient  to  account  for  its  poor  condition. 


24 


Plotting. — There  seems  little  ground  for  hoping  that  the  number  of 
Leaf-hoppers  can  be  diminished  materially  by  any  system  of  plowing 
under,  or  by  rotation  of  crops.  Grass  is  an  essential  on  every  farm, 
and  no  system  of  starvation  could  be  adopted,  and  even  if  deprived  of 
the  common  pasture  grasses,  the  most  of  the  species  evidently  thrive 
on  the  fox  tails  and  other  grasses  that  flourish  as  weeds.  The  leaf- 
hoppers  are  too  active  to  be  plowed  under  and  cau  readily  migrate  to 
other  fields.  Eggs  for  most  of  the  species,  at  least,  are  not  deposited 
at  any  fixed  time  of  the  year,  and  while  by  plowing  under  in  May,  June, 
or  August  many  eggs  might  be  buried,  plenty  of  hoppers  would 
escape  to  the  surrounding  grass  land  to  keep  the  farm  well  stocked. 

Motting. — When  the  grass  in  which  Leaf-hoppers  have  been  very 
•abundant  is  cut  short,  leaving  only  a dry  stubble,  the  insects  seem  to 
be  forced  to  migrate,  as  few  or  none  can  be  found  in  such  places  a few 
days  after  the  cutting  nor  until  a new  growth  gives  them  a source  of 
fresh  food  supply.  While  early  cutting  of  meadows  badly  infested 
might  result  in  saving  a larger  crop,  it  must  follow  that  the  Leaf  hoppers 
would  travel  to  pastures  or  other  grass  land,  and  it  would  be  simply  a 
question  as  to  where  they  would  do  the  greater  amount  of  damage.  It 
would  seem  feasible,  however,  to  take  advantage  of  the  time  when  the 
crop  has  been  just  removed  to  use  hopper  dozers  or  other  means  for 
capturing  them  before  they  have  left  for  fresh  pasture.  We  know,  as 
yet,  too  little  as  to  where  and  when  the  bulk  of  the  eggs  are  deposited 
to  say  whether  cutting  at  any  particular  time  would  result  in  the  de- 
struction of  any  number  of  eggs.  While  we  know  that  Leaf-hoppers  de- 
posit eggs  in  stems  and  leaves  of  plants,  we  are  not  acquainted  with 
their  full  history  or  the  methods  of  different  species,  so  that  it  would 
be  unsafe  at  present  to  base  remedies  on  this  part  of  their  history. 

Capturing  in  Nets. — The  ease  with  which  all  species  of  leaf-hoppers 
affecting  grass  can  be  taken  in  sweep  nets  led  me  to  try  the  use  of  this 
principle  on  a larger  scale.  I therefore  had  a couple  of  wire  frames 
made  3 feet  long,  fastened  a deep  cheese-cloth  net  to  each  and  attached 
these  to  two  long  handles,  so  that  the  frame  of  one  would  brush  the 
ground  about  a foot  behind  the  forward  one.  The  object  of  having  two 
nets  was  to  secure  thehoppers  which  allowed  the  first  wire  to  pass  over 
them  before  leaping.  W4tli  the  handles  the  net  was  pushed  forward  so 
that  the  insects  were  not  disturbed  till  the  approach  of  the  net  and  a 
strip  of  ground  a yard  wide  was  gone  over  either  at  a walk  or  a run. 
While  numerous  insects  were  secured  by  this  plan,  Grasshoppers,  Moths, 
Clover-seed  Midges,  and  large  numbers  of  Leaf-hoppers,  the  count  of 
those  secured  from  the  nets  showed  that  as  compared  with  what  must 
actually  exist  on  the  same  ground  as  shown  by  other  captures,  only  a 
portion  of  the  Leaf-hoppers  were  thus  secured,  and  considering  the 
trouble  of  holding  and  destroying  all  the  insects  captured,  I concluded 
that  this  plan  was  not  equal  to  the  hopper-dozer  for  this  purpose.  The 
second  net  captured  a goodly  number  of  insects  as  well  as  the  forward 


25 


one  and  probably  held  them  better,  as  they  could  not  as  readily  fly  out 
after  having  entered.  It  was  found  that  more  insects  were  captured 
when  the  net  was  pushed  at  a run  that  when  walking.  Probably  even 
then  many  insects  succeeded  in  flying  out  of  the  forward  net. 

Nets  arranged  in  this  manner,  two  or  even  three  in  succession,  might 
be  made  eight  or  ten  feet  long  and  run  by  boys,  one  at  each  end.  The 
forward  net  should  be  closed  as  soon  as  a stop  is  made,  and  the  nets  all 
closed  at  the  finish,  when  they  may  be  left  a day  or  two  for  the  insects 
to  die.  Usually  there  are  enough  predaceous  species  captured  to  kill 
the  others  rapidly,  and  such  species  could  then  be  set  free.  Many 
species  of  insects  beside  the  Leaf- hoppers  are  caught  by  this  device,  and 
some,  such  as  the  moths  of  Turf  Web- worms,  and  Cut- worms,  smail  Dip- 
tera,  Clover-seed  Midges,  etc.,  that  are  not  as  apt  to  be  taken  in  the  hop- 
per dozer. 

Hopper  Dozer. — This  simple  contrivance  (a  sheet-iron  pan  containing 
kerosene  and  water  or  coal  tar,  to  be  draggedover  the  infested  ground), 
devised  for  the  destruction  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locust,  possesses  the 
essential  qualities  for  the  destruction  of  the  Leaf  hoppers  as  well.  I 
believe  that  it  can  be  used  with  profit  in  any  pasture  affected  with  these 
pests.  The  delicate  Leaf-hoppers  are  killed  by  the  kerosene  almost  the 
instant  they  touch  it,  and  though  my  trials  with  it  were  made  when  the 
weather  was  so  cool  that  the  hoppers  did  not  leap  with  their  usual  ac- 
tivity, they  showed  that  it  would  operate  successfully.  It  would  be 
best,  probably,  to  use  it  for  these  during  warm  days,  when  the  insects 
are  at  their  greatest  activity,  and  early  enough  in  the  spring  to  catch 
the  hibernating  adults  before  they  deposit  eggs,  repeating  the  opera- 
tion, if  necessary,  in  July,  and  for  meadows  immediately  after  the  re- 
moval of  the  hay  crop.  Perhaps  two  pans,  one  behind  the  other,  will 
prove  advantageous. 

The  Shield  Method. — A plan  that  is  scarcely  more  than  a modification 
of  the  above  has  been  recently  highly  recommended  for  the  destruction 
of  the  Leaf-hoppers  infesting  grapes.  A quite  similar  plan  was  adopted 
for  the  destruction  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locust  years  ago  and  is 
described  in  the  first  report  of  the  United  States  Ent.  Com.;  and  in  his 
first  annual  report  as  State  Entomologist  of  New  York,  Professor  Lint- 
ner  suggests  its  use  for  “low-feeding  insects”  “especially  hopping 
species.”  I have  not  as  yet  tested  it  myself,  but  will  give  the  plan,  that 
others  may  test  it  for  these  insects  if  disposed.  A piece  of  drilling  or, 
what  would  be  cheaper  still,  a strip  of  building  paper  is  fastened  to  a 
light  wooden  frame  and  is  coated  with  coal-tar  or  gas-tar,  the  residue 
from  distilling  off  kerosene  from  petroleum,  or  from  gas  manufacture. 
In  case  of  grape  Leaf-hoppers  this  frame  is  held  as  near  the  vines  as  pos- 
sible by  one  mau,  while  another  lifts  the  branches.  The  hoppers  darting 
against  the  shield  are  caught  and  killed.  For  grass  Leaf-hoppers  the 
frame  would  be  set  on  runners  and  could  be  made  10  to  15  feet 
long  and  run  by  a boy  or  man  at  each  end.  The  best  angle  at  which  to 


26 


hold  it  would  be  soon  determined  by  trials,  and  if  sloping  back  it  might 
be  that  the  underside  of  the  shield,  if  coated  with  the  tar,  would  capture 
hoppers  as  well  as  the  upper.  As  coal-tar  can  be  secured  in  most  towns 
at  small  expense,  and  as  the  frame  for  the  shield  costs  but  little,  this 
method  should  be  applied  at  a cost  of  not  more  than  5 to  8 cents  per  acre, 
and  could  be  repeated  two  or  three  times  during  a season  if  either  Grass- 
hoppers or  Leaf  hoppers  become  plenty. 

It  could  be  used  in  meadows  or  tall  grass  by  mounting  the  frames  on 
runners  high  enough  so  that  the  grass  while  being  bent  over  should 
have  plenty  of  room  to  pass  under  the  shield,  but  would  not  be  likely 
to  work  well  when  pollen  is  flying  from  the  grass  blossoms  or  when  the 
seed  begins  to  fall,  as  the  tar  would  so  soon  become  covered  with  the 
dust  and  chaff. 


NATURAL  ENEMIES  OF  LEAF-HOPPERS. 

But  little  is  known  regarding  natural  enemies  for  these  active  little 
insects.  I have  found  the  common  Coriscus  ferns  very  plenty  in  all  grass 
land  examined,  and  where  but  few  other  insects  were  present  to  furnish 
it  food.  When  left  in  nets  with  Leaf- hoppers  the  latter  are  soon  found 
dead,  while  the  Coriscus  thrives,  and  knowing  their  very  carnivorous 
habits,  there  can,  I think,  be  no  question  as  to  their  serviug  a useful 
purpose  in  killing  these  as  well  as  other  grass  pests.  As  this  species 
does  not  have  the  leaping  habit  it  is  less  likely  to  be  destroyed  in  u hop- 
per dozers”  than  the  hopping  species,  and  consequently  these  remedies 
can  be  used  with  little  danger  of  destroying  this  natural  check  to  the 
multiplication  of  injurious  species. 

SPECIES  OF  LEAF-HOPPERS  OBSERVED  IN  GRASS. 

The  Tenderfoot  Leaf-Hopper. 

( Diedrocephala  mollipes  Say.) 

This  widely  distributed  species  is  perhaps  the  most  abundant  of  its 
genus,  and  is  unquestionably  a source  of  much  loss  in  pastures  and 
meadows.  Professor  Uhler  states  its  range  as  “ Texas,  Colorado,  Mexico, 
and  the  southern  part  of  the  Atlantic  region.”  It  is  one  of  the  most 
abundant  insects  in  the  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  and  I have  found  it 
in  great  numbers  on  blue-grass  and  on  prairie  grasses,  where  this  must 
have  been  its  principal,  if  not  only,  source  of  food.  Other  grasses  would 
seem  to  serve  it  equally  well.  Professor  Uhler  says  (Standard  Natural 
History,  vol.  II,  p.  249): 

The  salt  marshes  of  the  Atlantic  States  furnish  places  of  shelter  for  it,  where  it 
may  be  found,  on  reedy  grasses  in  all  stages  from  June  till  October. 

That  it  prefers  moist  places  is  evidenced  by  its  comparative  scarcity 
on  high  ground  in  dry  seasons,  and  its  greater  abundance  in  the  vicinity 
of  thickets  as  well  as  in  low  ground  at  such  times.  It  is  about  one- 


27 


third  of  an  inch  long,  of  a bright  grass-green  color,  the  head  and  thorax 
above  yellow.  It  varies  considerably  in  size,  and  the  females  average 
considerably  larger  than  the  males.  The  head  is  sharply  pointed,  has 
a number  of  fine  black  lines  on  its  upper  surface ; the  face  is  shaded 
dark  brown,  and  has  a double  series  of  transverse  bars. 

The  larvae  which  appear  to  be  most  common  in  early  summer  are  light 
green  or  yellowish,  and  agree  with  the  adults  in  having  the  head  sharply 
pointed.  I have  found  them  most  common  in  May  and  June,  and,  as 
adults  are  abundant  from  this  time  till  autumn,  it  is  difficult  to  say 
whether  there  is  more  than  one  brood.  I have  not  seen  adults  in  winter 
or  early  spring,  and  it  seems  possible  that  eggs  in  this  and  allied  species 
are  laid  in  fall  to  hatch  in  spring.  As  this  would  be  contrary  to  the 
habit  of  the  majority  of  insects  in  this  family  it  will  require  further  ob- 
servation to  establish  it.  It  is  at  least  quite  certain  that  they  do  not 
hibernate  as  adults  in  grass,  and  unless  eggs  are  deposited  in  stems  of 
grass  or  other  plants  in  grass  land  the  insect  can  not  be  destroyed  by 
burning  in  early  winter  or  spring.  It  will  be  seen  that  there  are  im- 
portant points  to  determine  about  this  very  common  insect,  and  means 
of  destroying  it  may  depend  in  large  degree  upon  the  determination 
of  some  of  the  very  simple  steps  in  its  life-history.  It  jumps  readily, 
and  like  other  members  of  the  family  may  be  treated  on  the  u hopper- 
dozer”  plan. 


The  New  York  Leaf-Hopper. 

( Diedrocqphala  noveboracensis  Fitch.) 

This  species  is  a little  larger  than  the  mollifies , but  resembles  it  very 
closely.  Its  head,  however,  is  less  acute,  and  there  are  four  distinct 
black  spots  on  the  front  margin  of  the  head,  two  of  them  close  together 
at  the  tip  and  one  each  side  in  front  of  the  eyes ; the  lower  surface  of 
the  head  lacks  the  brown  color  of  mollipes , or  is  but  faintly  browned. 
Their  habits  appear  to  be  much  the  same,  and  they  are  often  found  in 
the  same  locations,  though  I have  found  this  species  more  commonly 
in  the  grass  in  wooded  pastures  or  at  the  borders  of  thickets.  I have 
never  observed  it  in  such  abundance  as  I have  the  mollifies,  and  ordi- 
narily it  is  probably  of  little  importance.  With  equal  numbers  it  would 
of  course  be  as  serious  a pest  as  any  of  the  other  species  of  the  family. 
Professor  Uhler  says  it  is  common  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States 
north  of  Maryland  and  it  extends  north  into  Canada  and  British  Co- 
lumbia. 


( Diedrocephala  versuta  Say.) 

This  species  bears  a striking  resemblance  to  coccinea , and  has  very 
similar  habits,  occurring  in  similar  localities,  and  probably  living  upon 
the  same  plants.  While  Say’s  description  was  published  in  1831  I know 
of  no  reference  to  the  species  in  works  on  Economic  Entomology,  and 


28 


no  reference  that  would  indicate  its  occurrence  in  destructive  numbers. 
It  is  introduced  here  as  one  of  a group  of  insects  whose  importance  will 
I believe  be  more  appreciated  when  their  habits  become  better  known. 


The  Red-backed  Leaf-Hopper. 

( Diedrocephala  coccinea  Forster.) 

So  far  as  I have  observed  this  is  not  an  abundant  species,  and  while 
evidently  common  throughout  the  United  States  1 know  of  no  record 
of  its  multiplying  to  numbers  sufficient  to  make  it  destructive.  I have 
found  it  usually  in  the  vicinity  of  timber  or  thickets,  and  while  it  prob- 
ably subsists  on  grasses  does  not  select  the  open  meadows  or  pastures 
but  localities  affording  more  moisture  and  shade.  It  is  a handsome  and 
conspicuous  species,  the  upper  surface  when  wings  are  closed  being 
largely  of  a deep  red  color  with  dark  blue  or  blue-green  stripes.  It  was 
described  under  the  name  of  Cicada  coccinea  by  Forster  (J.  R.),  in  1781 
(Novae.  Spec.  Insect.,  p.  9G),  and  afterward  by  Say  as  Tettigonia  quadri- 
vittata. 

The  Hieroglyphic  Leaf-Hopper. 

( Tettigonia  hieroglyphica  Say.) 

This  was  quite  an  abundant  species  the  past  season,  but  the  majority 
of  the  specimens  taken  were  found  in  the  grasses  of  timber  or  among 
the  low  herbage  along  ravines,  grassy  banks,  etc. 

Professor  Uhler  says  it  “ inhabits  Texas,  the  foot-hills,  and  plains  of 
Colorado  from  August  to  October,  and  the  Atlantic  region  throughout.” 
It  is  somewnat  smaller  than  the  mollipes,  usually  less  than  one-fourth  of 
an  inch  in  length  ; the  head  is  rounded  in  front  and  marked  with  irregu- 
lar black  crescentic  spots  and  bars.  There  is  much  variation  in  depth 
of  coloring  and  extent  of  marking  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  give  a brief 
description  that  will  be  distinctive.  While  it  was  described  in  1831  by 
Say,  it  has  not  been  so  abundant  or  noted  as  sufficiently  destructive  to 
get  a place  in  the  literature  of  economic  entomology.  Like  many  other 
of  the  species  of  this  family,  however,  it  has  been  lumped  off  with 
many  of  its  relatives  among  the  injurious  leaf-hoppers,  and  hence 
should  not  be  regarded  as  hitherto  unmentioned  among  injurious 
species. 

The  Four-pointed  Agallia. 

{Agallia quadripunctata  Prov.). 

This  species  appears  to  be  common  throughout  most  of  the  United 
States,  although  1 am  not  aware  of  its  having  been  recorded  as  occur- 
ring in  great  abundance  at  any  place.  It  is,  however,  one  of  the  species 
which  occurs  in  considerable  numbers  and  does  its  share  toward  injur- 
ing the  vegetation  of  pastures  and  meadows. 


29 


Whether  it  feeds  mainly  on  grasses  or  attacks  also  the  various  plants 
growing  with  grasses  I eau  not  at  present  say,  as  it  has  not  been  studied 
in  such  connection  as  to  determine  this  point. 

It  is  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  length  and  of  a yellowish-brown 
color  yd th  scarcely  any  decided  markings  except  two  black  points  on 
the  front  margin  of  the  head  and  two  similar  points  at  the  hind  margin 
of  the  prothorax.  These  latter  points  are  nearly  in  line  with  those  on 
the  head,  though  a little  farther  apart,  so  that  the  four  points  stand 
nearly  at  the  corners  of  an  imaginary  square.  Other  points  within  the 
square  are  in  some  specimens  quite  distinct,  but  not  so  conspicuous  as 
the  ones  described.  The  species  appears  to  have  been  first  described 
by  M.  Provancher  (Nat.  Can.,  IV,  37G),  in  1872,  but  it  has  quite  gen- 
erally been  known  among  entomologists  as  Agallia  flaccida  Uhl.  Mr. 
E.  P.  Yan  Duzee  (Entom.  Arner.,  V.,  p.  167)  says : 

This  species  I have  received  iii  exchange  from  a number  of  correspondents  as 
Agallia  flaccida  Uhler,  aud  have  so  used  the  name  myself  in  exchanging  and  in  the 
List  of  Muskota  Hemiptera.  It  seems  to  have  been  an  early  manuscript  name  of  Mr. 
Uhler. 

But  little  can  be  stated  regarding  the  life  history  of  this  species  and 
there  are  probably  no  important  differences  between  this  and  other  spe- 
cies of  the  same  family.  Nearly  all  the  specimens  taken  or  observed 
have  been  mature,  and  without  rearing  it  would  be  uncertain  whether 
larvae  apparently  of  this  species  really  belonged  to  it.  Adults  have 
been  taken  at  different  times  of  the  year,  and  probably  it  can  be  found 
in  this  condition  during  each  month  of  the  year.  Mr.  Yan  Duzee  says 
in  the  article  quoted  above  that  u this  is  a very  abundant  species  in 
western  New  York  from  early  in  May  until  September,  and  in  fact  the 
year  round,  as  it  appears  to  hibernate  in  the  adult  state,  as  do  many 
if  not  all  the  Jassidce .” 

1 have  not  found  it  in  grass  during  winter,  and  can  not  say  whether 
it  hibernates  mainly  in  pastures  and  meadows  or  seeks  the  shelter  of 
dead  leaves  and  rubbish  in  thickets,  hedges,  etc. 

Agallia  sanguinolenta  Prov. 

This  little  Leaf-hopper  has  been  quite  common  in  this  locality  during 
the  last  few  years,  and  while  never  so  abundant  that  it  can  be  counted 
a serious  pest  in  itself  it  must  be  counted  in  with  related  species  in  any 
enumeration  which  pretends  to  give  the  grass-feeding  species.  That  it 
has  a wide  range  is  indicated  by  the  following  from  Professor  Uhler 
(Bull. U.S.Geol. and  Geog.Surv.,  vol.  II,  p. 359 [93,  of  part],  1876):  “This 
is  a very  variable  little  insect,  which  is  not  confined  to  the  region  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  but  which  has  been  found  likewise  in  Texas,  in 
British  Columbia,  Canada,  and  New  England.” 

It  was  described  under  the  name  of  Bythoscopus  sanyuinolentus  by  M. 
Provancher  in  1872  (Naturaliste  Canadien,  IY,  376)  and  in  1876  by  Pro- 
fessor Uhler  under  the  name  of  Bythoscopus  siccifolius . Mr.  E.  P.Yan 


30 


Duzee  lias,  however,  in  the  Entomologies  Americana  (V.,  100)  placed 
this  latter  as  a synonym,  and  remarks: 

Through  the  kindness  of  M.  Provancher  I had  the  pleasure  of  examining  a typical 
example  of  his  species  and  have  thus  been  able  to  compare  it  directly  with  Mr. 
Uhler’s  description,  and  find  that  it  agrees  in  every  particular.  It  is  not  an  un- 
common species  here  (Buffalo,  N.  Y.)  on  grass  and  weeds  in  pastures  and  road  sides, 
especially  where  Carex  and  Juncus  abound. 

It  is  a little  smaller  than  the  quadripunctata  and  rather  broader  in 
proportion,  and  is  quite  readily  distinguished  from  that  species  by  the 
dark  wing  veins  and  the  more  decided  markings  on  the  head  and  pro- 
thorax. It  is  scarcely  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  length  and  fully  one-third 
as  wide  as  long. 

A dark  form  which' differs  from  the  typical  ones,  so  far  as  I can  see, 
only  in  the  greater  intensity  of  the  markings  is  perhaps  even  more 
common  here  than  the  typical  form,  and  this  I have  found  fairly  plenty 
and  quite  active  in  blue-grass  lawn  during  the  latter  part  of  November, 
so  that  we  may  be  pretty  certain  that  it  hibernates  under  grass  and 
probably  feeds  more  or  less  during  mild  weather  of  late  fall  and  early 
winter.  It  can  also  be  considered  as  quite  certain  that  it  can  live  ex- 
clusively upon  grass,  as  in  the  localities  where  I have  observed  it  it 
could  scarcely  have  been  depending  on  other  vegetation  for  its  food. 

The  Wavy-Spotted  Leaf-Hopper. 

( Alli/gus  irroratus  Say.) 

The  propriety  of  including  this  species  in  a discussion  of  grass  in- 
sects may  possibly  be  questioned,  since  its  range  of  food  plants  is  very 
great.  There  is  no  question,  however,  that  plants  of  the  grass  family 
are  among  those'  most  commonly  affected  by  it,  and  I have  found  it 
abundant  in  grass  land,  where  evidently  this  was  its  only  source  of 
food.  It  will  be  unnecessary,  however,  to  detail  its  method  of  work,  as 
it  agrees  so  nearly  with  other  members  of  the  same  family,  and  all 
methods  of  treatment  must  be  based  on  similar  principles.  It  may  be 
stated,  however,  that  there  is  as  yet  no  evidence,  so  far  as  I know,  that 
it  hibernates  in  grass,  and  therefore  those  remedies  based  on  that  habit 
in  some  of  the  species  will  not  be  applicable  to  this.  Descriptions  of 
the  species  were  published  by  Say  in  1831,  and  since  that  time  the  spe- 
cies has  had  frequent  mention  in  entomological  works,  but  only  occa- 
sional reference  to  it  as  an  injurious  species  is  made,  and  in  these  ref- 
erences it  is  as  often  spoken  of  as  a grain  pest. 

The  Destructive  Leaf-Hopper. 

( Gicadula  exitiosa  Uliler.) 

When  attention  was  first  called  to  this  species  it  was  from  its  attacks 
on  wheat,  but  that  it  is  of  equal  if  not  greater  importance  as  a grass 
pest  seems  to  me  pretty  clear  after  the  observations  of  the  present 


31 


season,  and  it  would  be  interesting  to  know  whether,  in  the  reported 
destruction  to  wheat,  this  crop  had  not  followed  grass  or  whether  the 
insects  had  not  simply  traveled  from  grass  land.  I have  taken  them 
in  abundance  from  grass,  and  in  blue-grass,  where  no  other  living  plants 
were  near,  they  occurred  in  large  numbers,  so  that  there  would  seem  to  be 
no  question  as  to  grass  being  their  natural  food.  They  have  been 
reported  as  abundant  and  destructive  on  timothy  in  Missouri.  (Insect 
Life,  Yol.  I,  p.  381). 

They  are  about  two-teutlis  of  an  inch  in  length,  of  a brownish  color, 
and  the  wings  are  rather  prominently  marked  with  dark  veins.  It  is 
an  active  species,  jumps  and  flies  readily,  and  is  easily  captured  in  a 
sweep  net,  and  would  probably  fall  an  easy  victim  to  the  u hopper  dozer” 
or  u shield,”  where  these  can  be  used. 

It  was  described  by  Professor  Uhler  in  the  American  Entomologist , 
Yol.  Ill,  p.  73  (1880),  and  a description  and  an  account  of  its  injuries  to 
wheat  in  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia  occurs  in  the  Eeport  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  for  1879. 

The  Hurtful  Leaf-Hopper. 

(Jassus  inimicus  Say.) 

Of  all  the  species  of  Homoptera  that  I have  observed  infesting  grass 
this  has  been  unquestionably  the  most  abundant  and  constant  in  its 
depredations.  It  is  par  excellence  a grass  pest,  and  is  found  in  great 
numbers  in  pastures  and  meadows  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  even  in 
warm  days  of  early  winter,  being  found  hopping  actively  about  among 
the  blades  of  grass  and  probably  extracting  some  slight  amount  of  food 
material  even  during*  this  season.  During  the  past  season  they  have 
been  especially  numerous  and  destructive,  or  at  least  my  attention  has 
been  called  to  them  more  frequently  than  before.  My  notes  show  them 
swarming  in  May,  June,  July,  August,  and  September,  and,  recently, 
the  latter  part  of  November,  and,  later,  December  12.  I have  found 
them  scarcely  less  plentiful  and  active  in  the  grass  on  blue-grass  lawn. 
I observed  them  also  in  great  numbers  in  all  the  pastures  and  meadows 
that  I examined  while  in  Linn  County,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  State, 
in  the  latter  part  of  June.  Actual  killing  of  grass  by  them  is,  however, 
a somewhat  difficult  matter  to  prove,  and,  except  in  seasons  of  unusual 
dryness,  there  is  probably  not  sufficient  withering  of  the  grass  from 
their  presence  to  attract  attention.  In  July  and  August  grass  here 
showed  injury  by  turning  brown  in  patches,  and  this  commenced  too 
soon  after  rains  to  be  referred  entirely  to  drought. 

Later  in  the  summer  (September  7 and  later),  when  the  attacks  of  the 
leaf-hopper  had  caused  most  of  the  lawn  to  appear  brown,  such  patches 
were  not  conspicuous.  Examination  of  the  grass  where  blades  were 
not  entirely  withered  would  show  in  many  cases  brown  spots  of  varying 
sizes,  generally  with  the  center  on  or  near  the  midrib,  and  from  small 


32 


spots  of  this  kind  all  gradations  of  withering  could  be  found  up  to 
where. the  entire  blade  was  withered  or  brown.  Plenty  of  these  insects 
were  to  be  found  even  where  the  grass  was  comparatively  dry,  but  that 
they  preferred  the  more  juicy  grass  was  shown  by  their  accumulation  in 
shaded  places  or  where  the  grass  presented  more  vigorous  aspect. 
They  could  be  secured  in  abundance  from  patches  where  no  other  veg- 
etation occurred,  and  in  the  absence  of  other  insects  in  numbers  to 
cause  the  withering  mentioned,  there  can  be  no  question,  I think,  as  to 
the  serious  nature  of  their  attacks  upon  the  grass.  Even  when  they  do 
not  cause  withering  of  grass  they  must  draw  seriously  upon  its  vitality. 

I have  thus  far  been  unable  to  separate  any  definite  broods.  Adults 
occur  during  the  entire  year,  and  larvae,  which  may  be  quite  certainly 
referred  to  this  species,  may  be  found  associated  with  them  during  the 
most  of  the  summer  months.  Larvae  are  perhaps  most  common  during 
June  and  in  August  and  September,  but  whether  there  are  two  broods 
or  three,  or  an  indefinite  number  depending  only  on  the  length  of  the 
season,  I can  not  now  say.  It  seems  most  probable,  however,  that 
breeding  goes  on  irregularly  all  through  the  summer  months,  but  that 
the  adults  of  spring  are  represented  by  only  two  or  three  generations 
of  progeny,  and  the  members  of  the  latest  broods  survive  the  winter  to 
begin  the  production  of  new  generations  in  the  spring. 

In  connection  with  his  description  of  the  species,  which  was  published 
in  1831,  Say  makes  the  remark  that  u When  in  the  larva  state  this 
species  is  said  to  depredate  on  the  roots  of  wheat.  Several  specimens 
were  sent  me  by  Professor  Green  in  the  year  1822,  who  received  them 
from  a farmer  in  Virginia.” 

Considering  the  wide  distribution  and  great  abundance  of  this  species, 
it  seems  strange  that  it  should  have  been  so  little  studied  or  so  rarely 
mentioned  in  works  on  injurious  insects. 

The  insect  is  somewhat  less  than  a fourth  of  an  inch  long  and  appears 
grayish  or  yellowish  gray,  and  about  the  most  constant  marking  are  two 
dots  on  the  front  of  the  head,  two  on  prothorax,  and  two  on  scutellum. 
A form  lighter  than  the  typical  examples  but  which  seems  to  me  only 
a light  variety,  has  even  these  dots  obscure  or  wanting. 

The  larvm  are  light  yellowish  but  seem  to  be  subject  to  about  as 
much  variation  as  the  adults.  An  extreme  form  of  larvm,  probably  be- 
longing to  this  species,  has  dark  margins  to  the  prothorax  and  abdomen. 

Several  other  species  of  Jassidce  have  been  observed  in  grass,  but  as 
they  are  not  as  yet  determined  I omit  further  mention  of  them  at  this 
time. 

THE  GRASS-ROOT  PLANT-LOUSE  ALIAS  THE  DOGWOOD  PLANT-LOUSE. 

( Schizoneura  corni  Fab.) 

Probably  the  most  interesting  result  of  my  season’s  observations 
from  a scientific  stand-point,  and  it  may  be  the  most  important  econom- 
ically, is  the  determination  of  the  identity  of  a form  of  plant-louse  in- 


33 


festing  tlie  roots  of  grasses  during  the  summer  with  one  occurring  on 
the  leaves  of  dogwood  during  autumn.  The  full  import  of  this  connec- 
tion from  the  economic  stand  point  can  not  be  known  till  it  is  determined 
how  many  species  of  grasses  are  affected  by  the  root  form  and  to  what 
extent  the  migration  to  dogwood  exposes  it  to  attack.  If  its  occurrence 
is  confined  to  the  annual  grasses  (and  it  seems  to  occur  only  on  these), 
its  importance  to  the  farmer  will  be  much  less  than  if  it  is  found  to  work 
also  on  perennial  species. 

A brief  statement  of  the  connection  between  these  two  forms  was 
published  in  Insect  Life  (Vol.  II,  pp.  108-0),  but  a fuller  account,  with 
details  of  observations,  is  proper  at  this  time. 

My  attention  was  first  called  to  this  species  on  September  15,  when  I 
noticed  the  air  was  filled  with  small  insects,  which  on  capture  were 
found  to  be  plant-lice  of  the  genus  Scliizoneura.  Their  immense  num- 
bers, filling  the  air  as  far  as  could  be  seen  in  all  directions,  naturally 
excited  my  interest,  and  I walked  some  distance  in  the  direction  from 
which  they  seemed  mainly  to  come  (which  was  with  the  wind),  but 
without  locating  their  origin,  except  to  observe  that  they  were  resting 
on  all  sorts  of  plants  and  were  very  plentiful  along  roads  and  paths 
where  fox  tail  and  other  grasses  were  plenty.  Upon  examination  I de- 
termined the  specimens  gathered  to  be  Schizoneura  corni  Fab.,  speci- 
mens of  which  I had  gathered  a year  or  two  ago  from  dogwood.  It 
seemed  difficult,  however,  to  account  for  such  an  immense  swarm  of  them 
when  dogwood  is  not  especially  abundant  in  the  immediate  vicinity  and 
had  not  been  observed  as  infested  with  aphidse  In  looking  over  de- 
scriptions of  allied  species  I was  struck  by  the  close  agreement  with 
descriptions  of  Schizoneura  panicola  Thos.,  and,  following  this  lead,  I 
examined  the  roots  of  Setaria  and  Panicum  on  September  1G,  when  the 
winged  forms  were  again  numerous  in  the  air.  My  search  was  almost 
immediately  rewarded  with  the  finding  of  numerous  wingless  Schizo- 
neurce , and  among  them  some  which  showed  wing-pads  and  two  with  wings 
partly  expanded.  These  were  compared  carefully  with  winged  corni 
found  flying  and  also  with  corni  from  dogwood,  and  showed  such  close 
agreement  that  I felt  it  important  to  follow  the  matter  up.  One  of  the 
specimens,  with  wings  partly  developed,  was  mounted  in  balsam  for 
future  reference;' the  others,  on  grass  roots,  were  put  in  breeding  jars. 
Their  subsequent  history  will  be  stated  later  on. 

Examinations  in  the  field  on  the  18th  showed  lice  still  somewhat 
plenty  on  grass  roots,  though  the  Setaria  examined  failed  to  show  them 
in  very  great  abundance.  Examinations  the  same  day,  of  the  dogwood 
in  the  timber  near,  showed  on  the  very  first  bush  noticed  numbers  of 
the  winged  ( pseudogyne ) individuals,  and  with  them  numbers  of  small 
larvae  evidently  just  extruded.  The  colonies  accompanying  each 
pseudogync  contained  from  one  to  a number  of  larvae,  but  none  of  these 
could  have  been  more  than  a day  or  two  old,  all  very  small,  scarcely 
larger  than  when  first  born,  In  no  case  could  I find  a leaf  on  any  of 
23479-No,  22- — 3 


34 


the  bushes  examined  which  contained  any  colonies  without  the  winged 
mother  or  where  there  was  the  slightest  evidence  of  the  previous 
presence  of  aphides ; no  cast  skins  from  old  colonies  or  damaged  leaves, 
and  every  indication  went  to  prove  that  the  winged  form  had  just  settled 
upon  the  trees  and  begun  the  formation  of  colonies.  While  perhaps  of 
little  value  as  proof,  it  may  also  be  mentioned  that  no  Schizoneurce  had 
been  observed  on  Cornus  this  fall  prior  to  this  date  or  before  the  swarm- 
ing of  September  15.  A number  of  branches  containing  colonies  were 
brought  in  and  kept  in  water  for  the  purpose  of  following  their  devel- 
opment. This  was  fortunate,  as  the  colonies  on  the  plants  out  of  doors 
were  almost  all  depopulated  a few  days  later  by  predaceous  insects, 
so  much  so  that  the  colonies  on  plants  near  at  hand  and  on  which  I 
depended  for  following  the  species  out  of  doors  utterly  failed  to  furnish 
material  for  that  purpose.  Indoors  the  insects  developed  rapidly  and 
were  followed  as  closely  as  circumstances  would  permit.  Molting  in 
these  occurred  by  the  19th,  and  apparently  only  one  molt  occurred 
before  maturity.  Only  one  brood  was  developed,  these  becoming  sex- 
ually mature  September  25.  Both  males  and  females  were  apterous 
and  copulation  took  place  upon  the  leaves  and  also  upon  the  twigs,  the 
females  often  traveling  down  the  twigs  and  branches  while  copulation 
was  in  progress.  In  every  case  the  females  seemed  to  travel  down  the 
branches  as  far  as  possible  before  depositing  eggs,  and  great  numbers 
of  them  dropped  into  the  water  in  which  the  branches  were  kept.  In 
the  woods  I have  been  unable  to  find  any  eggs  whatever  under  buds  on 
twigs,  and  so  far  as  the  indoor  observations  go  they  differ  from  those 
recorded  by  Mr.  Weed.  Whether  this  be  due  to  dryness,  the  insects 
seeking  a place  of  some  degree  of  moisture,  can  be  determined  by  com- 
parisons under  varying  conditions. 

Two  weeks  after  the  swarming  of  winged  lice  in  the  air  there  was 
another  swarming,  though  the  lice  were  not  so  numerous  as  at  the  first 
time.  This  swarming  also  followed  a rain  with  subsequent  cold.  As 
in  the  preceding  case,  examination  of  Cornus  in  the  woods  showed  nu- 
merous winged  individuals  starting  colonies,  though  at  this  time  in 
so.me  places  it  was  possible  to  find  the  cast  skins  of  previous  colonies, 
all  of  which,  however,  so  far  as  I could  find,  had  been  destroyed  by 
predaceous  insects  or  other  causes.  My  search  for  eggs  in  the  woods 
has  been  futile,  and  it  would  seem  that  nearly  all  the  colonies  were  de- 
stroyed before  the  maturity  of  the  sexual  individuals.  I have  found, 
however,  oval  bodies  a trifle  larger  than  the  eggs,  but  resembling  them 
at  first  sight,  though  flattened,  but  which  prove  to  be  a small  species 
of  Lecanium , apparently  undescribed. 

The  lice  occurring  on  the  roots  of  grass,  and  which  were  placed  in 
breeding  jar  the  16th,  were  mostly  unaltered  on  the  19th,  but  in  the  jar 
I found  a fully  winged  specimen,  agreeing  exactly,  so  far  as  could  be 
seen  with  hand  lens,  in  the  living  individual,  with  specimens  flying  and 
also  with  those  on  Cornus.  It  was  transferred  to  a leaf  of  Cornus  on 


35 


twig  inserted  in  water,  isolated  from  other  leaves,  and  which  had  been 
carefully  examined  with  lens  to  see  that  it  was  free  from  larvae,  and 
protected  by  cheese-cloth  cover.  This  individual  took  kindly  to  the 
situation,  remained  constantly  on  the  leaf,  and  produced  a number  of 
larvae  which  developed  as  rapidly  as  those  brought  from  the  woods, 
agreeing  perfectly  with  them  in  every  particular  that  I could  observe, 
and  proving  their  ability  to  develop  on  Gornus.  Unfortunately  their 
propensity  for  traveling  down  the  twigs  resulted  in  their  being  drowned 
in  the  water  in  which  the  twig  was  kept.  I think,  however,  that  their 
developing  perfectly  on  the  Cornus  leaf,  and  the  perfect  agreement  of 
apterous  males  and  females  so  developed  with  those  occurring  normally 
on  Gornus  in  woods,  is  good  evidence  of  identity. 

In  the  meantime  lice  had  been  found  in  some  numbers  on  the  roots  of 
grasses  not  yet  dead,  especially  on  Panicum , and  many  of  these  had 
been  placed  in  breeding-jars  in  hopes  of  securing  additional  winged 
specimens.  While  apparently  thriving  they  failed  to  acquire  wings, 
but  on  September  24  I observed  in  one  of  the  jars  an  apterous  individ- 
ual, and  directly  behind  it  an  egg  evidently  fresh -laid,  elongate,  oval, 
greenish,  polished,  like  eggs  of  corni  on  Gornus.  This  was  mounted 
with  the  apterous  individual,  and  in  the  body  of  the  latter  another  egg 
was  apparent.  The  egg  was  laid  at  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  the  jar, 
and  similar  eggs  were  found  in  pill-boxes  in  which  root-lice  were  con- 
fined. A close  examination  of  roots,  especially  those  of  Panicum  from 
the  field,  enabled  me  to  find  a number  of  small  apterous  individuals  like 
the  males  on  Cornus  leaves,  as  well  as  the  small  apterous  and  oviparous 
females.  These  occurred  with  a larger  form,  exactly  like  those  which 
had  been  observed  to  acquire  wings,  and  the  conclusion  seemed  inevi- 
table that  these  viviparous  and  apterous  forms  produced  in  the  ground 
a brood  of  apterous  males  and  females.  These  latter  were  observed 
attempting  coition,  though  in  no  case  did  I see  the  act  completed.  The 
males  are  of  an  orange  color,  darker  than  the  females,  and  differ  from 
males  on  Cornus  leaves  in  being  shorter,  and  in  lacking  the  purplish  tint 
usually  present  iu  those.  The  females  agree  well  with  females  on 
Cornus  leaves,  but  are  shorter,  have  six  jointed  antennae,  and  are 
slightly  lighter  colored,  which  would  be  expected  in  individuals  living 
under-ground.  September  28,  eggs  from  these  root-forms  were  more 
numerous,  and  by  October  3 I found  them  quite  plenty  in  my  jars. 
One  oviparous  female  was  observed  with  three  eggs  extruded  from  the 
body,  adhering  by  the  ends,  and  the  last  one  still  partly  within  the 
body.  They  are  whitish  at  first,  but  turn  yellow  on  exposure,  and  later 
turn  quite  dark. 

The  eggs  seem  to  be  deposited  at  liap-hazard  on  surface  of  earth, 
sides  of  boxes  or  jars,  and  each  female  appears  to  produce  but  two  or 
three  eggs. 

These  observations,  I am  free  to  confess,  appear  to  complicate  the 
round  of  life  of  the  species,  and  to  make  the  complete  circle  from  grass 


36 


to  dogwood  and  back  less  clearly  defined,  bat  such  a dimorphism,  if  we 
may  call  it  so,  is  not  without  parallel,  and  does  not  seem  unreasonable. 
There  seems  reason  to  believe  that  while  a large  proportion  of  the 
pseudogynes  acquire  wings  of  perfect  development,  and  migrate  to  dog- 
wood, that  there  is  also  another  portion  in  which  the  wings  for  some  rea- 
son fail  to  develop,  and  these  from  necessity  remain  on  the  roots  or  at 
best  remain  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  the  sexual  generation 
produced  by  them  at  the  same  time  as  from  the  winged  ones,  or  perhaps 
a little  later  develop  by  feeding  upon  grass  roots,  and  deposit  their  eggs 
where  they  have  themselves  developed.  As  to  whether  these  eggs  are 
as  successful  in  their  further  development  as  the  ones  deposited  on 
Cornus  remains  for  further  observations  to  determine.  Possibly  in  cer- 
tain seasons  they  may  survive  better,  and  thus  provide  a double  means 
for  the  preservation  of  the  species.  As  to  the  conditions  which  might 
affect  the  acquisition  of  wings  we  can  do  little  more  than  speculate,  but 
it  seems  proper  to  call  attention  to  the  possible  elements  that  may  fur- 
nish a solution. 

The  day  before  the  first  swarming  of  Schizoneura  (14th)  had  been 
very  warm  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  with  a heavy  shower  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  afternoon,  followed  by  a steady  rain  in  the  fore  part  of  the 
night,  and  this  by  a sharp  fall  in  temperature,  so  that  the  morning  of 
the  15th  was  clear  and  cold  (possibly  a slight  frost).  The  day  remained 
cold,  but  was  bright  and  sunny,  and  the  swarming  observed  occurred  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  afternoon.  Some  other  aphids  were  observed  on 
the  wing,  but  very  few  as  compared  with  the  swarms  of  corni.  8.  corni 
was  seen  in  the  air  on  subsequent  days,  but  comparatively  scarce  till, 
again  two  weeks  later  (29th),  after  a very  similar  condition  of  weather 
(warm,  with  rain,  followed  by  cold),  when  another  swarming  occurred. 
Now,  it  may  be  that  those  individuals,  which  are  at  a certain  stage  when 
such  conditions  occur,  are  enabled  to  acquire  wings  while  those  less  fully 
developed  remain  without  the  full  expansion  of  these  appendages. 

In  comparing  tbe  two  forms  infesting  grass  roots  and  dogwood,  re- 
spectively, I have  studied  great  numbers  of  wingless  individuals, 
winged  forms  and  apterous  males  and  females,  and  have  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  they  must  all  belong  to  the  same  species.  It  will,  how- 
ever, be  in  place,  I think,  to  place  in  position  for  comparison  the  differ- 
ent descriptions  which  have  been  given  of  the  species  to  show  that, 
notwithstanding  the  terms  used  by  different  authors,  and  their  wide 
separation  in  time  and  place,  there  is  no  real  discrepancy  in  them.  The 
original  description  by  Fabricius  is  very  short  and  general,  and  is  as 
follows  (Ent.  Syst.,  IV,  p.  214,  No*.  19) : 

Corni.  A.  Corni  sanguine®. 

Habitat  in  Corni  sanguine®  foliis. 

Corpus  nigrum  abdominc  basi  et  subtus  virescente.  Pedes  nigri.  Anus  absque  style 
et  corniculis. 

Juuiores  pallidi  macula  magna,  dorsali,  uigra, 


37 


Passerini,  in  Gli  Afidi  (1860),  describes  the  root  form  as  follows  : 

Scliizoneura  venusta,  m. 

Femina  vivipara  aptera  ovata-couvexa,  pallide  viridis,  vel  interdum  rubella;  capite, 
fasciis  dorsalibus  anticis  tribus,  macula  discoidali  quadrata,  fasciis  posticis  duabus, 
punctisque  marginalibus  nigris.  Rostrum  crura  media  attiugens.  Long.,  V". 

Femina  vivipara  alata  capite  et  thorace  nigris.  Abdomen  viridi  luteolum  vel  ru- 
bellum,  vittis  trausversis  anticis  duabus,  macula  discoidali  subrotunda,  fasciis  dua- 
bus posticis,  punctisque  marginalibus  nigris.  Nectaria  tuberculiformia  nigra.  Abe 
hyalin®,  venis  stigmateque  nigris.  Long.,  V" . 

Nijmplia  lutea,  capite  et  thorace  pulverulentis. 

Turmatim  in  radicibus  Setari®  viridis,  S.  glauc®,  S.  italic®,  Panici  glabri,  Eragros- 
tidis  megastachy®  et  Ceratochlo®  australis.  Autumno. 

Valde  similis  Scliizoneura:  corni,  qu®  autem  diversa  dorso  omniuo  nigro  in  apteris, 
et  abdomin®  basi  et  apice  tantum  albido  in  alatis. 

Thomas  gives  a translation  in  his  work  on  Aphidse,  which  reads: 

Scliizoneura  venusta  Pass. 

Wingless  female. — Ovate  convex,  pale  green,  and  sometimes  reddish ; head,  three 
anterior  dorsal  fasci®,  a quadrate  discoidal  spot,  two  posterior  fasci®  and  marginal 
points,  black.  Rostrum  extending  about  to  the  middle  legs.  Length  (of  body),  lmm. 

Winged  female. — Head  and  thorax  black.  Abdomen,  greenish-red  or  yellowish;  two 
anterior  fasci®,  a subrotund  discoidal  spot  and  marginal  points,  black.  Nectaries 
tuberculiform  and  black.  Length,  f to  lmm. 

Pupa,  yellowish,  head  and  thorax  pulverulent.  Found  on  roots  of  Seiaria  viridis , 
S.  glauca,  S.  italica,  Panicum  glabrum,  Eragrostis  megastachya  and  Ceratocliloa  aus- 
tralis in  autumn. 

This  translation  is  incomplete  and  imperfect,  especially  in  the  dimen- 
sions, which  are  given  as  millimeters  instead  of  lines  (twelfths  of  an 
inch),  which  would  lead  one  to  suppose  them  about  half  the  actual  size. 
So  far  as  I can  see,  Passerines  original  description  is  entirely  appli- 
cable to  the  specimens  obtained  from  roots  of  grasses  here  as  well  as  to 
fresh  specimens  of  corni  on  Cornus  leaves. 

Walsh  published  the  following  descriptions  '(in  1862)  in  the  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Entomological  Society  of  Philadelphia,  Yol.  I,  p.  304. 

Eriosoma  ? fungicola  u.  sp. 

From  recent  specimens.  Body  black,  with  a plumb-like  bloom  ; basal  half  of  abdo- 
men and  whole  of  venter  yellow.  Antennae  and  legs  black.  Wings  hyaline  with  a 
dusky  tinge ; veins  dusky,  black  on  the  basal  half  of  the  costa ; third  discoidal  hya- 
line nearly  to  its  fork,  stigma  palish  brown.  Numerous  individuals  unaccompanied  by 
larv®,  occurred  on  a large  moist  fungus  a hundred  yards  from  the  nearest  trees, 
which  were  all  oaks.  Beat  solitary  individuals  unaccompanied  by  larv®  or  woolly 
matter,  on  two  separate  occasions  from  oaks,  which,  when  dried,  differ  only  from  the 
dried  specimen  of  those  found  on  fungus  by  the  metathorax  being  varied  with  pale 
greenish,  as  well  as  the  base  of  the  abdomen.  Length  to  tip  of  wings  .12  to.  13  inch. 

The  antenn®  do  not  quite  attain  the  base  of  the  first  discoidal  when  the  wings  are 
expanded,  and  the  stigma  is  rather  more  than  twice  as  long  as  wide.  Six  speci- 
mens in  all.  E.  querci  Fitch  is  larger  (.16  inch)  and  is  entirely  black.  Differs  also 
from  the  other  described  United  States  species. 

Eriosoma  ? cornicola,  n.  sp. 

Differs  from  the  preceding  only  in  the  body  being  entirely  black.  Numerous  indi- 
viduals, unaccompanied  by  any  flocculent  matter,  and  so  far  as  I recollect  by  larv®, 
occurred  in  September  on  the  lower  side  of  the  leaves  of  the  Red  osier  dogwood. 
Ten  specimens. 


38 


Dr.  Thomas,  in  repeating  these  descriptions  in  the  “Apbidiuro”  (8th  Re- 
port State  Entomologist  of  Illinois,  pp.  141, 142),  separates  the  two  by 
Scliizoneura  caryce  Fitch,  so  that  “ Differs  from  preceding  only,”  etc.,  re- 
fers to  caryce  and  not  to  fungicola.  This  circumstance  is  liable  to  mis- 
lead, unless  Walsh’s  original  descriptions  are  at  hand  for  reference,  and 
may  account  for  the  uncertainties  that  have  been  stated  in  efforts  to 
determine  Walsh’s  cornicola  found  on  Gornus. 

Considering  that  fungicola  was  on  a fungus,  a plant  never  known  to 
support  Aphides,  and  that  the  difference  noted  by  Walsh  is  such  as 
results  from  greater  maturity  of  specimens  that  have  located  on  Gornus , 
and  further,  that  fungicola  agrees  perfectly  with  both  descriptions  of 
corni  and  with  fresh  individuals  found  on  Gornus  leaves,  it  seems  pretty 
certain  that  these  two  descriptions  refer  to  one  and  the  same  species. 

Thomas’  description  of  S.  panicola , published  in  1879  (8th  Report, 
State  Entom.,  Illinois,  p.  138),  is  as  follows,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
written  from  recent  alcoholic  specimens  : 

Winged  female. — The  front  wings  with  the  third  discoidal  veins  once  forked ; third 
vein  obsolete  at  base;  first  and  second  veins  arising  very  near  each  other;  stigma 
short,  rounded  behind ; fourth  vein  nearly  straight ; costal  bent  outward  to  the  base, 
leaving  a rather  wide  space  between  it  and  the  subcostal;  antennae  short,  reaching 
about  to  the  base  of  the  fore  wing  ; slightly  hairy ; third  joint  rather  longer  than  the 
fourth  and  fifth  united  ; sixth  slightly  longer  than  the  fifth,  with  a very  short,  in- 
distinct, blunt  spur  at  the  tip  ; beak  rather  long,  reaching  nearly  to  the  hind  coxae, 
slightly  hairy  ; eyes  present  and  of  the  usual  size  or  nearly  so. 

Wingless  female. — (Probably  not  fully  developed.)  Very  broadly  ovate  and  very 
convex,  being  suborbicular ; antennaB,  reaching  about  to  the  end  of  the  thorax,  rather 
thick  and  heavy  and  not  tapering  to  apical  joints,  if  any  difference  rather  thicker 
than  the  middle  ones ; third  joint  longest  but  not  quite  equal  to  the  fourth  and  fifth 
united;  fifth  rather  longer  than  the  fourth,  gibbous  on  one  side  at  the  tip  ; sixth 
nearly  as  long  as  the  third ; beak,  long,  reaching  fully  to  the  hind  coxae  ; color  of  the 
alcoholic  specimens,  reddisl^-yellow  ; eyes  minute  and  black. 

Found  on  the  roots  of  Panicum  glabrum  and  other  grasses  by  H.  [Th.  ?]  Pergande 
at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  in  November. 

The  difference  in  the  length  of  the  beak  will  certainly  distinguish  this  from  Tychea 
panici,  even  supposing  the  antennae  in  the  latter  to  be  undeveloped. 

Mr.  O.  W.  Oestlund,in  Synopsis  of  the  Aphididae  of  Minnesota  (Bull. 
No.  4,  Geol.  and  Nat.  Hist.  Surv.  of  Minn.)  describes  both  corni  and 
panicola , and  their  identity  could  not  be  more  strikingly  indicated. 

S.  corni. 

Head  and  thorax  black  ; abdomen  reddish-black,  with  a large  patch  of  velvety 
black  covering  all  of  the  dorsum  except  three  and  some  of  the  last  segments.  An- 
tennae reaching  to  the  end  of  thorax ; not  annulated,  hairy,  with  a single  row  of  cir- 
cular sensoria  on  the  under  side,  about  six  to  the  third  joint,  three  to  the  fourth,  two 
to  the  fifth,  and  one  at  the  contraction  of  the  sixth ; III,  0.30mm;  IV,  '0.12mm;  V,  O.IO™111; 
VI,  0.15,nm,  with  the  short  unguis.  Beak  reaching  third  coxa.  Wings  hyaline,  with 
slender  veins ; cubital  obsolete  at  base ; stigma  broad  and  short,  smoky.  Honey 
tubes  a circular  opening  almost  on  a level  with  the  abdomen.  Expanse  of  wings, 
6-7mm. 

S.  panicola. 

Head  and  thorax  dusky  or  black;  abdomen  pale  greenish  with  some  black  mark- 
ing above,  on  the  last  segment  at  least.  Antennae  reaching  to  the  end  of  the  thorax, 


39 


hairy,  third  joint  the  longest,  the  following  subequal ; sensoria  rather  indistinct, 
three  or  four  to  the  third  joint,  and  usually  one  or  two  to  each  of  the  following. 
Beak  reaching  abdomen.  Honey  tubes  as  circular  openings  on  level  of  surface  of 
abdomen,  but  rather  conspicuous  from  being  bordered  with  a ring  of  black.  Wings 
hyaline  with  slender  but  distinct  veins.  Fore  wings  with  the  cubital  obsolete  for 
some  distance  at  base  ; stigma  short  and  broad  ; stigmal  vein  but  slightly  curved  near 
the  base,  straight.  Expanse  of  wings,  about  5mm. 

Careful  descriptions  of  the  different  forms  on  (Jornus  are  given  by  Mr. 
Clarence  M.  Weed  (Psyche,  V,  p.  129),  the  species  being  referred  doubt- 
fully to  cornicola  Walsh. 

Winged  viviparous  female  (pseudogyna  pupifera). — Expanse  of  wings,  6mra;  length 
of  body,  2mm ; width  of  body,  .80mm ; length  of  antenna),  ,90nim. 

Black  above,  except  anterior  and  lateral  margins  of  abdomen,  and  in  many  speci- 
mens more  or  less  of  posterior  portion.  Beneath  black,  except  prothorax  and  abdo- 
men (save  a black  patch  in  front  of  anus),  which  are  dull  whitisli-brown.  Rostrum 
black,  except  a more  or  less  distinct  lighter  patch  near  base,  hairy,  reaching  posterior 
coxa).  Lffgs  robust,  Clack,  except  a short  brownish  space  at  base  of  anterior  femora ; 
thickly  provided  with  brown  hairs:  Antennae  robust,  beset  with  br^wn  hairs.  Joints 
I and  II,  short,  smooth  ; III,  long,  with  row  of  tubercles  on  its  outer  ventro-lateral 
surface  ; IV  and  V subequal,  with  tubercles  as  on  III;  VI,  a little  longer  than  V,  ex- 
cavated on  its  outer  lateral  surface  about  two-thirds  distance  from  base.  Wing  veins 
mostly  brown.  Stigma  brownish,  with  interior  portion  darker. 

Described  from  many  specimens  taken  October  24,  1887,  on  leaves  of  Cornus  sangui- 
nea  and  C.  sericea,  where  for  some  time  previous  they  had  been  very  numerous, 
founding  sexed  coloifles.  Usually  occurring  on  the  under  surface. 

Apterous  male. — Width  of  body,  0.50mm  ; length  of  body,  0.89‘nm;  length  of  anteu- 
nue,  0.47mm. 

Body  and  members  brownish  or  brownish-black,  with  numerous  brown  hairs. 
Eyes  black.  Body  flattened,  long  and  narrow,  with  nearly  parallel  sides.  Antenna) 
half  as  long  as  body.  Joint  I,  short,  swollen;  II,  small;  III, longest;  IV  and  V, 
subequal ; the  latter  excavated  on  its  apical  lateral  surface.  Legs  long,  robust, 
same  color  as  body.  Rostrum  robust,  reaching  anterior  margin  of  posterior  coxa). 

Described  from  several  living  specimens  (part  taken  in  copula ) from  Cornus  sericea, 
collected  October  24, 1887. 

Oviparous  female. — Width  of  body,  OhO™111 ; length  of  body,  1.14mm ; length  of  an- 
tennae, 0.35mm. 

Green,  or  greenish-brown,  slightly  darker  anteriorly.  Shape,  elongate  oval;  sparsely 
clothed  with  brown  hairs.  Eyes  blackish.  Antenme  green,  slightly  darker  apically  ; 
joint  III  longest,  V slightly  swollen  in  middle.  Rostrum  robust,  green,  darker  at  tip, 
reaching  anterior  margin  of  posterior  coxae.  Legs  unicolorous  with  body,  dusky 
apically. 

Egg. — Elongate  oval,  0.56mm  long,  0.20mm  wide. 

Green  at  first,  becoming  black  by  exposure.  Deposited  on  bark,  in  and  about  the 
axils  of  buds  and  small  branches. 

Described  from  many  specimens  on  Cornus  sericea,  October  24,  1887. 

These  descriptions  are  so  fall  that  I deem  it  unnecessary  to  draw  up 
another.  I may  mention,  however,  that  the  apterous  males  usually 
have  what  I should  call  a purplish  tint  with  the  brownish  color  when 
alive,  due,  perhaps,  entirely  to  the  delicate  bloom  covering  them. 

The  most  distinctive  character  of  corni  is  perhaps  the  hairy  antenme 
and  the  six  or  seven  circular  sensoria  on  underside  of  the  third  antennal 
joint.  The  number  of  these  sensoria  varies  slightly,  but  in  the  form  I 


40 


reared  from  grass  roots  and  allowed  to  colonize  on  Cornus  leaf  there  are 
the  full  number  common  to  corni  and  show  distinctly.  Mr.  Oestiund’s 
statement  that  they  are  indistinct  and  but  three  or  four  in  number 
might,  I think,  apply  to  an  extreme  variation  or  to  specimens  fresh  from 
the  ground.  The  dark  spot  on  the  dorsum  of  the  abdomen  is  not  only 
variable  in  size  but  differs  much  in  appearance  with  the  age  of  the  speci- 
men and  in  dead  or  preserved  specimens.  While  I am  free  to  admit 
some  puzzling  questions,  I am  strongly  convinced  of  the  main  point  here 
claimed.  There  is  certainly  much  more  of  interest  to  be  learned  re- 
garding the  species.  I feel  that  only  a beginning  has  been  made,  and 
shall  watch  eagerly  for  further  developments.  As  the  Aphides  are  so 
uncertain  in  their  appearances  and  can  not  be  depended  upon  to  fur- 
nish material  in  abundance  in  every  locality,  it  will  add  to  the  certainty 
of  completing  the  history  of  this  species  if  entomologists  in  various 
localities  will  make  such  observations  as  possible  ttfe  coming  season. 

If  my  conclusions  are  correct  the  synonomy  for  this  species  will  read 
as  follows : 

(1794)  Aphis  corni  Fabricius,  Ent.  Syst.,  IV,  214. 

(1860)  Schizoneura  venusta  Passerini,  Gli  Afidi,  p.  38. 

(1862)  Eriosomal  fungicola  Wahli,  Proc.  Ent.  Soc.  Phila.,  I,  304. 

(1862)  Eriosomaf  cornicola  Walsh,  Proc.  Ent.  Soc.  Phila.,  I,  304. 

(1879)  Scliizoneura panicola  Thos.,  8th  Eep.  111.  Ent.,  p.  138. 

SUMMARY. 

Schizoneurte  abundant  on  grass  roots  and  assuming  winged  form  in 
latter  part  of  September  (15-28)  and  on  several  days  during  this  time  the 
air  was  filled  with  like  insects,  and  immediately  following  these  flights 
apparently  identical  Aphides  were  colonizing  on  leaves  of  dogwood, 
which  had  hitherto  been  free  from  them. 

Schizoneura  (winged  pseudogyne)  reared  from  grass  roots  and  trans- 
ferred to  leaves  of  Cornus  established  colonies  apparently  identical  with 
those  occurring  normally  on  Cornus. 

Schizoneura  (apterous  individuals)  in  some  number  remain  on  grass 
roots  and  are  associated  with  apterous  males  and  females,  the  females 
of  which  are  oviparous. 

Individuals  of  these  different  forms  agree  with  each  other  and  with 
descriptions  of  both  corni  and  panicola  and  differences  do  not  exceed 
the  range  of  variation  common  to  species  of  Apliididae. 

CONCLUSION. 

Taking  all  these  facts  into  consideration,  I believe  that  the  species  of 
Scliizoneura  infesting  grass  roots  and  dogwood  leaves  and  described  as 
distinct  species  are  identical. 

That  the  winged  generation  of  asexual  individuals  produced  from 
grass  roots  in  autumn  migrate  to  leaves  of  dogwood  of  different  species 
and  establish  colonies  of  apterous  individuals,  which  become  sexually 
mature  and  the  females  of  which  deposit  eggs  on  dogwood. 


41 


That  the  number  of  broods  produced  on  Cornus  in  spring  (which 
must  now  be  inferred)  and  the  time  of  return  migration  to  grass  are  yet 
to  be  determined. 

That  in  addition  to  the  migratory  winged  autumn  brood  there  appears 
to  exist  under  certain  conditions  an  apterous  form  which  produces  a 
brood  of  sexual  individuals  on  grass  roots  the  females  of  which  deposit 
eggs  the  fate  of  which  is  unknown. 

IIETEROPTERA  INFESTING  GRASS. 

The  Chinch  Bug. 

( Blissus  lencopterus  Say.) 

The  Chinch  Bug  is  too  well  known  as  a grass  and  grain  pest  to  need 
any  special  mention  in  this  connection.  It  maybe  noted,  however,  that 
it  prefers  the  annual  grasses  rather  than  perennials,  and  were  it  con- 
fined to  the  noxious  Foxtails  (Setaria)  we  might  have  no  reason  to 
complain,  but  its  fondness  for  Hungarian  grass  is  too  conspicuous  to 
pass  over.  It  does  not  appear  to  multiply  as  rapidly  in  sod  land,  though 
I have  found  it  in  Bine-grass  where  this  alone  could  furnish  it  food. 

The  Long  Bug. 

(Ischnodemus  f aliens  Say.) 

Were  it  not  for  its  elongated  form  this  species  could  be  most  easily 
mistaken  for  the  Chinch  Bug,  for,  excepting  this  peculiarity,  it  comes 
nearer  in  appearance  to  the  Chinch  Bug  than  any  of  the  numerous 
species  which  have  been  confused  with  that  noted  pest. 

Hitherto  I believe  it  has  not  been  classed  among  insects  of  economic 
importance.  It  is,  however,  quite  evidently  increasing  in  numbers  in 
this  region  and  should,  I think,  be  mentioned,  at  least,  in  this  connec- 
tion. That  it  is  a grass-feeding  insect  is  evidenced  by  its  abundance  in 
all  stages  in  grass  land  where  other  plants  are  scarce  or  wanting,  and 
would  be  expected  of  an  insect  so  closely  related  to  the  Chinch  Bug.  I 
have  found  it  more  common  in  rather  low  ground,  and  especially  in  the 
wild  grasses  between  upland  and  bottom-land,  or  along  the  borders  of 
sloughs  or  small  streams. 

While  only  a fall  brood  of  larvie,  developing  in  July  and  August  and 
maturing  in  September,  have  as  yet  been  observed,  it  is  probable  that, 
as  with  the  Chinch -Bug,  there  are  two  broods  each  year,  adults  of  the 
second  hibernating  and  depositing  eggs  in  the  spring. 

If  multiplying,  so  as  to  become  a serious  pest,  I know  of  no  remedies 
to  suggest  further  than  those  applicable  to  Chinch  Bugs,  and  probably 
the  most  efficient  one  would  be  that  of  burning  dead  grass  and  rubbish 
in  the  fall. 

There  are  several  other  species  of  the  Heteropterous  Hemiptera,  nota- 
bly certain  Capsida ? such  as  Mir  is  affinis  and  related  species,  and  several 
species  of  Lygus , which  I suspect  will  be  added  to  our  list  of  grass  pests, 
but  I have  as  yet  made  no  careful  study  of  their  habits. 


REPORT  OF  OBSERVATIONS  UPON  INSECTS  AFFECTING 

GRAINS. 


By  F.  M.  Webster,  Special  Agent. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 

La  Fayette,  Ind.,  December  14,  1889. 

Sir:  I herewith  transmit  my  annual  report  of  observations  on  insects  affecting 
cereal  grains,  made  under  your  direction,  during  the  current  year.  A more  elaborate 
report,  treating  of  the  destructive  grain  insects  of  the  United  States,  to  he  prepared 
jointly  with  yourself,  is  nearing  completion,  and  the  present  report  is  submitted  now, 
in  order  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  including  details  in  the  more  important  work  to 
follow.  As  usual,  lam  under  many  obligations  for  the  determination  of  specimens 
and  numberless  other  courtesies. 

Respectfully  submitted. 

F.  M.  Webster. 

Prof.  C.  V.  Riley, 

U.  S.  Entomologist. 


THE  WHEAT  STRAW  WORM. 

( Isosoma  tritici  Riley.) 

These  insects  have  not  been  observed  by  me  in  any  great  numbers 
since  they  were  last  treated  in  my  reports,  and  the  species  is  only  men- 
tioned in  order  to  record  the  occurrence  of  a female  of  the  wingless 
spring  form,  on  the  18th  of  July,  in  afield  of  wheat. 

THE  WHEAT  STEM  MAGGOT. 

( Meromyza  american a Fitch.) 

Since  the  establishment  of  the  fact  of  a summer  brood  originating 
during  the  month  of  August,  arid  largely,  it  is  supposed,  in  volunteer 
wheat,  considerable  emphasis  has  been  placed  upon  the  destruction  of 
this  illegitimate  growth  of  grain.  There  has,  however,  been  pretty 
good  cause  for  believing  that  the  insect  developed  also  in  other  plants, 
and  this  season  we  have  reared  the  adult  from  Blue  grass,  Poa  pratensis, 
during  the  latter  part  of  August. 

Since  the  discovery  of  the  species  there  has  been  nothing  placed  on 
record  relative  to  its  discrimination  between  varieties  of  wheat,  or 
42 


43 


whether  these  insects  really  possessed  any  such  instincts,  the  inference 
having  been  that  one  variety  was  as  acceptable  to  them  as  another. 
Bearing  upon  this  point  1 have  obtained  some  interesting  information, 
which,  though  by  far  too  sleuder  a thread  on  which  to  hang  a positive 
assertion,  yet  forms  sufficient  grounds  for  a suspicion  that  the  species 
may  possess  some  exceedingly  fine  instincts  regarding  plant  tissue. 

In  the  month  of  September,  1888,  a field  of  oat  stubble  on  the  exper- 
iment farm  was  subdivided,  two  plats  each  several  acres  in  extent  being 
sown,  the  one  to  velvet  chaff  and  the  other  to  Michigan  Amber  wheat. 
Between  the  two  was  a narrow  strip  comprising  a mixture  of  both 
varieties.  From  the  beginning  of  preparation  of  the  ground  to  the  end 
of  harvest  this  year  all  conditions  excepting  seed  were  exactly  the  same. 

The  attacks  of  these  larvae  were  quite  severe  during  June,  and  on  the 
14th  of  this  mouth  an  examination  of  the  plats  above  mentioned  devel- 
oped the  fact  that  in  the  velvet  chaff  the  destroyed  heads  outnumbered 
those  in  the  Michigan  Amber  in  the  proportion  of  about  four  to  one. 
Furthermore,  the  narrow  strip  of  mixed  grain  intervening  showed  very 
much  the  same  feature.  I confess  that  I am  unable  to  detect  any  rea- 
son for  this  difference  in  the  severity  of  the  attack  other  than  in  the 
nature  of  the  straw  ; that  of  the  velvet  chaff  being  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions a few  days  earlier  in  maturing,  yet  it  is  known  among  farmers 
as  possessing  a softer  straw  than  the  Michigan  Amber,  which  fact  pre- 
supposes the  tissue  of  the  stem  immediately  above  the  upper  joint  to 
be  to  a corresponding  degree  more  tender  and  juicy  at  the  time  of  ovi- 
position  by  the  females. 

THE  WESTERN  STRIPED  CUTWORM. 

( Agrotis  lierilis  Grote.) 

The  present  year  has  been  conspicuous  for  the  severity  of  cutworm 
attacks,  especially  in  corn-fields,  the  most  abundant  and  pernicious 
species  thus  engaged  being  the  one  under  consideration.  Ordinarily 
we  look  for  these  dusky,  semi  subterranean  destroyers  in  fields  of  re- 
cently broken  grass  lands,  but  this  season  their  ravages  were  not  to  be 
limited  by  any  such  proscribed  bounds,  and  old  lands  suffered  with  the 
new. 

On  the  28th  of  May  I visited  a field  of  corn  a few  miles  out  of  the  city 
of  La  Fayette,  which  had  been  nearly  ruined  b}T  cutworms,  notwith- 
standing the  present  was  the  seventh  consecutive  crop  of  corn  which 
had  been  planted  on  this  ground.  In  fact,  so  abundant  were  the  pests, 
that  from  amass  of  dried  weeds  and  earth,  covering  a couple  of  square 
feet,  and  which  had  been  left  by  the  plows,  I took  36  individuals,  and 
a clod  a few  inches  away  concealed  5 more ; the  whole  number  evi- 
dently belonging  to  the  same  species. 

The  only  apparent  cause  for  this  congregating  in  corn-fields,  and  in 
this  one  in  particular,  is  that  during  the  ovipositing  season  last  sum- 


44 


mer  the  grass  lands  in  this  section  were  withering  and  drying  up  under 
a terrible  drought.  This  corn-field  had  been  poorly  cultivated  and  the 
lower  portions  grew  up  to  grass  and  weeds,  thereby  forming  a more 
desirable  locality  for  the  females  to  lay  their  eggs.  In  other  words,  the 
drought  of  August  and  September  of  1888  drove  the  moths  to  the  corn- 
fields to  oviposit,  and  the  abundance  of  worms  this  year  is  the  result. 

The  thirty-six  cutworms  collected  on  May  28  were  taken  home  and 
immediately  placed  in  a breeding  cage,  being  fed  upon  clover  during 
the  few  days  they  remained  above  ground.  The  first  moth  appeared 
on  August  23,  followed  by  others  up  to  the  26th,  when  a medium-sized 
Anthrax  was  also  observed  in  the  cage.  As  nothing  could  be  found  in 
the  literature  at  hand  to  indicate  that  any  of  the  Bombyliidce  had  ever 
been  reared  from  lepidopterous  larvse,  in  this  country,  its  occurrence 
was  supposed  to  be  accidental,  the  larva  having  been  in  some  way 
taken  up  with  the  earth  in  the  cage.  It  was  followed,  however,  on  Sep- 
tember 1 by  a second  adult,  aud  two  more  appeared  on  the  4th,  others 
appearing  up  to  the  9th,  when  all  doubts  as  to  the  host  of  these  flies 
were  removed  by  two  adults  issuing  from  a couple  of  chrysalids  laying 
on  the  surface  of  the  soil,  the  Anthrax  leaving  their  empty  pupa  cases 
protruding  half  way  out  from  the  chrysalids  of  the  Agrotis.  The  flies 
may  be  roughly  described  as  from  10  to  13mm  in  length,  black,  densely 
covered  with  fine  silky  hairs,  those  on  prsescutum  and  episternum  of 
mesothorax,  basal  half  of  abdomen,  and  tuft  on  posterior  margin  of 
penultimate  segment  being  silvery  white,  changing  to  yellowish,  espe- 
cially on  the  shoulders. 

The  same  species  was  frequently  observed,  near  the  middle  of  Sep- 
tember, hovering  about  over  the  surface  of  the  ground  under  trees 
recently  denuded  of  their  foliage  by  the  larvse  of  Datana  ministra , 
thereby  conveying  the  impression  that  they  might  be  parasitic  upon 
that  species  also. 

As  nothing  whatever  is  known  of  the  time  and  method  of  oviposition 
of  the  Bombyliidce,  it  will  only  be  safe  to  say  that  the  eggs  were  depos- 
ited either  on  or  about  the  bodies  of  these  cutworms  prior  to  the  28th  of 
May. 

In  a most  excellent  paper  by  Dr.  Riley,  in  the  Second  Report  U.  S. 
Entomological  Commission,  pp.  262-269,  larvse  of  an  allied  species  is 
mentioned  as  infesting  the  egg-pods  of  Caloptenus  spretus , being  found 
of  different  sizes  during  most  of  the  year.  From  rearing  this  species, 
Systcechus  oreas , O.  S.,  Dr.  Riley  concludes  that,  u as  a rule,  but  one  year 
is  required  for  full  development ; v but  there  is  great  irregularity  and  a 
tendency  to  retardation  of  such  development. 

Should  the  species  under  consideration  be  of  similar  habits,  the  eggs 
would,  as  a matter  of  necessity,  have  been  deposited  last  fall,  the  larvse 
wintering  over  in  the  bodies  of  these  cutworms,  which  are  not  usually 
over  half  grown  at  the  beginning  of  winter.  If  this  be  true  it  is 
certainly  an  interesting  feature  of  parasitism. 


45 


THE  ARMY  WORM. 

( Leucania  unipuiicta  Haw.) 

With  the  rapidly  increasing  area  of  low,  wet  lands,  which  are  being 
under-drained  and  brought  into  cultivation,  the  natural  haunts  of  this 
species  becomes  more  and  more  encroached  upon.  What  the  ultimate 
effect  of  this  change  of  natural  conditions  will  amount  to  in  the  future,  and 
whether  or  not  it  will  have  a tendency  to  scatter  the  spring  brood  of 
moths  in  their  selection  of  places  of  oviposition,  only  future  years  will 
answer.  In  accordance  with  the  characteristic  partiality  of  the  species 
for  low,  damp  localities,  the  outbreaks  in  Indiana  this  year  have  been 
restricted  to  the  lower  laying  and  flatter  portions  of  the  State,  where  a 
very  considerable  part  of  the  land  remains  undrained,  except  by  open 
ditches.  While  this  state  of  affairs  has  been  going  on,  the  fact  that  dry 
seasons  are  favorable  to  the  increase  of  the  species  has  been  amply 
demonstrated.  The  last  two  summers  have  been  unusually  dry,  and 
the  spring  of  the  present  year,  up  to  May  30,  was  exceedingly  dry,  mak- 
ing three  consecutive  years  of  drought,  during  all  of  which  this  pest  has 
appeared  in  various  portions  of  the  State,  the  maximum  injury  being 
caused  the  present  summer.  During  this  period,  also,  we  have  had  wet 
springs  and  dry  summers  and  dry  springs  and  wet  summers,  proving 
conclusively  that  wet  weather  has  little  if  any  direct  influence  upon  the 
increase  or  decrease  of  numbers.  In  short,  it  is  difficult  to  resist  the 
suspicion  that  this  ebb  and  flow,  so  to  speak,  may  be  due  more  to  the 
fluctuation  of  natural  enemies  than  to  the  direct  influence  of  meteoro- 
logical conditions,  severe  droughts  excepted. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Princeton,  Ind.,  where  considerable  damage  was 
done  last  year,  there  occurred  this  season  only  one  weak,  aborted  out- 
break, in  a small  field  of  rank  growing  timothy  grass.  A slight  attack 
three  years  ago  on  the  borders  of  a large  tract  of  swampy  land  in 
the  vicinity  of  La  Porte,  Ind.,  was  not  followed  by  others,  either  last 
season  or  this,  although  this  year  similar  and  more  serious  outbreaks 
occurred  in  that  immediate  section  of  the  State,  and  within  a few  miles 
of  the  same  locality.  Such  phenomena  can  not  be  wholly  attributed  to 
meteorological  conditions,  most  certainly.  The  most  efficient  parasites 
of  the  army-worm  are  twro  species  of  Tachince , and  we  have  reared  both 
plentifully  this  season.  The  local  effects  of  these  parasites  is  probably 
more  lasting  than  we  are  given  to  suppose.  A circumstance  came  under 
our  observation  recently  where  the  attack  of  a similar  species  of  Tachina 
on  the  larv?e  of  Datana  ministra , infesting  an  isolated  walnut  tree,  was 
such  that  the  tree  lias  been  free  of  the  caterpillars  since  1885.  If  the  ef- 
fects are  equally  lasting  in  the  case  of  the  army- worm  it  will  be  difficult 
to  foretell  their  appearance  iu  dangerous  localities,  even  in  seasons  sup- 
posed to  be  most  favorable. 

Again,  the  secret  of  the  power  of  the  army-worm  to  destroy  is  in  their 
massing  together  in  endless  numbers,  Were  it  uot  for  this  they  would 


46 


not  be  more  destructive  than  others  of  the  group  of  cut  worms  to  which 
they  belong.  As  stated  in  the  beginning,  the  prevailing  system  of 
uuderdrainage  has  at  present  a tendency  to  emphasize  this  gregarious 
habit  by  restricting  the  area  of  wet  grounds. 

Whether  this  will  continue  to  be  the  case,  or  whether,  after  a time, 
the  effect  will  be  to  break  up  the  habit  of  massing  into  large  swarms, 
and  diffuse  them  into  smaller  and  less  destructive  colonies,  remains  yet 
to  be  seen. 

The  heaviest  damage  has  this  season,  here  in  Indiana,  fallen  upon 
the  rye  crop,  a state  of  affairs  which  has  excited  much  comment  among 
farmers.  The  reasons  for  this  seemingly  general  selection  of  this 
crop,  for  depredation  by  the  worms,  are  (1)  on  account  of  its  hardy  na- 
ture, rye  is  often  sown  on  these  swampy  or  mucky  lands,  as  it  with- 
stands the  weather  there  better  thau  any  other  crop  ; and  (2)  by  na- 
ture it  is  a rank  grower,  and,  therefore,  afield  in  spring  presents  to  the 
female  moth  all  the  requirements  of  a suitable  locality  to  place  her 
eggs,  viz,  where  her  progeny  will  have  an  abundant  supply  of  succu- 
lent food,  in  a damp  place  and  shaded  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 
In  all  fields  of  rye  examined  which  have  been  ravaged  by  the  army- 
worm,  the  latter  were  found  to  have  originated  in  the  fields  themselves 
and  had  not  migrated  to  them.  Cases  were  not  uncommon,  however, 
where  the  worms  originated  in  grass  lands  and  from  thence  invaded 
fields  of  wheat  and  oats. 

The  prospect  of  controlling  the  outbreaks  of  the  army- worm  in  the 
future  seems  encouraging,  provided  the  farmer  is  perfectly  familiar 
with  their  habits.  Much  of  the  damage  done  might  be  prevented  if 
decided  measures  were  taken  at  the  start.  The  trouble  is  that  too 
often  the  farmer  wastes  the  most  precious  time  in  waiting  to  see  what 
the  worms  are  going  to  do,  and  by  the  time  he  finds  out  they  are  beyond 
control. 

So  far  as  I have  been  able  to  learn,  where  a neighborhood  has  turned 
out  en  masse , and  taken  decisive  measures  to  destroy  the  worms,  little 
injury  has  been  done.  These  measures  have  consisted  in  ditching 
around  the  infested  area  and  either  flooding  the  ditch  with  water,  or 
otherwise  destroying  what  fell  into  it,  and  driving  stock  over  the  area 
inclosed  by  the  ditches,  whereby  vast  numbers  of  worms  were  crushed. 
From  pupae  obtained  in  Fulton  County  the  following  parasites  w^ere 
reared : Ichneumon  hrevicinctor  Say,  Nemorcea  leucanice  and  Drymeia 
sp  1 Ophion  purgatus  Say,  also  a parasite  on  Leucania , was  this  year 
reared  from  pupa  of  Scoliopteryx  lihatrix. 

THE  FALL  ARMY-WORM. 

(Laphygma  frugiperda  Ab.  and  Sm.) 

In  1885  and  again  1889,  we  found  larvae  of  this  species  feeding  on  the 
tassels  and  unfolding  leaves  of  young  volunteer  corn,  late  in  Septem- 
ber, in  the  vicinity  of  La  Fayette,  Ind.  In  both  cases  we  reared  adult 


47 


moths  from  the  larvre,  the  former  appearing  during  late  October,  These 
breedings  would  seem  to  indicate  that  at  least  some  of  the  fall  brood 
may  winter  over  in  the  adult  stage. 

4 

A NEW  OUT-WORM. 

( Luperina  ( Hadena ) stipata  Morr.) 

On  May  28,  while  searching  for  Sphenophorus  in  a field  of  corn 
planted  on  recently  broken  prairie  sod,  a depredator  was  found  which 
both  in  itself  and  method  of  work  was  new  to  me.  Though  the  young 
corn  was  at  the  time  several  inches  high,  many  of  the  plants  were  with- 
ering and  dying,  but  aside  from  this  neither  the  plant  itself  nor  the 
earth  about  it  gave  the  least  indication  of  the  presence  or  nature  of  the 
destroyer.  Digging  down  in  the  earth  about  the  hills,  one  or  more  of 
the  shoots  would  be  found  wholly  or  partly  eaten  off,  either  near  or  a 
short  distance  above  the  seed,  and  in  a single  instance  the  seed  kernel 
itself  was  observed  being  eaten.  The  method  of  attack  appeared  to  be 
to  first  eat  into  the  tender  stem  and  then  to  burrow  upward,  after  the 
manner  of  Gortyna  nitela , above  ground,  and  as  soon  as  one  plant  was 
consumed  another  was  attacked,  without  the  worm  coming  to  the  sur- 
face. The  larvm  were  rather  slender,  from  half  to  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  long,  quite  active  and  in  general  coloration  somewhat  resembling 
the  larvm  of  Grambus  zeellus , but  being  more  robust,  spinning  no  web 
and  living  wholly  under  ground.  Larvae  taken  from  the  field  June  8, 
continued  feeding  in  confinement  until  early  in  July,  and  the  moths 
appeared  in  the  breeding  cage  about  the  25th  of  the  same  month.  On 
account  of  being  absent  from  home  much  of  the  time  between,  the  mid- 
dle of  June  and  20th  of  July,  it  was  impossible  for  me  to  get  exact 
dates. 

My  own  collections  of  larvae  were  from  recently  broken  prairie  sod 
only,  none  being  found  in  timothy  or  blue-grass  sod  adjoining.  Farmers 
in  the  vicinity  of  this  field  state,  however,  that  the  worm  does  work  in 
timothy  sod,  and  serious  damage  in  a fall-plowed  field  was  attributed 
to  their  work. 

Under  date  of  June  15,  Mr.  J.  C.  Besom,  of  Anderson,  Madison  County, 
Ind.,  wrote  me  that  a kind  of  Cut- worm  had  appeared  in  his  fields 
which  he  had  never  observed  before.  They  began  working  on  clover 
sod,  about  May  10,  and  destroyed  the  first  planting  of  corn,  and  were 
at  the  date  of  writing  making  way  with  the  second  planting,  working 
underground  and  eating  the  plants  from  the  roots  upward  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground. 

The  larvrn  are  whitish,  striped  on  the  back  with  brown,  head  and 
cervical  shield  yellowish.  Their  general  form  is  more  slender  and  longer 
than  that  of  ordinary  cut-worms,  being  nearer  that  of  Gortyna. 


48 


( Crambus  zeellus  ct  al.) 

While  natural  enemies  of  the  larvae  of  various  species  of  Crambus 
have  been  recorded,  those  attacking  the  adult  moths  are,  so  far  as  pub- 
lished record  goes,  rather  limited  in  point  of  numbers. 

One  of  the  probable  enemies  of  our  corn  destroying  Crambus  is  a 
Neuropter,  a Bittacus  near  stigmaterus.  Daring  August  Mr.  W.  O. 
Pritz  brought  me  an  example  which  he  had  observed  to  attack  a female 
moth,  chasing  her  about,  fiually  worrying  her  down  and  killing  her.  The 
remains  of  the  moth  when  brought  to  me  were  too  much  mutilated  to 
determine. 

Mr.  J.  N.  Latta,  of  Haw  Patch,  Ind.,  tells  me  that  the  moths  of 
Crambus  laquealellus , which  I observed  in  abundance  in  his  yard,  were 
destroyed  in  great  numbers  by  the  Wood  Pewee,  Contopus  virens  L. 

THE  WHITE  GRUB. 

(Lachnosterna  spp.  ?) 

The  present  season  has  been  marked  by  the  most  serious  depreda- 
tions of  these  pests  that  has  occurred  for  many  years.  Pastures,  mead- 
ows, and  corn-fields  have  suffered  in  some  instances  to  the  extent  of  75 
per  cent,  of  the  crop.  Fields  this  season  devoted  to  corn,  but  for  thirty 
years  previous  under  cultivation,  continuously  producing  some  one  of 
the  cereal  grains,  have  been  very  seriously  damaged,  large  areas  of  the 
corn  withering  and  dying  in  the  hill  during  August  and  September, 
from  five  to  twenty  grubs  being  found  in  and  about  a single  hill.  As 
early  as  May  13,  at  the  Experiment  Station,  they  were  destroying 
young  barley  growing  on  a plot  of  ground  which  had  produced  a crop 
of  this  grain  for  the  six  preceding  years.  Adjoining  this  plot  of  bar- 
ley was  another  which  had  been  devoted  to  oats  during  the  same  pe- 
riod, but  which  was  only  slightly  attacked.  A precisely  similar  plot  of 
buckwheat,  which  had  produced  the  same  crop  for  the  same  period, 
was  found  also  invaded,  and  on  July  24  the  grubs  were  found  in  the 
act  of  cutting  off  the  plants,  now  several  inches  in  height. 

A number  of  experiments  were  made  with  various  substances  with  a 
view  of  determining  the  possibility  of  destroying  the  grubs  without  in- 
jury to  the  plant  infested.  Corn  was  the  plant  used  in  these  experi- 
ments, being  at  the  time  the  most  convenient  to  obtain ; the  substances 
used,  however,  had  they  been  ever  so  effective,  could  hardly  be  applied 
with  practical  advantage  by  the  extensive  farmer. 

Experiment  No,  1. — Placed  a grub  about  the  roots  of  a single  plant  on 
May  14;  two  days  later,  applied  a sufficient  amount  of  air-slaked  lime 
to  the  surface  of  the  ground  to  cover  very  lightly,  watering  thoroughly. 

Result,  May  22,  plant  killed  but  the  grub  uninjured. 

Experiment  No.  2. — Placed  grub  about  roots  of  plant  May  14 ; two  days 

l&ter  applied  table  salt  m solution  at  rate  of  235  poumjs  per  acre, 


49 


Result,  live  days  later,  plant  and  grub  alike  uninjured.  A second 
application  killed  the  plant  but  not  the  grub. 

Experiment  No.  3. — Placed  grub  about  root  of  plant  May  14;  two  days 
later  applied  fresh  unleached  ashes  to  surface  of  ground  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  cover  lightly. 

Result,  five  days  after,  plant  and  grub  alike  uninjured. 

Experiment  No.  4. — Single  grub  placed  about  roots  of  plant  May  14; 
two  days  later  applied  4 ounces  gas-tar  water. 

Result,  next  day,  plant  killed;  grub  uninjured. 

Experiment  N o.o. — Single  grub  placed  about  roots  of  plant  May  14; 
two  day  s after  earth  about  roots  thoroughly  saturated  with  tobacco  water. 

Result,  five  days  after,  plant  and  grub  alike  uninjured. 

Experiment  No.  0. — Single  grub  placed  about  roots  of  plant  May  14  ; 
two  days  later  applied  1 drachm  Diamond  soluble  bone*  in  solution. 

Result,  six  days  later,  plant  and  grub  unaffected  by  application  ; 
grub  eating  off  the  roots. 

Experiment  No.  7. — Grub  placed  about  roots  of  plant  May  14 ; two 
days  later  £ ounce  carbon  bisulphide  poured  in  hole  made  in  earth  near 
roots  and  immediately  refilled  with  earth. 

Result,  second  day  after,  plant  and  grub  both  dead. 

Experiment  No.  8. —Single  grub  placed  about  roots  of  plant  May  14; 
two  days  after  thoroughly  saturated  the  soil  with  ammonial  water  of 
1.025  specific  gravity,  2.G8  percent,  ammonia  reduced  75  per  cent. 

Result,  three  days  after,  plant  killed  but  the  grub  was  alive  and  active. 

Experiment  No.  9.* — One  grub  placed  about  roots  of  plant  May  22 
and  one  drachm  of  phosphate  salt  applied  in  solution  to  the  soil  about 
roots.  On  23d,  corn  was  being  destroyed  by  the  grub  and  the  next  day 
the  plant  was  wholly  eaten  off  while  his  grubship  appeared  uninjured. 

Experiment  No.  10.1 — Single  grub  placed  about  roots  of  plant  and  one 
drachm  of  fertilizing  salt  applied  in  solution  to  soil  about  roots. 

Result,  two  days  later,  plant  withering,  grub  ail  right  but  had  not  fed 
from  plant  which  soon  died. 

Experiment  No.  11. — Grub  placed  about  roots  of  plant  May  22;  soil 
at  once  saturated  with  solution  of  powdered  Pyrethrum  and  water; 
1 ounce  of  powder  to  gallon  of  water. 

Result,  two  days  later,  neither  plant  nor  grub  injured. 

Experiment  No.  12. — Grub  placed  about  roots  of  plant  May  22  ; next 
day  the  soil  about  the  roots  was  drenched  with  decoction  of  Burdock 
leaves. 


* Analysis:  Percent. 

Available  phosphoric  acid 13  to  15 

Insoluble  phosphoric  acid .. 1 to  3 

Total 15  to  17 

Ammonia £ to  1 


tThe  phosphate  salt  aud  fertilizing  salt  used  iu  experiments  9,  10,  and  14,  were  sent 
to  the  Indiana  experiment  station  by  the  manufacturer,  E.  S.  Fitch,  Bay  City,  Mich., 

23479— No.  22 4 


50 


Result,  two  days  later,  plant  untouched  ; grub  active,  but  seemingly 
unaffected  by  application. 

Experiment  No.  13. — October  0,  earth  in  field  in  the  vicinity  of  wheat 
plants  being  destroyed  by  white  grub,  thoroughly  drenched  with  decoc- 
tion of  Burdock  leaves. 

Kesult  of  examination  on  October  11 : The  grub  was  found  a short 
distance  from  the  plants  uninjured,  it  having  evidently  destroyed  several 
after  application  of  liquid. 

Experiment  No.  14. — October  3,  earth  about  wheat  plants,  being  de- 
stroyed in  field  by  white  grub,  thickly  covered  with  fertilizing  salt  and 
drenched  with  water. 

Result  of  examination  October  14  exactly  as  in  the  preceding,  except 
that  the  grub  was  at  a greater  distance  from  plants. 

Up  to  the  present  time,  no  Dipterous  parasite  has  been  recorded  as 
preying  upon  white  grubs,  as  the  subterranean  habits  of  the  pest  con- 
tributes to  its  protection  in  this  respect.  There  is,  however,  pretty 
good  evidence  that  there  is  at  least  one  species  of  fly  which  exists  to 
some  extent  iu  holding  these  grubs  in  check.  On  September  21,  while 


who  advertises  both  as  not  only  being  excellent  fertilizers,  but  also  very  destruc- 
tive to  insect  life,  especially  chinch-bugs  and  cut-worms. 

The  following  analyses  were  kindly  made  for  me  by  Prof.  Henry  A.  Huston,  chemist 
of  Indiana  experiment  station: 

I.  Phosphate  salt. 

A.  Qualitative  analysis. 

Bases  present : 

Calcium, 

Sodium, 

Iron,  trace, 

Aluminium,  trace, 

Magnesium,  trace, 

Organic  matter,  trace. 

Principal  constituents:  Common  salt, 

B.  Per  cent,  phosphoric  acid  present,  .03. 

II.  Fertilizing  salt. 

A.  Qualitative  analysis. 

Bases  present : 

Sodium, 

Calcium,  trace, 

Organic  matter,  trace, 

Phosphoric,  slight  trace. 

Chief  constituent:  Common  salt. 

B.  Quantitative  analysis. 

Per  cent. 


Acids  present : 
Hydrochloric, 
Sulphuric, 
Carbonic, 

Silicic,  trace, 
Phosphoric,  trace. 

jypsum,  carbonate  of  lime. 


Acids  present : 
Hydrochloric, 
Sulphuric,  trace, 
Silicic,  trace. 


Salt  (NaCl) 97.70 

Gypsum  (CaSo) - 44 

Insoluble  matter 47 

Moisture  1.09 

Soluble  organic  matter  and  loss 30 


Total 100.  00 

Samples  drawn  at  experiment  station  from  full  sacks,  special  care  being  taken  to 
insure  fair  samples.  Neither  of  these  samples  contain  an  appreciable  amount  of 
phosphoric  acid,  potash,  or  nitrogen. 


51 


collecting’  material  for  experimentation,  in  a field  seriously  damaged  by 
grubs,  we  found  a liill  of  corn,  which,  though  it  contained  none  of  the 
depredators,  bore  every  evidence  of  having  been  destroyed  by  them, 
as  other  hills  in  a similar  condition  about  it  contained  from  5 to  10  in- 
dividuals. Instead,  however,  a larva  of  a species  of  Erax,  near  bastardi , 
was  found.  As  the  larvae  of  Erax  are  known  to  be  carnivorous,  we  can 
only  conclude  that  the  one  found  had  made  way  with  the  grubs,  but 
not  until  after  the  latter  had  destroyed  the  corn. 

THE  VARYING  ANOMALA. 

( Anomala  varians,  Fabr.). 

The  only  record  of  this  species,  as  a grain  destroying  insect  occurs  in 
the  report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  for  1884,  p.  412,  where 
Mr.  Eugene  F.  Barns,  of  Marion,  Marion  County,  Kaus.,  reported  the 
beetle  as  working  serious  damage  to  wheat  in  the  field  during  the  month 
of  June,  destroying  1,000  bushels  for  one  farmer. 

These  beetles  occur  generally  over  the  State  of  Indiana,  and  we  have 
frequently  met  them  hovering  on  heads  of  wheat  in  the  field,  but  never 
remarked  any  serious  injury.  In  this  State  the  adult  insects  are  preyed 
upon  by  one  of  the  Asilidce , Laphria  tergissa  Say,  and  we  have  several 
times  caught  these  Hies  on  wing  with  one  of  the  beetles  in  their  clutches, 
their  beak  puncturing  the  body  of  their  victim. 

THE  WHEAT  WIRE-WORM. 

( Ayriotes  mancus , Say.) 

A number  of  experiments  were  made  with  a view  of  learning  the 
effect  of  the  applications  of  salt,  as  against  the  larvae  of  this  species. 

The  method  employed  was  to  place  a number  of  kernels  of  corn  in 
earthen  pots,  and  transport  larvae  from  the  fields,  where  they  were  en- 
gaged in  destroying  wheat,  placing  them  among  the  corn  in  these  pots, 
the  salt  being  applied  in  different  quantities  to  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Experiment  No.  1. — April  20,  six  kernels  of  corn,  and  two  wire-worms 
nearly  full  grown,  were  placed  together  in  a pot  filled  with  earth,  the 
latter  being  saturated  with  water  from  beneath.  Common  barrel  salt 
was  then  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  soil,  at  the  rate  of  940  pounds 
to  the  acre.  May  1,  watered  from  above. 

Kesult,  the  pot  was  examined  May  7,  and  both  worms  found  unaf- 
fected, they  having  in  the  meantime  eaten  nearly  all  of  the  corn,  the 
uninjured  kernels  failing  to  germinate. 

Experiment  No.  2. — This  was  made  at  the  same  time  as  No.  1,  all  con- 
ditions being  the  same,  except  that  salt  was  applied  at  the  rate  of  470 
pounds  per  acre. 

Kesult  the  same  as  in  experiment  No.  1. 

Experiment  No.  3. — May  7,  placed  three  of  the  larvae  used  in  the  pre- 
ceding experiments  and  one  fresh  from  the  field,  with  corn  in  pot  of 
earth,  saturating  the  latter  from  below,  and  covering  surface  with  salt 
in  the  proportion  of  24,500  pounds  per  acre. 


52 


Result  five  days  later;  the  worms  were  alive  and  as  active  as  they 
ever  were.  Corn  slightly  eaten,  but  none  showing  any  indication  of 
growing,  while  kernels  from  same  ear  planted  in  unsalted  soil  were 
sprouted.  The  corn  used  in  all  experiments  was  from  the  same  ear. 

Drasterius  elegans  Fab. 

The  larva  of  this  species* has  been  mentioned  in  my  previous  reports 
as  destroying  other  insects,  and  themselves  injuring  young  corn.  In 
the  present  instance  they  were  found  exceedingly  abundant,  on  Novem- 
ber 15,  near  New  Castle,  Ind.,  where  they  were  evidently  working  seri, 
ous  injury  to  a field  of  young  wheat,  sown  in  growing  corn  about  Sep- 
tember 5.  This  field  had  produced  three  consecutive  crops  of  wheat- 
then  the  present  crop  of  corn,  among  which  the  young  wheat  was  grow- 
ing. It  was  true  the  wheat  was  seriously  infested  by  Hessian  fly,  and 
therefore  the  questiou  may  arise  as  to  whether  the  worms  were  not  de- 
stroying these;  but  the  damage  to  the  field  was  by  far  too  great  to 
have  been  done  by  the  fly  alone,  and  many  of  the  plants  had  been  eaten 
off  below  the  ground. 

With  this  new  revelation  regarding  their  food  habits,  it  seems  prob- 
able that  apart  of  the  wire- worm  injuries  to  wheat  sown  among  corn 
may  be  due  to  this  species,  instead  of  the  preceding. 

THE  TWELVE-SPOTTED  D1ABROTICA. 

( Diahrotica  12  -punctata.) 

The  adults  of  this  species  have  been  observed  in  greater  abundance 
than  ever  before.  Gardens  and  fields  have  been  literally  overrun  with 
them.  The  sexes  were  observed  pairing  as  early  as  the  17th  of  April, 
thereby  promising  larvae  sufficiently  early  to  attack  young  corn,  even 
though  planted  at  the  usual  time.  The  list  of  food  plants  has  this  sea- 
son been  observed  to  include  the  following,  not  previously  reported : 
Wheat,  cabbage,  cauliflower,  and  beans;  an  adult  was  also  observed 
feeding  on  volunteer  oats  December  14. 

THE  SWAMP  SPHENOPHORTJS. 

(Sphenop  horns  ochreus  Lee.) 

Few  insects  afford  a better  illustration  of  the  fact  that  a comparatively 
harmless  species  may,  by  force  of  circumstances,  suddenly  become  ex- 
tremely injurious.  Known  to  the  entomologist  since  1858,  and  by  no 
means  a rare  insect,  its  habits  unstudied  because  of  its  secluded  haunts 
and  valueless  food  plant,  the  species  appears  to  have  been  overtaken  by 
this  progressive  decade  in  agriculture. 

The  swamp  composing  the  field  which  formed  the  basis  of  the  study 
of  this  insect  was  broken  up  some  thirty  years  ago  and  two  crops  of 
corn  raised  on  it  without  damage  from  insect  attack,  after  which,  by 
reason  of  being  too  wet,  it  was  allowed  to  revert  back  to  its  original 
state.  Fifteen  years  ago  a second  attempt  was  made  to  bring  it  into 
cultivation,  and  a single  crop  of  corn  raised  from  a portion  of  it,  this 
time  the  insects  being  noticed,  but  doing  no  material  injury.  The  land 


53 


was  again  allowed  to  go  back  to  its  primitive  state,  and  remained  thus 
until  last  season,  when,  after  being  drained,  a portion  was  broken  and  the 
remainder  brought  into  cultivation  the  spring  of  the  present  year,  with 
the  results  here  given. 

Other  fields  of  swamp  land,  in  the  same  neighborhood,  have  suffered 
in  the  same  manner  as  this  one,  but  there  is  at  present  no  information 
of  serious  damage  until  within  the  last  three  or  four  years. 

The  first  published  notice  of  the  destructive  habits  of  these  insects  is 
found  in  a brief  notice  which  appeared  in  several  agricultural  papers 
during  July,  1888,  to  the  effect  that  Professor 
Forbes  had  found  them  to  be  very  destructive 
to  corn  planted  on  recently  drained  swamp 
lands  in  Illinois,  the  adult  feeding  upon  a spe- 
cies of  rush  ( Scirpus ) and  a common  reed  ( Phrag - 
mites),  and  when  these  were  destroyed  they 
transferred  their  attention  to  the  young  corn. 

On  May  23,  adult  beetles  were 


Fig.  1.  — Sphenophortis  ochreus:  a.  larva;  b,  adult — 
enlarged  (after  Riley.) 


sent  me  by  Mr.  Quincy  Earl,  a far- 
mer residing  near  Dayton,  Ind.,  a 
small  village  about  8 miles  from 
La  Fayette,  with  the  statement 
that  they  were  destroying  his  corn. 

The  beetles  were  at  once  con- 
fined with  corn  plants  growing  in 
flower  pots,  the  males  proceeding 
to  bury  their  snouts  into  the  ten- 
der stems,  near  the  surface  of  the 
soil;  but  the  females,  to  my  utter  astonishment,  burrowed  down  into 
the  earth,  out  of  sight,  and  staid  there. 

Stormy  weather  prevented  my  visiting  the  locality  until  June  2.  The 
infested  field  comprised  about  75  acres  of  recently  drained  swamp  land, 
plowed  the  present  spring,  except  a small  portion  which  had  been  de- 
voted to  corn  the  previous  year,  and  the  first  and  second  planting  de- 
stroyed by  the  beetles.  On  that  portion  of  the  field  plowed  this  spring 
the  young  corn  was  not  yet  up,  but  on  that  portion  which  had  been  cul- 
tivated last  year  and  planted  earlier  this  year  than  the  newer-plowed 
portion,  the  young  plants  had  been  totally  destroyed,  the  lack  of  their 
natural  food  having  evidently  driven  the  insects  to  this  part  of  the  field, 
as  other  fields  in  the  vicinity  had  not  suffered  the  second  year  after  the 
ground  was  first  broken,  although  the  first  crop  had  been  destroyed. 
At  the  time  of  my  visit  the  beetles  were  feeding  on  a species  of  rush, 
Scirpus  atrovirens,  Muhl.,  puncturing  the  stems  just  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground  and  eating  out  the  tender,  folded  leaves.  The  sexes  were 
pairing,  but  I could  get  no  eggs.  A large  number  of  adults  of  both 
sexes  were  taken  home,  as  also  were  specimens  of  the  Scirpus,  including 
the  roots,  which  are  bulbous  and  exceedingly  hard  and  compact.  These 
plants  were  placed  in  flower  pots,  and  on  each  was  placed  a single  pair 


54 


of  adults.  The  uext  day  the  males  were  engaged  either  in  pairing  or 
feeding  upon  the  Scirpus , but  the  females,  when  not  paired  with  the 
males,  had  burrowed  down  into  the  earth,  out  of  sight. 

On  a second  visit  to  the  infested  held,  June  11,  but  few  females  were 
to  be  found  above  ground.  The  young  corn  was  coining  up  well,  but 
being  rapidly  destroyed  by  the  males  and  a few  females,  except  where 
Scirpus  was  growing  in  sufficient  abundance  to  provide  an  ample  sup- 
ply of  food. 

Absence  from  home,  from  the  middle  of  June  until  the  middle  of  July, 
not  only  interrupted  my  observations,  but  a press  of  other  work  pre- 
vented my  visiting  the  held  again  until  August  21,  both  plants  and 
beetles  in  pots  having  in  the  mean  time  died. 

As  a result  of  this  last  visit  I found  two  adults,  one  of  which  was  feed- 
ing on  a small  dwarfed  stalk  of  corn  and  the  other  on  Scirpus  atrovirens. 

An  examination  of  the  root  of  this  reed  re- 
vealed full-grown  larvte  (Fig.  1,  a)  and  fully 
developed  adults  still  within  the  bulbs.  Other 
bulbous  roots  of  the  same  plant  gave  evi- 
dence that  the  adult  had  only  recently  quitted 
its  birthplace.  Hurrying  home,  my  plants  in 
the  flower  pots,  long  ago  dead,  dried  up  and, 
as  I thought,  worthless,  were  examined  and 
in  nearly  every  one  was  found  a fully  devel- 
oped adult,  none  of  which  had  escaped  from 
the  bulbous  roots  wherein  they  had  devel- 
oped. (Fig.  2.) 

Still  another  visit  to  this  field  on  August 
30  confirmed  all  previous  observations,  and 
a single  pupa  was  also  found  iu  a bulb  of  the 
Scirpus. 

From  what  is  known  of  the  habits  of  other 
species  of  this  genus,  coupled  with  the  fact 
that  fields  of  corn  are  not  attacked  by  the 
beetles  after  the  first  year  following  the 
breaking  of  the  ground,  it  seems  highly  im- 
probable that  there  should  be  more  than  one  annual  brood.  This  being 
the  case,  its  life  history  will  likely  be  as  follows:  The  insect  hibernates 
in  the  adult  stage,  coming  forth  from  its  hiding  places  in  spring,  the 
females  depositing  their  eggs  during  May  and  June  in  the  roots  of 
Scirpus.  The  larvae  hatching  from  these  develop  to  adults  and  emerge 
in  about  three  months. 

From  the  vast  differences  existing  between  the  plant  in  which  the 
species  breeds  and  that  of  the  corn  plant,  the  great  improbability  of 
the  insect  ever  breeding  in  corn  will  at  once  be  seen.  The  whole  prob- 
lem of  prevention  seems  to  settle  in  the  destruction  of  these  reeds, 
root  and  stem,  the  season  prior  to  devoting  the  ground  to  corn.  The 
eggs  are  as  a rule  deposited  in  bulbs  formed  the  preceding  year,  and 


Fig.  2.— Work  of  Sphenophorus 
oclireus  in  roots  of  Scirptis—  nat- 
ural size  (after  Riley). 


55 


we  have  found  healthy  adults  in  bulbs  after  the  latter  had  been  thrown 
out  by  the  plow  and  lain  in  the  sun  for  over  a month.  We  have  also 
found  them  developing  in  bulbs  in  ground  plowed  in  May  and  again 
in  July,  indicating  that  little  or  nothing  can  be  accomplished  by  sum 
mer  fallow. 

The  most  practical  and  probably  the  most  effective  method  of  destroy- 
ing the  food  plant  of  the  pest  is  to  sow  rye  or  some  other  crop  on  the 
land  the  first  season  after  breaking. 

THE  CHINCH  BCJGr. 

(. BHssus  hucoptcrus  Say.) 

The  history  and  distribution  of  the  Chinch  Bug  in  Indiana  offers 
some  problems  not  only  very  perplexing  but  exceedingly  difficult  to 
solve.  In  fact,  we  shall  here  make  no  attempt  toward  a solution,  but 
rather  to  separate  a few  of  the  many  complex  elements  which  are 
thought  to  influence  the  distribution  and  numbers  of  the  pest,  and  to 
some  extent  at  least  indicate  how  far  they  may  be  considered  or  per- 
haps eliminated  entirely  from  any  independent  relation  to  the  subject, 
thereby  affording  aid  to  the  future  investigator. 

It  is  well  known  that  although  Thomas  Say,  at  the  time  he  described 
the  species,  was  residing  at  ^New  Harmony,  Indiana,  nevertheless  his 
description  was  drawn  from  a single  specimen  taken  by  himself  on  the 
Eastern  Shore  of  Virginia,  and  so  far  as  we  know  he  may  have  died 
ignorant  of  its  occurrence  in  his  own  or  any  of  the  adjoining  States. 

Recently,  Professor  Forbes  has  collected  some  data  showing  that  the 
species  was  destructively  abuudant  in  Edwards  County,  Illinois,  as 
early  as  1828,  and  was  also  observed  in  Richland  County  in  1823. 

Strictly  in  accordance  with  the  above,  while  that  portion  of  Illinois 
lying  adjacent  to  Indiana,  separated  only  by  the  Wabash  River,  has 
suffered  agaiu  and  again  through  the  ravages  of  the  Chinch  Bug,  crops 
on  the  Indiana  side  have  not  often  suffered  from  any  extensive  or  wide- 
spread ravages  of  the  pest.  Not  only  this,  but  at  the  present  time  the 
worst  infested  portion  of  Indiana  is  composed  of  those  counties  whose 
western  border  is  the  Wabash  River,  which  separates  them  from  Illi- 
nois, and  from  whence  the  insect  occurs  in  continually  diminishing 
numbers  northward  and  eastward  until  we  reach  the  northern  coun- 
ties of  La  Porte,  St.  Joseph,  Elkhart,  La  Grange  and  Steuben,  where  its 
depredations  are  almost  entirely  unknown.*  Indeed,  during  the  years 
when  they  are  the  most  numerous  elsewhere,  I have  found  them  in  these 
counties  only  with  difficulty,  and  few  of  the  farmers  know  what  the 
insect  is  like.  In  almost  exactly  the  same  latitude  in  De  Kalb  County, 
Illinois,  within  60  miles  of  Lake  Michigan,  they  have  been  a serious 
pest  since  1855. 

* The  only  exception  known  to  me  was  in  Elkhart  County,  where  they  were  re- 
ported to  Mr.  J.  R.  Dodge,  Statistician  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  in  1887. 
(See  Bull.  17,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  Div.  Ent.,p  9.)  Mr.  Dodge  has  very  kindly  looked 
up  this  matter,  and  writes  me  that  these  bugs  were  only  reported  from  one  locality  in 
very  limited  numbers  and  did  no  appreciable  damage. — F.  M.  W. 


56 


A line  drawn  from  the  northwestern  corner  of  Indiana  diagonally 
across  the  State  to  the  Ohio  line,  at  the  southeast  corner  of  Jay  County, 
will  divide  from  the  remainder  of  the  State  nearly  all  of  twenty-four 
counties  over  which  the  Chinch  Bug  is  either  unknown  or  occurs  in  too 
limited  numbers  to  cause  serious  damage.  These  are  the  counties  enu- 
merated in  Tables  A and  B.  As  the  numbers  of  counties  from  which  I 
have  information  of  serious  and  wide-spread  damage  does  not  amount 
to  twenty-four,  I have  added  others,  in  which  we  have  observed  con- 
siderable numbers  of  Chinch  Bugs,  and  filled  out  the  number  with  coun- 
ties situated  in  the  infested  district.  These  are  enumerated  in  Tables 
C and  D. 


Table  A. — Acreage  of  various  grains  produced  in  1887  throughout  the  area  over  which 
Chinch  Bugs  do  not  occur  in  destructive  numbers. 


Counties. 

Wheat. 

1 

Oats. 

Rye. 

Barley. 

Total 

small 

grain. 

Corn. 

Excass 
of  small 
grain  over 

1 corn. 

Adams 

26, 936 

9, 142 

255 

35 

36,  368 

30,  257 

+ 6,111 

Allen  

48,  362 

25,687 

2,  065 

101 

76,  215 

42,  004 

+34,211 

Blackford 

12,  543 

2,  544 

196 

41 

15,  324 

16,  000 

— 676 

l)e  Kalb 

30,  097 

13,  390 

211 

157 

43,  855 

22, 135 

+ 21,  720 

Elkhart 

44,  896 

15,  207 

705 

90 

60,  898 

35, 145 

+ 25,  753 

Fulton 

29,  903 

5,  684 

390 

35 

36,  012 

25,  827 

+ 10,185 

Grant 

42,  077 

5,  455 

347 

147 

48,  026 

49,  225 

- 1,199 

Huntington 

34,  888 

10,  693 

800 

195 

46,  576 

38, 145 

+ 8,431 

Jay 

29,  588 

8,  766 

275 

145 

38,  774 

39,  656 

- 882 

Kosciusko 

42,  268 

13,274 

240 

162 

55,  944 

40,  065 

+ 15,  879 

La  Grange 

36,  903 

9,  818 

873 

37 

47,  631 

28,  292 

+ 19,  339 

Lake 

2,  808 

26,  690 

1,284 

275 

31,057 

30,  637 

+ 420 

La  Porte 

43,  901 

15,  051 

802 

335 

60,  095 

39,  690 

+20,  405 

Marshall 

35,  062 

10,145 

1,244 

186 

47,  637 

33,  238 

+ 14,399 

Miami 

44,  212 

7,  919  | 

139 

168 

52,  438 

42,  301 

+ 10, 137 

Noble 

38,  797 

12,345 

120 

44 

51,  306 

29,  452 

+21,  854 

Porter  

15,  312 

16,365 

1,026 

236 

32,  939 

21,  042 

+11,897 

Pulaski 

19,  267 

7,  828 

1,570 

394 

29,  059 

23,  686 

+ 5,373 

Starke  

3,  591 

2.916 

1,657 

298 

8,  462 

7,911 

+ 551 

Steuben  

27,  414 

9,  253 

219 

310 

37,  196 

22,  200 

+14,  996 

St.  Joseph 

41,  525 

11,482 

440 

30 

53,  477 

30,  698 

+22,  779 

Wabash 

41, 109 

8,  391 

115 

149 

49,  764 

45,  638 

+ 4,126 

Wells 

32,  301 

6,  196 

572 

54 

39, 123 

39,  322 

— 199 

Whitley 

25,  633 

9,  727 

95 

45 

35,  500 

24,  753 

+ 1C,  747 

Table  B. — Acreage  of  various  grains  produced  in  1888  throughout  the  area  over  which 
Chinch  Bugs  do  not  occur  in  destructive  numbers. 


Adams 

23, 130 

16,  818 

249 

51 

40,248 

31,417 

+8,  831 

Allen  

50,  469 

27,  228 

1,895 

172 

78,  764 

43,  775 

+34,  989 

Blackford 

11,057 

3,  280 

253 

140 

14,  730 

16,  633 

-1,903 

De  Kalb 

28, 145 

14,  249 

138 

169 

42, 701 

25,  474 

+ 17,227 

Elkhart 

43,818 

14,  783 

1,013 

78 

59,  692 

36,  663 

+23,  029 

Fulton 

33,  976 

6,  306 

267 

12 

40,  561 

29,  795 

+10,  766 

Grant 

38,  808 

5,  593 

316 

201 

44,  918 

48,  581 

—3,  663 

Huntington 

32,  639 

10,  990 

218 

186 

44, 033 

40,  218 

+3.  815 

Jay  

25,  433 

9,  666 

311 

160 

35,  570 

40,  750 

-5, 180 

Kosciusko 

39,  878 

14,  201 

334 

135 

iW,  548 

41, 025 

+13,  523 

Lagrange 

33,  540 

10,  285 

750 

55 

44,  630 

30,  252 

+14,  378 

Lake 

3,  874 

21,026 

1,  330 

221 

26,  461 

29,  510 

—3,  049 

La  Porte 

40;  G42 

18,  033 

772 

787 

60, 234 

41,345 

+ 18, 889 

Marshall 

33,187 

11,095 

1,449 

271 

46,  012 

37,134 

+8,  878 

Miami 

44,  250 

* 8,  160 

126 

188 

52,  724 

42,  743 

+9,  981 

Noble 

37,  983 

14,  336 

217 

44 

52,  580 

29,  915 

+22,  665 

Porter  

16,  648 

17,  428 

1,  593 

213 

35,  882 

27,  863 

+8,  019 

Pulaski 

17,  007 

3,  407 

1,  633 

282 

29,  339 

26,  232 

+3,  097 

Starke 

3,  965 

3,  47(5 

1,  696 

237 

9,  374 

8,  633 

+741 

Steuben  

25,  944 

10,  288 

310 

317 

36,  859 

21,373 

+15,  486 

St.  Joseph 

37,  602 

12, 170 

642 

714 

51,  128 

29,  343 

+21,  785 

Wabash 

40,  202 

9,  892 

183 

73 

50,  350 

44,  080 

+6,  270 

Wells 

28,  437 

8,  352 

611 

147 

37,  547 

38,  009 

—462 

Whitley 

21,  789 

10,  647 

65 

39 

32,  540 

23,  503 

+9,  037 

57 


Table  C. — Acreage  of  various  grains  produced  in  1887  throughout  the  area  over  which 
Chinch  Hugs  occur  sometimes  in  destructive  numbers. 


Counties. 

Wheat. 

Oats. 

Rye. 

Barley. 

Other 

small 

grain. 

Corn. 

Excess 
of  small 
grain 
over  corn. 

1,  592 

35,  529 

390 

125 

38, 036 

71,714 

—33,  678 

Clay*  

22;  610 

9.  963 

160 

211 

32,  944 

26,  447 

+0,  497 

7,  513 

9,  389 

25 

16,  927 

15,  491 

41,436 

Daviess 

40, 18(5 

10,  575 

340 

42 

51,  143 

39,  472 

4-11,671 

Dubois*7 

24,  527 

10,  950 

20 

87 

35,  584 

22,  042 

+13,  542 

Gibson*  

72,  513 

5,740 

386 

31 

78,  670 

45,  108 

+33,  562 

24,  943 

11,930 

239 

178 

37,  290 

34, 141 

+3, 149 

Jackson  

27, 584 

14,733 

297 

45 

42,  659 

42,  633 

+26 

Knox* 

48,  483 

6,426 

207 

68 

55,  184 

47, 331 

+7,  853 

Lawrence 

11,423 

14, 395 

136 

51 

26,  005 

25,  228 

+777 

Martin 

15,  740 

7,  766 

136 

191 

23,  833 

21,  493 

+2,  440 

Mon  rue 

9,  505 

9,  399 

35 

40 

18,  979 

16,  462 

+2,  517 

Orange 

12, 322 

17,  708 

84 

96 

30,  210 

26,  836 

+3.  374 

Owen 

14,  343 

9,705 

91 

20 

24, 159 

16.910 

+7,  249 

Parke  

33,  828 

9,  426 

297 

66 

43,  617 

39,  751 

+3,  866 

Pike 

35,  698 

9,  080 

83 

107 

44, 968 

30,  095 

+ 14,  873 

Posey* 

60,  902 

6,  600 

120 

47 

67,  669 

38,  979 

+28,  690 

Putnam 

33,544 

7,613 

117 

96 

41,  370 

37,  006 

+4,  364 

Sullivan* 

33,  624 

10,  059 

826 

55 

44,  564 

44,  109 

+455 

Tippecanoe 

49,  339 

14,  657 

544 

120 

64,  660 

79,  497 

—14,  837 

Vermillion 

30,  274 

6,724 

352 

98 

37,  448 ' 

35,  549 

+ 1,  899 

Vigo  

35,  738 

13,  096 

694 

217 

49,  745 

50,  0*2 

—337 

Warrick* 

30, 088 

9,  609 

62 

40 

39,  799 

33, 171 

+6,  628 

Washington*. 

17,  245 

19,  028 

77 

68 

36,418 

30,  206 

+6,  212 

Table  D. — Acreage  of  various  grains  produced  in  -1888  throughout  the  area,  over  which 
Chinch  Bugs  occur  sometimes  in  destructive  numbers. 


Benton  . . - - . . 

2, 470 

36,  801 

372 

81 

39,  724 

84,  751 

—45,  027 

Clay*  

22, 136 

10,  720 

178 

150 

33, 184 

28, 100 

+5,  084 

Crawford* 

9,  527 

7,216 

13 

10 

16,  766 

14,  502 

+2,  264 

Daviess — 

39,  049 

11, 194 

280 

75 

50,  598 

39,  259 

+ 11,  339 

Dubois* 

26,  414 

10, 168 

48 

128 

36,  758 

22,  799 

+ 13,  959 

Gibson*  

68,  640 

5,  606 

466 

116 

74,  828 

48,  280 

+26,  548 

Green _ 

30,  962 

12,  627 

253 

84 

43,  926 

35,  745 

+8, 181 

Jackson  

27,  425 

14, 135 

254 

34 

41,848 

43,  007 

-1,159 

Knox* 

47,  798 

6,  869 

222 

163 

55,  058 

54,  001 

+1,  051 

Lawrence 

10,  559 

14,  392 

208 

79 

25,  238 

31,  666 

-6,  328 

Martin 

14,  450 

8,  797 

124 

126 

23,  497 

20,  928 

+2,  569 

Monroe 

10, 147 

8,  500 

64 

22 

18,  733 

16,  241 

+2,  492 

Oransre 

13, 446 

15,  246 

94 

78 

28,  864 

25,  406 

+3,  458 

Owen  

13,  329 

10, 402 

82 

43 

23,  856 

17,  422 

+6,  434 

Parke 

33,  523 

9,  718 

256 

57 

43,  554 

44,  771 

-1,217 

Pike 

30,  934 

10, 154 

54 

106 

41,  248 

32,  062 

+9,  186 

Posey*  

59,  006 

7,465 

108 

39 

66,  618 

46,  71 1 

+ 19,  907 

Putnam 

32, 139 

8,  194 

131 

74 

40,  538 

39,  358 

+ 1,180 

Sullivan* 

29,  377 

11,279 

798 

68 

41,  522 

45,  808 

-4,  286 

Tippecanoe  

53,  000 

15,  313 

570 

129 

69,  012 

82,611 

-13,599 

Vermillion 

29,  985 

7,  710 

439 

76 

38,  210 

35,  444 

+2,  766 

V igo 

36, 157 

14,  327 

557 

203 

51.  244 

52, 084 

—840 

Warrick* 

30,  562 

10, 191 

144 

57 

40,  954 

34,  589 

+6,  365 

Washington* 

18, 465 

19,  922 

39 

46 

38,  472 

34,  911 

+3,  561 

* Counties  marked  with  asterisk  (*)  are  those  in  which  Chinch  Bugs  have  been  reported  in  destruct- 
ive numbers. 


Much  lias  been  said  of  late  of  the  influence  which  the  cultivation  of 
wheat  and  other  grains  has  on  the  numbers  and  distribution  of  the 
Chinch  Bug.  Tables  A,  B,  C,  and  D,  here  given  show  the  acreage  of 
each  of  the  cereal  grains  in  forty-eight  counties  for  the  years  1887  and 
1888.  It  will  be  observed  that  among  the  uninfested  counties  there  are 
but  four  which  had  a greater  area  of  small  grain  than  of  corn  in  1887 
and  in  1888.  In  1887,  in  eleven  of  these  same  counties,  the  area  of 
wheat  exceeded  that  of  corn,  in  six  of  which  counties  the  Chinch  Bug 


58 


is  unheard  of.  Practically  the  same  state  of  affairs  existed  in  1888, 
both  as  to  crop  and  bugs.  In  the  twel  ve  counties  more  or  less  infested 
with  bugs  in  1887,  four  had  a larger  area  of  corn  than  of  small  grain, 
and  all  but  seven  showed  a greater  area  of  corn  than  wheat.  In  1888 
only  three  had  a greater  area  devoted  to  wheat  than  corn,  and  six  had  a 
greater  area  of  corn  than  of  small  grains.  It  will  be  observed  that  Sul- 
livan County,  which  probably  suffers  from  Chinch  Bug  injury  as  bad  as 
any  portion  of  the  State,  is  one  of  these.  It  appears  therefore  that  the 
nature  of  the  crop  has  of  itself  nothing  to  do  with  the  distribution  of 
the  Chinch  Bug  in  Indiana. 


Table  E. — Total  amount , in  inches  and  tenths,  of  precipitation  and  mean  temperature,  in 
degrees  and  tenths,  at  Princeton,  Gibson  County,  Ind.,  latitude  38°  23'  N.,  during  the 
months  of  April,  May,  and  June,  for  the  years  1885,  1886,  1887,  1888,  and  1889. 


Tear. 

April. 

May. 

June. 

Precipi- 

tation. 

Tempera- 

ture. 

Precipi- 

tation. 

Tempera- 

ture. 

Precipi- 

tation. 

Tempera- 

ture. 

1885 

3.  70 

53.5 

2.  30 

61.5 

5. 90 

71.9 

1886 

3.  50 

55.  3 

2. 10 

66.1 

4.  90 

71.3 

1887 

2. 30 

53.2 

6. 10 

68.0 

.10 

74.3 

1888 

1.50 

55.3 

1.95 

63.5 

2.50 

76.7 

1889 

.80 

55.2 

4.40 

64.4 

3.  60 

70.7 

Table  F. — Total  amount,  in  inches  and  tenths,  of  precipitation  and  mean  temperature,  in 
degrees  and  tenths,  at  Angola,  Steuben  County,  Ind.,  latitude  41°  37'  N.,  during  the 
months  of  April,  May,  and  June,  for  the  years  1885,  1886,  1887,  1888,  and  1889. 


1885 

4.35 

45.  6 

6.  95 

56.  9 

4.  32 

66.9 

1886 

2.77 

52.  5 

3.  49 

63.  5 

4.  16 

67.2 

1887 

1.12 

45.  2 

1.  95 

70.  8 

5.24 

71.2 

l?-88 

1.64 

46.  5 

3.  75 

61.9 

5. 16 

70.6 

1889 

1. 19 

49.  2 

5.25 

61.4 

3.  50 

68.5 

Table  G. — Total  amount,  in  inches  and  tenths,  of  precipitation  and  mean  temperature,  in 
degrees  and  tenths,  at  Sandwich,  De  Kalb  County , III.,  latitude  41°  3T  ISI.,  during  the 
months  of  April,  May,  and  June  of  the  years  1885,  1886,  1887,  1888,  aud  1889. 


1885  . 1 

2.46 

46.  71 

1.30 

58. 65 

2.  94 

68.  95 

1886 

1.35 

56.  40 

3.  06 

64.  70 

1.  28 

68.  82 

1887  

.57 

I 53. 12 

1.87 

68.  55 

1.  77 

75. 07 

1888  

1.  70  1 

49.84 

5.  14 

58.  72 

2.  76 

72.  48 

]889  

3. 15 

52.  03 

3.08 

61.  71 

5. 40 

68.  62 

J 



Neither  can  this  unequal  distribution  be  attributed  to  the  interspersion 
of  timber  lands  among  the  cultivated  fields,  as  the  northern  and  south- 
ern portions  are  about  equally  wooded,  aud,  besides,  the  treeless 
prairies  of  the  State  are  not  particularly  subject  to  invasions  of  Chinch- 
bugs.  Low  temperature  can  hardly  be  held  responsible  for  the  phe- 
nomenon, as  the  ravages  in  more  northern  localities  like  Nebraska, 
northern  Iowa,  and  in  Minnesota  will  attest.  Coming  northward  from 
the  Ohio  River,  during  the  season  of  drought  which  has  occurred  each 
year  since  1880,  one  can  not  help  but  admit  that  the  effects  of  dry 


59 


weather  are  greatest  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  State.  But  the  dif- 
ference between  this  weather  condition  is  certainly  not  so  marked  be- 
tween Tippecanoe  and  Benton  Counties  on  the  one  hand,  and  La  Porte 
and  Lagrange  Counties  on  the  other,  as  to  result  in  a difference  in  the 
number  of  bugs  amounting  to  that  between  a great  abundance  and 
almost  none  at  all.  In  Tables  E,  F,  and  G are  given  the  mean  tempera- 
ture and  rain-fall  for  the  months  during  which  these  elements  most 
affect  the  Chinch  Bug,  and  extending  over  a period  of  five  years.*  This  is 
as  far  back  as  the  Indiana  records  extend.  The  records  from  Princeton, 
Ind.,  indicate  the  meterological  conditions  during  this  period  in  the  bug 
infested  area,  and  those  from  Angola  are  a like  record  of  the  weather 
conditions  in  the  region  exempt  from  Chinch  Bug  attack,  while  Table  G 
gives  the  meterological  conditions  in  De  Kalb  County,  northern  Illinois, 
where  Chinch  Bugs  have  been  abundant  since  1855,  formerly  doing  serious 
damage  to  spring  wheat,  and  have,  since  about  1862  (wheat  of  any  sort 
being  no  longer  grown  to  any  extent),  been  transferring  their  attention 
to  the  corn  crop,  but  being  at  present  less  abundant  than  in  south- 
eastern Indiana  or  southern  Illinois. 

From  a study  of  the  tables  given  it  will  be  seen  that  while  the 
northern  Illinois  locality  had  a less  rain  fall  during  the  spring  and  early 
summer  than  the  northern  portion  of  Indiana,  it  also  had  a less  amount 
than  had  southern  Indiana;  yet,  while  Chinch  Bugs  are  more  numerous 
iu  the  Illinois  section  than  in  northern  Indiana,  they  are  not  so  abund- 
ant as  in  southern  Indiana. 

Geologically,  the  northern  portion  of  Indiana  differs  from  the  south- 
eastern portion,  the  former  being  Devonian  and  the  latter  carbonifer- 
ous or  subcarboniferous.  This,  however,  could  have  little  effect  on  the 
Chinch  Bug,  except,  possibly,  so  far  as  it  influenced  the  natural  flora, 
especially  the  grasses.  Prof.  James  Troop,  who  has  made  the  grasses 
of  Indiana  a study,  informs  me  that  the  following  are  all,  or  nearly  all, 
the  species  found  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  State  which  do  not 
occur  in  the  northern  portion : Uniola  latifolia , Arundinaria  tecta , Pas- 
palum  fluitans,  P.  Iceve , Panicum  prolificum,  P.  anceps , P.  vicidum , Andro- 
pogon  divisitiflorus . 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  to  no  one  of  these  elements 
alone,  as  existing  between  southwestern  Indiana  and  Illinois  on  the 
one  hand,  and  northeastern  Indiana,  southern  Michigan,  and  northern 
Ohio  on  the  other,  can  this  immunity  from  Chinch  Bugs  in  these  last 
localities  be  traced.  Whether  the  combination  of  two  of  these  elements, 
such  as  dry  weather  and  wheat-growing,  is  to  be  held  wholly  responsi- 
ble, or  whether  there  is  still  another  potent  element,  as  yet  unknown 
to  us,  which,  either  in  itself  or  combined  with  some  other,  is  the  prime 
cause  of  the  present  state  of  affairs,  only  future  studies  can  demonstrate. 

* Kindly  supplied  me  by  N.  E.  Ballou,  M.  D.,  Ph.  D.,  Sandwich,  111.,  for  thirty  years 
volunteer  signal  observer  at  that  place. — E.  M.  W. 


60 


That  dry  weather  during  spring  and  early  summer  is  almost  invaria- 
bly associated  with  an  increase,  and  wet  weather  during  the  same 
period  with  a decrease  of  Chinch  Bugs  is  usually  true,  but  why  this  is 
so  has  never  been  definitely  explained. 

The  fungoid  disease  known  as  Entomophthora  has,  since  it  was  studied 
by  Dr.  Shimer,  been  known  to  be  much  more  fatal  in  wet  than  iu  dry 
weather.  How  far  this  would  prove  true,  and  to  what  extent  the 
farmer  could  rely  upon  this  fungus  to  keep  the  Chinch  Bug  in  check, 
gave  the  incentive  for  carrying  out  the  following  experiments. 

Early  in  July,  1888,  a large  number  of  Chinch  Bugs,  principally  pupae 
nearing  the  last  molt,  were  placed  in  a close  glass  vessel  and  kept  iu  a 
very  damp  atmosphere  and  under  high  temperature.  Although  kept 
for  two  weeks  under  these  conditions  we  failed  to  produce  the  Entomoph- 
thora  among  them.  This  was  accepted  as  evidence  that  the  fungus  did 
not  exist  in  any  stage  of  development  here  at  La  Fayette,  Ind.,  although 
it  was  reported  from  an  adjoining  State. 

On  July  20,  of  the  present  year,  we  received  some  dead  chinch  bugs 
from  Prof.  F.  H.  Snow,  of  Lawrence,  Kans.,  which  were  said  to  be  af- 
fected by  Entomophthora.  These  diseased  bugs  were  placed  under  glass 
with  living  ones  from  the  fields,  the  latter  being  provided  with  food  and 
kept  thus  confined  for  fifty-three  hours,  when  the  major  portion  of  them 
were  placed  on  several  hills  of  corn,  seriously  infested  by  bugs,  the 
remainder  with  the  dried  remains  received  from  Professor  Snow  being 
scattered  about  over  a small  area  of  young  wheat  sown  for  experiment, 
and  also  swarming  with  young  Chinch  Bugs.  The  hills  of  corn  on  which 
the  bugs  had  been  placed  were  isolated  from  others,  equally  badly  in- 
fested, by  narrow  frames  of  boards  placed  on  the  ground,  and  the  upper 
edges  covered  with  tar.  This  last  precaution  was  taken  in  order  to  pre- 
vent communication  with  other  hills,  intended  as  checks  on  those  used 
directly  in  the  experiment.  The  area  of  young  wheat  over  which  infested 
bugs  had  been  placed  was  not  inclosed,  but  its  limits  carefully  marked. 
Five  days  after,  July  27,  a single  bug  was  found  on  one  of  the  isolated 
hills  of  corn  which  had  very  evidently  died  from  the  effects  of  Entomopli- 
thora , and  by  the  30th  enough  others  were  found  to  show  that  the  fungus 
had  fully  established  itself,  and  the  barriers  about  the  isolated  hills  were 
removed.  On  August  2,  dead  bugs  covered  with  Entomophthora  were 
found  in  considerable  numbers  about  hills  of  corn,  25  feet  from  where  the 
original  colonies  had  been  placed,  and  also  throughout  and  even  55  feet 
beyond  the  area  of  young  wheat  over  which  dead  and  affected  bugs 
had  been  distributed.  Daily  observations  were  now  made,  but  the  pro- 
gress of  the  disease  seemed  to  come  to  a stand  still.  From  the  5th  of 
August  up  to  the  9th  it  was  almost  impossible  to  get  sufficient  material, 
outside,  to  enable  me  to  carry  on  laboratory  experiments.  August  13, 
the  spread  of  Entomophthora  appeared  to  have  taken  on  new  life,  and  dis- 
eased bugs  were  becoming  much  more  numerous.  August  15,  found 
diseased  bugs  172  feet  from  any  place  where  they  had  been  previously 
observed.  August  20,  diseased  bugs  were  very  abundant  over  all  of 


61 


the  area  where  disease  had  been  distributed,  aud  two  days  later  exam- 
ples were  found  a quarter  of  a mile  from  the  starting  point  of  the  dis- 
ease. Immediately  after  this,  however,  another  halt,  both  in  the  in- 
tensity of  attack  and  rapidity  with  which  it  spread,  due  either  to  the  dry 
weather,  or  to  the  fact  that  the  bugs  had  now  all  reached  the  adult 
stage,  and  had  become  diffused  over  the  country,  no  longer  congregat- 
ing together.  From  either  one  or  the  other,  or  both  of  these  causes,  I 
lost  track  of  the  Entomopkthora  and  was  not  able  to  again  find  it  in  the 
fields.  It  seems  proper  to  state  here  that  Chinch  Bugs  were  not  at  any 
time  excessively  abundant.  The  greatest  numbers  were  in  the  exact 
localities  where  the  disease  was  first  distributed,  the  congregating  at 
these  places  being  brought  about  by  the  close  proximity  to  a large  num- 
ber of  small  experimental  plats  of  wheat,  and  when  this  was  harvested 
the  bugs  collected  en  masse  on  the  corn  and  young  wheat.  In  connec- 
tion with  these  facts,  it  is  also  interesting  to  note  that  from  July  15  to 
August  31  there  were  ten  days  on  which  rain  fell.  The  dates  of  these 
rains  aud  the  amount  of  precipitation  is  given  below: 


Date. 

Precipi- 

tation. 

Date. 

Precipi- 

tation. 

July  17  

Inches. 

.02 

1. 25 

July  29 

Inches. 

. 78 

19  

30 

.50 
3. 36 

22  

. 20 

Aug.  9 

23  

. 04 

13 

. 15 

26  

.13 

14 

.02 

With  a view  of  learning  whether  or  not  there  was  any  difference  as 
regards  susceptibility  to  the  attack  of  Entomoplitliora , between  bugs  in 
different  stages  of  development,  a series  of  experiments  was  begun,  as 
follows: 

Young  plants  of  Setaria  glauca  were  transplanted  to  a box,  and  upon 
each  plant  was  placed  a dead  bug  covered  with  the  fungus,  and  also 
healthy  larvae  ; larvae  just  on  the  point  of  pupation;  pupae  just  prior  to 
reaching  the  adult  stage;  and  fully  developed  adults,  each  stage  being 
placed  on  separate  plants  and  each  covered  with  a small  inverted  glass 
vial  numbered  by  lettering.  As  checks,  another  series  was  prepared 
like  the  first  in  every  particular.  The  soil  in  the  box  was  kept  well 
moistened,  and  the  plants  remained  fresh.  This  experiment  was  made 
on  August  2,  about  the  time  when  the  attack  outside  began  to  diminish 
in  intensity.  The  following  are  the  results  of  examinations  on  the 
dates  indicated,  the  original  experiments  being  numbered  by  capitals, 
and  the  checks  by  small  letters,  thus — A-a,  adult;  B-b,  young  larvae  ; 
C-c,  older  larvae;  D-d,  pupae. 


Date. 

A. 

a. 

B. 

b. 

C. 

c. 

D. 

d. 

Aug.  5 
Aug.  6 
Aug.  7 
Aujr.  16 

Healthy  .. 
1 dead  . . 
All  dead  . . 
All  dead  . . 

Healthy  .. 

i 1 dead 

3 dead  . . 

| A 11  dead.. 

Healthy  . 
Healthy 

3 dead  . .. 
All  dead. 

Healthy  . 
Healthy  . 
1 dead  . . . 
All  dead 

1 dead  . . . 
1 dead  . . . 
3 dead  . . . 
All  dead  . 

Healthy  . 
Healthy  . 
1 dead  . . . 

1 dead  . . . 
3 dead  . . . 

1 dead. 

1 dead. 

5 dead. 

All  dead. 

All  dead  . 

1 

All  dead 

62 


On  tlie  same  day  this  experiment  was  begun,  a second  was  also  com- 
menced, like  the  first  in  every  particular  except  that  the  healthy  bugs 
used,  in  experimentation,  were  exposed  to  fungus  infested  individuals 
for  only  five  hours,  and  then  placed  under  their  respective  glasses.  As 
a result  on  August  15,  thirteen  days  after,  none  had  died,  thus  strongly 
indicating  that  the  Entomophthora  did  not  exist  generally  in  the  fields, 
and  that  it  could  not  be  communicated  during  a period  of  five  hours, 
exposure. 

On  August  7 a large  number  of  healthy  bugs  were  placed  under 
glass,  with  a number  which  had  recently  died  from  Entomophthora , the 
moisture  in  the  vessel  being  absorbed  by  calcium  chloride.  A check 
experiment  was  also  commenced,  where  the  material  and  the  condi- 
tions were  the  same,  except  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere,  care  being 
taken  to  have  the  latter  as  nearly  saturated  with  moisture  as  possible. 
August  10,  the  original  experiment  was  divided  and  a portion  of  the 
healthy  bugs  removed  and  placed  in  a damp  environment,  the  remain- 
der being  kept  under  the  original  dry  conditions.  The  results  on 
August  22  were  as  follows.  In  the  original  experiment,  where  the 
healthy  bugs  had  been  continually  in  dry  quarters,  not  a single  bug 
had  died  from  Entomophthora.  Not  only  this,  but  none  of  those  which 
had  been  removed  after  three  days  and  placed  in  dry  quarters  had  died, 
showing  that  the  disease  was  not  contracted  and  did  not  develop  in 
healthy  bugs,  though  kept  exposed  in  a dry  atmosphere  for  fifteen 
days,  nor  could  it  be  originated  by  placing,  in  a damp  atmosphere,  for 
twelve  days,  bugs  which  had  been  exposed  to  contagion  for  three  days 
in  dry  quarters.  The  results  with  the  check  experiment  were  quite  dif- 
ferent. Within  five  days  after  being  confined  with  th q Entomophthora, 
the  healthy  bugs  began  to  die  from  effects  of  the  disease,  and  in  three 
days  more  every  one  had  died  from  the  same  cause,  their  bodies  being 
covered  with  spores. 

Still  another  experiment  was  tried  which  consisted  in  confining  a 
large  number  of  healthy  bugs  with  others  diseased  in  a damp  environ- 
ment, and  when  the  fungus  had  destroyed  a portion  the  remainder  were 
divided  aud  a part  removed  to  dry  quarters.  The  result  was  that  while 
those  left  in  damp  confinement  continued  to  die,  none  of  those  inclosed 
in  dry  environment  were  destroyed.  As  the  fungus  had  by  this  time  be- 
come distributed  over  the  experiment  farm  so  that  I could  not  tell  with 
certainty  whether  material  from  the  fields  was  in  a perfectly  healthy 
condition  or  not,  no  farther  experiments  were  made  in  this  direction. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  observed  that  the  essential  element  in 
all  of  these  experiments  was  an  abundance  of  moisture,  without  which 
the  Entomophthora  could  neither  become  established  nor  flourish  after 
it  had  gained  a footing.  Again  the  extent  to  which  the  disease  will 
prove  contagious  will  depend  upon  the  number  of  bugs.  Without 
great  numbers  massed  together  comparatively  few  would  contract  the 
disease.  To  sum  up  the  matter  there  is  little  hope  for  relief  to  the 
farmer  from  the  influence  of  Entomophthora , except  when  Chinch  Bugs 


63 


are  abundant  and  massed  together  in  great  numbers,  and  during  a 
period  of  wet  weather.  I have  sueceeded  in  getting  the  fungus  estab- 
lished at  two  widely  located  points  in  Indiana,  and  do  not  consider  it 
at  all  difficult  to  introduce  in  localities  where  Chinch  Bugs  are  abun- 
dant, provided  the  weather  is  favorable.  But  if  it  is  ever  utilized  by 
the  farmer,  which  seems  to  me  to  be  at  present  a matter  of  considerable 
doubt,  it  will  only  be  after  the  pest  has  become  very  abundant,  during  the 
time  between  the  first  larval  and  adult  stages  and  in  a wet  time.  After 
the  Entomopht hora  has  been  introduced  into  a certain  field  it  will  be- 
come diffused  only  in  proportion  as  the  bugs  travel  about  and  healthy 
bugs  come  in  contact  with  spores  from  those  which  have  died  from  the 
disease.  This  will  not  be  very  great  until  the  pupal  stage  is  reached. 

The  larvae  of  Chinch  Bugs  seem  to  in  some  way  understand  that  while 
moulting  they  will  be  well  nigh  helpless,  and  hence  hide  themselves  away 
in  vast  numbers  in  secluded  places.  Under  such  conditions  the  spores 
thrown  from  diseased  bugs  would  reach  a larger  number  of  their  fellows. 
I have  found  adults  but  recently  moulted  affected  by  th zEntomoplithora. 
After  the  bugs  acquire  wings  and  scatter  themselves  over  the  country, 
the  liability  to  contagion  will  be  again  reduced,  unless  in  case  of  very 
severe  invasions,  where  from  force  of  numbers  congregating  on  or  about 
food  plants  becomes  a necessity.  Hence,  the  introduction  of  the  fungus 
among  larvie  will  at  first  proceed  but  slowly,  and  only  in  extreme  cases 
and  under  favorable  conditions  can  it  be  expected  to  proceed  much  more 
rapidly  among  adult  bugs.  In  short,  the  only  way  that  this  fungoid 
disease  seems  capable  of  beiug  employed  in  agriculture  is  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  some  central  propagating  station  to  which  farmers  can  apply 
and  receive  an  abundant  supply  of  infested  bugs  on  short  notice.  By 
this  means  they  could  take  advantage  of  a rainy  period  of  a week  or 
ten  days,  and,  if  they  can  contrive  by  sowing  plats  of  millet  and  Hun- 
garian to  mass  the  bugs  in  certain  localities  about  their  fields,  they 
might  accomplish  something  towards  warding  off  an  invasion.  But 
the  possibility  of  overcoming  an  invasion  after  it  is  fully  under  way, 
as  is  almost  sure  to  be  the  case  during  a dry  season,  it  must  be  con- 
fessed is  not  very  encouraging.  My  failure  after  repea  ted  experiments 
to  produce  this  Entomophthora  in  the  vicinity  of  Lafayette  without  the 
importation  of  germs  is  decidedly  against  the  theory  that  might  be  ad- 
vanced that  the  northeastern  portion  of  the  State  was  kept  free  of 
destructive  invasions  by  reason  of  this  disease  brought  about  by  wet 
weather.  There  is  as  yet  no  reason  to  believe  that  the  disease  has 
ever  existed  in  that  section  of  the  State. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  it  will  be  proper  to  state  that  in  my  exper- 
iments a larva  of  Chrysopa  was  introduced  by  accident  and  passed 
through  the  larval  stage,  feeding  continually  on  bugs  dying  from  the 
effects  of  the  fungus. 

After  harvest  the  Chinch  Bugs,  as  usual,  transferred  their  attention 
to  various  grasses  which  were  growing  up  among  the  stubble,  more 
especially  Setaria  and  Panicum , but  as  these  succumbed  to  their  coutin- 


64 

aed  attacks  they  transferred  their  attention  to  Timothy,  and  appeared 
to  subsist  equally  well  upon  it. 

At  the  date  of  wheat  harvesting,  fields  were  swarming  with  a species 
of  lady  beetle,  Coccinella  9-notata,  they  having  become  excessively 
abundant  by  reason  of  the  great  numbers  of  the  Grain  Aphis,  and 
as  these  disappeared  the  Coccinella  was  obliged  to  scatter  themselves 
about  and  seek  other  food.  As  large  numbers  were  fouud  on  stalks  of 
growing  corn  infested  by  chinch-bugs,  it  seemed  proper  to  determine 
the  object  of  attraction  to  such  places.  The  problem  was  in  part  solved 
by  the  fact  that  wherever  great  numbers  of  Chinch  Bugs  had  punctured 
the  corn  plants  the  sap  would  exude  from  these  puuctured  spots,  and 
there  the  beetles  would  be  found,  singly  or  in  groups  of  two  or  three, 
engaged  iu  feeding  upon  the  sap.  Beetles  placed  under  glass  with  a 
great  number  of  Chinch  Bugs  refused  to  prey  upon  the  latter,  even  when 
brought  nearly  to  the  point  of  starvation. 

While  searching  under  the  sheaths  of  corn  on  several  occasions  larvae 
and  pupae  of  a Syrphus  fly  were  fouud,  in  many  cases,  right  among  the 
masses  of  young  bugs.  From  some  of  these  pupae  thus  obtained  we 
reared  adults  of  Pipiza  pulchella.  Whether  this  species  will  ultimately 
prove  to  be  an  enemy  of  the  Chinch  Bug,  it  is  too  much  to  say,  but  the 
larvae  found  by  me  could  only  have  fed  upon  bugs  or  exuding  sap,  as 
they  were  near  the  roots  of  the  corn  where  no  pollen  had  collected. 

THE  GRAIN  APHIS. 

(Siphonophora  arena}  Fab.) 

Probably  no  insect  has  appeared  in  the  State  of  Indiana  for  mauy 
years  which  caused  such  a general  commotion  amoug  wheat  growers, 
and  which  worked  so  little  damage,  considering,  its  numbers,  as  this. 

Occurring  every  year  in  greater  or  less  numbers,  and  having  been 
frequently  sent  us  by  farmers,  we  were  not  at  all  surprised  to  receive 
specimens  from  Gallatin  County,  111.,  on  May  27,  and  also  a few  days 
later  from  our  aged  friend  Dr.  Bichard  Owen,  of  New  Harmony,  Posey 
County,  Ind.  Probably  about  May  20  can  be  set  down  as  the  date  of 
appearance,  in  numbers  to  attract  attention  in  the  extreme  southern 
part  of  the  State,  the  invasion  terminating  in  the  extreme  northern  por- 
tion about  the  1st  of  July. 

That  the  outbreak,  which  was  probably  the  most  severe  since  1861 
and  1862,  should  reach  the  magnitude  that  it  did,  both  in  point  of 
numbers  and  area  infested,  was  a surprise  to  me,  as  the  preceding 
November  had  been  spent  by  myself  in  traveling  about,  visiting  the 
wheat  fields  of  various  portions  of  the  State,  these  insects  then  being 
observed  in  no  greater  numbers  than  was  usual  at  that  season  of  the 
year.  The  winter  following  was  an  extremely  mild  one,  which,  taken 
with  the  statement  of  Dr.  Cyrus  Thomas, # that  the  insect  passes  the 
winter  on  grain  plants  in  the  fields,  might  lead  to  a misunderstanding 
as  to  the  actual  effect  of  mild  winters. 

* Eighth  Rep.  St.  Eut.  111.,  1879,  p.  53. 


The  winters  of  1861  and  1862,  the  years  of  the  serious  outbreaks 
in  New  York  and  New  England,  though  not  particularly  severe  in  the 
sections  above  mentioned,  were  by  no  means  noted  for  mildness.  It 
seems  doubtful,  therefore,  if  the  causes  leading  to  the  invasion  of  the 
present  year  would  carry  us  farther  back  than  the  spring  months,  a 
statement  strongly  substantiated  by  our  own  observation. 

Starting,  then,  with  the  mouth  of  March  we  search  for  some  meteoro- 
logical element  which  might  affect  the  increase  of  the  Grain  Aphis,  and 
which  appears  both  in  the  present  season  and  also  in  1861  and  1862. 


Table  H. — General  weather  conditions  in  various  localities  during  years  of  great  abun- 
dance of  Grain  Aphis. 


Locality. 

Year. 

March. 

1 

April. 

May. 

J une. 

New  York  and  Now  England 

Indiana .......  .............. ...... 

^1861... 
(1862. . 

1889  .. 

1889... 

( Cool 

\ Average . 

( Cool 

\ Wet 

C Warm 
l Dry 

Cool 

| Wet 

Cool 

! Wet 

Warm 

Dry 

Cool 

Wot 

Cool 

Dry 

Cool 

Dry 

Cool. 

Dry. 

Cool. 

Dry. 

('ool. 

Wet. 

$Cool. 

^ Wot. 

Western  Now  York  

The  weather  conditions  as  relating  to  New  York  and  New  England 
for  1861  and  1862,  as  given  in  Table  H are  based  upon  reports  contained 
in  the  Country  Gentleman  for  these  years.  Those  for  Iudiana  are  based 
on  the  reports  of  the  State  Weather  Service,  and  the  data  for  western 
New  York,  for  1889,  was  given  me  by  Prof.  James  Troop,  Horticultural- 
ist  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station,  who  visited  Livingston  County 
in  July. 

From  Table  I,  taken  from  Indiana  Weather  Service  reports,  it  will  be 
observed  that  during  March  and  April  the  temperature  was  considera- 
bly above  the  normal,  with  the  precipit  ation  during  this  time  below  the 
average.  On  the  other  hand,  the  temperature  of  the  months  of  May 
and  June  was  much  below  the  normal,  with,  as  indicated  by  Table  I,  pre- 
cipitation above  the  average.  By  referring  to  Table  K,  however,  it  will 
be  observed  that  about  half  of  the  precipitation  of  May  fell  on  the  29th 
and  30th  of  the  month,  thereby  changing  the  apparent  state  of  affairs, 
and  practically  throwing  May  into  the  dry  period. 

We  have  stated  that  the  outbreak  of  the  grain  Aphis  became  con- 
spicuous in  southern  Indiana  and  Illinois  in  May.  It  is  also  true  that 
they  reached  their  maximum  numbers  during  the  very  last  of  this  month 
and  early  June.  In  other  words,  they  appeared  during  cool,  dry  weather, 
and  disappeared  in  cool,  wet  weather.  Thus  far  the  old  theory  of  ento- 
mologists, that  wet  weather  is  detrimental  to  their  increase  appeared 
true. 

But  it  is  also  true,  that  while  in  southern  localities  they  were  disap- 
pearing during  a wet  period,  in  central  and  northern  Indiana  and 
western  New  York  they  were  rapidly  gaining  in  numbers,  under  pre- 
cisely similar  conditions. 

23479 — No.  22 5 


66 


Turning  now  to  Table  II,  we  search  for  an  element  common  to  the  in- 
vasions of  1SG1  and  1862  and  1889,  bearing  in  mind  that  in  southern 
Indiana  the  pest  arose  to  the  maximum  during  May  and  early  June, 
and  in  New  York  during  June  and  early  July. 


Table  I. — Comparative  temperature  and  precipitation  throughout  the  State  of  Indiana 
for  March , April,  May,  and  June,  1889. 

TEMPERATURE  (DEGREES— FAHRENIfEIT). 


Counties. 


Stations. 


Southern 

Dubois 

Gibson 

Crawford 

Washington  . . . 
Switzerland  . . . 

Jennings 

Greene 

Bartholomew  .. 

Ripley  

Warrick 

Clark 
Central 

Johnson  . 
Fayette . . 
Marion  . . 

Rush 

Henry  . . . 
Wayne  . - 
Randolph 
Delaware 
Northern 

Tippecanoe 

Carroll 

Whitley 

Steuben  

State 


Huntingburgh  .. . 

Princeton 

Marengo 

Salem 

V evay 

Butlerville 

Worthington 

Columbus 

Sunman 

Dagonia  Springs . . 
Blue  Lick  


Franklin 

Connersville 

Indianapolis 

Mauzy 

Spiceiand  ... 
Richmond .. 
Farmland  . . . 
Muncie 


Lafayette 

Delphi  

Columbia  City 

Angola 


March. 

April. 

May. 

June. 

Number  of  years. 

Normal. 

Departure  from 
the  normal. 

1 

Sh 

o 

ft 

Departure  from 
the  normal.  j 

1 

o 

ft 

Departure  from 

the  normal. 

cS 

u 

o 

ft 

Departure  from 

the  normal. 

5 

41.1 

+ 2.8 

54.8 

—0.1 

64.4 

—1.9 

72.2 

—2.5 

(5 

41.4 

+4.6 

54.6 

+2. 1 

64.  0 

- 1.4 

72.8 

—1.0 

5 

41.8 

+4.7 

54.1 

+1.1 

64.7 

-0.3 

74.0 

—3.3 

C 

42.3 

+3.1 

57.7 

+ 1.1 

65.3 

—0.9 

72.2 

—0.3 

6 

21 

41.3 

42.8 

+0.2 

+3.9 

53.2 

54.8 

—0.1 
+ 1.3 

64.2 

65.4 

—0.  1 
—0.8 

74.4 

—3.5 

4 

42.4 

+2.9 

55.5 

—2.0 

65.7 

—4.  0 

73.7 

—3.2 

6 

39.6 

+1.5 

53.9 

+0.9 

63.  9 

—3.2 

70.2 

—2.4 

6 

38.4 

+ 2.7 

52.2 

+0.2 

63.4 

—2.4 

72.  2 

—3.7 

6 

39.4 

+3.0 

53.4 

+0.4 

65.3 

—3.  0 

72.5 

— 4. 3 

6 

43.4 

+2.1 

55.8* 

—0.7 

64.  6 

—2.5 

72.0 

— 2.  3 

12 

42.9 

+3. 1 

55.3 

+ 1. 14 

64.5 

—1.4 

74.3 

— 2. 3 

5 

36.7 

+4.9 

51.0 

+ 0.3 

61.9 

—1.0 

70.4 

—2.6 

6 

37.9 

+5.1 

52.  0 

+1.4 

63.  0 

—1.2 

70.8 

-2.5 

7 

37.8 

+5.  5 

49.8 

+3.  0 

62.6 

— l.l 

71.3 

—3.6 

18 

39.8 

+ 2.8 

52.5 

+0.1 

64. 1 

-*-3.  9 

72.5 

—5.3 

8 

35.0 

+6.1 

49.2 

+ 0.4 

60.7 

— 1.  2 

68.7 

—0.3 

35 

37.0 

+ 6.  0 

50.  0 

+2.6 

61.6 

+0.7 

70.5 

—2.5 

6 

35.9 

+2.0 

50.5 

—3.  1 

62.0 

—4. 1 

69.5 

—2.5 

6 

36.4 

+6.0 

48.7 

+2.8 

61.3 

—0.3 

69.7 

—2.3 

4 

38.1 

+5.2 

52.3 

—1.8 

62.2 

—1.1 

70.0 

— 1.  5 

5 

34.5 

+3.8 

49.9 

—0. 1 

61.0 

—2.4 

70.0 

i —3.8 

10 

36.  1. 

+ 1-7 

54.7 

—3.9 

61.4 

—2.1 

70.0 

—3.8 

4 

4 

36.0 

34.7 

+ L7 
+ 1.9 

51.6 

48.9 

—1.4 

—0.9 

62.3 

60.0 

—2.7 

—2.7 

69.5 

—5.6 

5 

31.7 

+6.3 

47.8 

+ 1.4 

63. 1 

—1.7 

63.9 

—0.4 

7 

37.4 

+3.9 

51.9 

0.  00 

62.1 

—1.4 

70.9 

—3.0 

PRECIPITATION  (INCHES). 


Southern  

5 

2.  67 

—1.49 

3. 26 

—2.45 

3.  94 

+ 1.56 
+2.63 

4.07 

+0.65 
— 0. 24 

Dubois 

Huntingburgh 

6 

3.  28 

—2.  48 

2. 98 

—3.30 

3.  92 

3.  86 

Gibson  

Princeton 

5 

2.45 

—0.45 

2.  43 

—1.  63 

3.  09 

+ 1.31 
+ 3.85 
+2.  05 
+2.64 

3.  55 

+0.05 
+ 1.25 

Crawford 

Washington  .. 
Switzerland  . .. 

Marengo 

Salem 

6 

6 

3.25 
2.  62 

—2. 15 
— 1.  56 

5.  28 
3.  68 

—4.  68 
—2.  58 

6.00 
3.  24  i 

5.  27 

V evay 

21 

4.  03 

—3.  20 

3. 40 

—2.  48 

3.53 

5.  07 

— 0.  61 

Jennings 

Butlerville  

4 

3.35 

—2.  21 

2.  93 

—1.72 

5.  56 

+0.  87 
—1.29 

5.  56 

—1.85 

Greene 

Worthington 

7 

2.59 

—0.58 

3.  04 

—1.  50 

4. 19 

4.  51 

+2.81 
+ 0.  88 

Bartholomew  . . 

Columbus 

6 

2.  52 

—1.65 

2.  60 

—1.96 

3.45 

+1.35 

3.50 

Ripley 

Sunman 

6 

2.45 

—1.  22 

3.  41 

—1.77 

4.  38 

+ 1.48 
+1.02 

4.  35 

+ 1.61 
— 0.  61 

Warrick 

Dagonia  Springs. . 

6 

2.  92 

—1.11 

2.  88 

—1.90 

3.  06 

5.  10 

Clark  

Blue  Lick 

12 

2.  73 

—1.86 

3.65 

—2.70 

4.  09 

+ 1.46 
+1.  43 

4.  04 

+0. 18 
+ 1.08 

Central 

2.  33 

—0.98 

2.  82 

—1.46 

4. 19 

3.  80 

Johnson  

Franklin  ...  

6 

2.  45 

—1. 10 

2.  68 

—1.47 

4.  04 

+ 0. 33 

3.80 

+2.  20 

Fayette 

Connersville 

7 

2.  55 

— 1.  70 

2.  32 

—1.43 

4.  47 

+2. 12 

4.  37 

-0.61 

Marion 

Indianapolis 

18 

3.  85 

— 1. 70 

3.59 

—1.47 

4. 15 

+ 1.  61 

5.  44 

— 0.  76 

g 

3.  50 

—1.80 
—1.  82 

4.  52 

2 44 

4.  89 

+ 1.20 

5.  45 

—0.75 

Henry 

Spiceiand 

35 

3!  90 

3.  20 

— 1*  52  | 

3.  35 

+3.  08 

4.  HO 

+ 0.  40 

Wayne 

Richmond 

6 

2.  38 

— 1.  53 

2.77 

—1.95 

4.21 

+2.  5t 

4.  07 

— 0. 33 

Randolph 

Delaware 

Northern 

Farmland 

M niicio 

6 

4 

2.18 

—0.  46 

2.  52 

-1.45 

4.42 

— 0.  27 

3.  68 

+ 1.91 

2.02 

—0. 14 

2.  03 

—1. 15 

4.  46 

+ 1.24 

4. 12 

(-0.61 

Tippecanoe 

Lafayette 

10 

2.39 

—0.  70 

2.  78 

-1.94 

4.86 

+ 1.55 

4.91 

— 0.  77 

Carroll 

Delphi 

4 

1.92 

—1).  74 

2.16 

— 1.  35 

5.  8 2 

+ 1.43 



Whitley 

Columbia  City 

4 

2.01 

+0.45 

2.  50 

—1.45 

5. 17 

+0.78 

"4*4(V 

—0.67 

Steuben  

Angola 

5 

2.  18 

—0.  18 

2.21 

—1.02 

4.  28 

+0.  97 

4.48 

— 0.  98 

State 

7 

2 37 

—0.86 

2. 70 

—1.89 

4.  22 

+ 1.28 

4.16 

+0.14 

Table  K. — Records  of  rain-fall  throughout  Indiana  during  Mag , 1881). 


Stations. 


Place  of  observation. 


Counties. 


Southern  : 

Mount  Vernon. .. 
Huutingburgh. . . 

Princeton 

Marengo 

Salem 

Vevay  

Butlerville 

Worthington 

Seymour 

Columbus 

Suntnan 

Degonia  Springs. 

Cannelton 

Blue  Lick 

Jeffersonville  . . 
North  Providence 


Mean 


Central: 

Frauklin 

Connersville . 
Shelbyville  .. 
Indianapolis 

Mauzv 

Spiceland 

Richmond  . . . 

Rockville 

Farmland 

Muncie 


Mean 


Northern : 

Lafayette 

Delphi 

Marion 

Columbia  City... 

Angola 

Lagrange 


Mean 


Posey 

Dubois 

Gibson 

Crawford 

Washington 

Switzerland 

Jennings 

Greene 

Jackson  

Bartholomew 

Ripley 

Warrick 

Perry  

Clark 

— do 

...do 


Johnson  .. 
Fayette. . . 
Shelby.... 
Marion  . . . 

Rush 

Henry 

Wayne  . . . 

Parke  

Randolph  . 
Delaware . 


Tippecanoe 

Carroll 

Grant 

Whitley  .... 

Steuben  

Lagrange . . . 


Precipitation. 


Number  of 
days. 


cf 

rn 

Greatest  in 

o 

V 

93 

24  consecu- 

.9 

> 

O 

S3  <u 

© 

<V 

is 

a 

b£  . 

g.S  if 
EE  © 
p n 
_E  * 
cs 

tive  hours. 

rc" 

G 

<o 

o 

Is 

P'" 

<x> 

1 

r3 

P 

’Sc 

a 

o 

6 

if 

* 

1 « 

g 

16 
^ a 

[s  t a 

p 

+3 

a 

H 

o 

a 

"ej 

o 

a 

9 

03 

O 

a 

<1 

P 

81 

H 

<1 

P 

cc 

3 

P 

5 

O 

O / 

O 1 

In. 

410 

37  58 

87  54 

4.53 

3.  35 

29,  30 

T 

8 

7 

16 

8 

38  21 

86  59 

6.  55 

3.  dd 

29,  30 

0 

7l 

0 

24 

10 

481 

38  23 

87  35 

4.  40 

1.40 

29.  30 

0 

14 

13 

4 

7 

38  24 

86  24 

9.  85 

5.  70 

29,  30 

0 

10 

9 

12 

11 

38  38 

86  7 

5.  29 

2.  76 

29,  30 

0 

14 

1 8 

9 

10 

525 

38  47 

84  59 

6. 17 

2. 60 

29,  30 

0 

11 

7 

13 

16 

39  3 

85  33 

6.43 

4.02 

29,30 

0 

16 

8 

7 

13 

540 

39  9 

87  0 

2.  90 

1.  86 

29,  30 
29 

0 

11 

648 

38  45 

86  31 

6.  14 

3.  00 

T 

8 

14 

9 

15 

39  13 

85  56 

4.  80 

2.27 

29,  30 

0 

9 

10 

12 

12 

1018 

39  14 

85  6 

5.  72 

2.60 

29,  30 

0 

14 

8 

9 

11 

38  6 

87  12 

4.01 

1.45 

29,  30 

0 

15 

5 

11 

10 

37  57 

86  42 

4.  53 

1.  96 

29,  30 

0 

12 

1 7 

12 

10 

iooo 

38  32 

85  50 

5. 55 

1.  78 

30 

0 

10 

10 

11 

10 

5.  78 

3.  43 

29,  30 
29,  30 

0 

3 

21 

7 

12 

575 

38  25 



85  54 

4.  78 

3.  27 

0 

10 

4 

7 

11 

39  30 

86  13 

5.17 

2.  02 

0 

11 

9 11 

11 

i_ 

39  40 

85  3 

4.  37 

1.88 

29,  30 

0 

8 

1 

023 

15 



'6.  59 

2.  14 

29,  30 

0 

12 

4,15 

12 



4.  65 

2.15 

29,  30 

0 

I 766 

39  47 

86  11 

5.  76 

2. 13 

29.  30 

0 

6 

9 16 

15 

6.  09 

2.79 

29,  30 
29,  30 

o 

14 

13 



32  50 

85  25 

6.  43 

3.  18 

0 

6 

20 

5 

969 

39  51 

81  53 

6.  75 

2.68 

29,  30 

0 

11 

812 

14 

722 

39  46 

87  10 

5.  75 

2.  60 

29,  30 

0 

18 

0 13 

12 

40  11 

85  10 

4. 15 

2.  44 

29,  30 

0 

8 

914 

7 

40  11 

85  25 

0 

20 

OH 

8 

5.  62 

2.44 

0 

11 

6 14 

12 

661 

40  27 

86  55 

6.  41 

1.  92 

29 

0 

11 

614 

12 

580 

40  36 

86  41 

7.  25 

3.  87 

29,30 

0 

5 

11 

15 

12 

40  34 

85  21 

3.  20 

1.  60 

29,  30 
29,  30 

0 

7 

41  9 

85  30 

5.  95 

4.  25 

•0 

7 

683 

41  37 

85  1 

5.  25 

3.  85 

29,  30 

0 

10 

516 

7 

980 

41  37 

85  26 

5.70 

2.91 

0 

g 

8 1 5 

9 

The  wet- weather  theory  here  appears  broken,  and  a low  temperature 
is  the  only  element  which  appears  uniformly  through  the  months  dur- 
ing which  the  Grain  Aphis  was,  in  all  probability,  increasing  with  the 
greatest  rapidity.  That  cool  weather  should  favor  the  development  of 
these  insects  would,  if  true,  be  a new  factor  in  the  problem,  not  only 
of  this,  but  other  species  also ; and  before  leaning  too  heavily  upon 
this  evidence  we  should  cast  about  for  good  reasons  for  this  apparent 
ambiguity. 

There  is  one  very  important  element  in  this  whole  problem  which  we 
have  so  far  left  out  of  consideration,  viz,  natural  enemies.  While  low 
temperature  might  not  favor  the  development  of  the  grain  Aphis,  or  in 
fact,  if  the  effect  was  slightly  adverse,  if  the  outcome  was  to  destroy  or 
retard  the  development  of  parasites,  the  ultimate  result  would  be  to 
favor  the  Aphis. 

For  myself,  I can  not  get  rid  of  the  feeling  that  the  indirect  action  of 
the  weather  of  May  and  June — the  action  upon  the  parasites — was 
much  greater  than  the  direct  effect  upon  the  Aphis  itself. 

According  to  my  field-notes,  my  earliest  observation  of  the  grain 
Aphis  about  La  Fayette,  lat.  40°  27'  1ST.,  during  any  year,  was  on  April 
27,  and  we  have  observed  them  during  other  year-s  on  grain  early  in 
May,  in  greater  abundance  than  they  were  the  present  year  on  the  1st 
of  June ; yet  in  the  former  case  no  outbreak  occurred.  Up  to  the  1st 
of  June,  the  Aphis  was  not  exceedingly  abundant  on  grain  about  La 
Fayette. 

Even  as  late  as  the  7th  their  numbers  on  the  heads  of  wheat  were 
not  so  much  greater  than  they  had  occasionally  been  in  former  years 
as  to  cause  alarm;  yet  within  ten  days  they  were  swarming  in  these 
same  fields  in  myriads.  This  certainly  bespeaks  more  of  the  effects  of 
relief  from  the  pressure  of  parasitism  than  from  the  effect  of  meterolog- 
ical  conditions,  especially  a change  from  dry  to  wet  weather. 

The  question  may  be  asked,  why,  if  this  be  true,  were  not  the  para- 
sites destroyed  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  State,  late  in  May,  thereby 
relieving  the  Grain  Aphis  from  this  check  on  their  increase,  and  why 
the  latter  by  reason  of  this  relief  did  not,  as  the  wheat  became  too  ad- 
vanced, overrun  the  oat-fields,  as  would  have  at  that  date  naturally 
followed.  The  reply  is  that  such  results  did  follow  to  a limited  extent, 
the  oats  being  rather  more  seriously  infested  by  the  Aphis  than  farther 
northward,  and  the  reason  why  this  feature  was  not  more  marked  was 
doubtless  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  cold  waves  of  the  first  and  last  of 
May,  especially  the  latter,  were  less  severe  than  farther  north,  and  the 
effect  on  the  parasites  correspondingly  less  fatal. 

The  records  of  the  State  weather  service  show  that  the  minimum 
temperature  of  the  first  four  days  of  May  at  La  Fayette  was  below  the 
freezing  point;  and  on  the  22d,  23d,  30tl),  31st,  from  34°  to  39°  Fahr. 
The  mean  minimum  for  the  entire  State  for  the  same  month,  according 
to  the  same  authority,  was,  for  the  southern  portion,  3G°  Fahr.,  for  the 
central  32°  Fahr.,  and  for  the  northern  30Q  Fahr. 


69 


Back  ton  (British  Aphides,  vol.  I,  p.  70)  has  the  following  to  say  with 
regard  to  the  effect  of  weather  on  this  and  other  species  of  Aphides : 

Violent  changes  of  temperature  seem  much  to  check  the  multiplication  of  the 
Aphides.  A cold  rain,  or  the  outburst  of  a thunder  storm,  will  often  cause  the  almost 
entire  extermination  of  swarms,  and  wash  them,  never  to  return,  from  their  native 
plants.  Nevertheless,  the  close  and  hot  atmosphere  before  a thunder  storm  seems  to 
to  he  peculiarly  suited  to  their  propagation.  At  such  times  the  winged  forms  occur 
in  great  numbers  and  take  flight  on  the  gentle  winds,  which  transport  them  many 
miles  to  other  feeding  grounds,  to  become  the  foundresses  of  other  colonies. 

The  effect  of  the  parasites  on  the  Grain  Loose  was  simply  astonishing, 
while  their  numbers  were  myriads.  Going  to  the  fields  of  recently  har- 
vested grain,  if  one  stood  in  a position  to  bring  the  newly  made  shocks 
between  himself  and  the  setting  sun,  he  could  clearly  observe  the 
swarms  of  minute  Hymeuopters  arising  therefrom  and  flying  away.  Be- 
sides, the  stubble-fields  were  overrun  with  lady  beetles  and  their 
larvae. 

Nevertheless,  there  are  good  grounds  for  the  belief  that  the  heavy 
showers  during  the  latter  part  of  June  and  early  July,  in  the  central 
and  northern  portions  of  Indiana,  washed  many  young  from  the  heads 
of  the  grain  and  destroyed  them.  Besides,  either  the  severe  thunder 
and  lightning  which  accompanied  these  storms  or  the  rapidly  matur- 
ing grain,  or  both,  perhaps,  caused  the  winged  adults  to  betake  them- 
selves to  the  oat-fields,  where  they  would  probably  have  caused  further 
damage  had  not  their  relentless  foes,  the  Hymenopters,  pursued  them 
and  continued  their  work  of  destruction. 

It  was  a common  sight  early  in  July,  in  northern  Indiana,  to  see 
adults  of  the  grain-lice  attached  singly  to  heads  of  oats,  sometimes  with 
a few  young  clustered  about  them,  assuming  the  form  and  color  so  in- 
dicative of  parasitism.  In  southern  Indiana,  late  in  June,  the  same 
thing  was  observed  on  oats,  and  parasitized  adults  were  also  abundant 
on  the  heads  of  blue-grass,  even  long  distances  from  grain  fields. 

In  summing  up  the  matter,  it  may  be  safely  said  that  wet  weather 
wfll  not,  of  itself,  prevent  an  outbreak  of  the  grain  Aphis,  or  dispel  it 
after  under  full  headway.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  cool 
wet  weather,  during  May  and  June,  will  enable  grain  plants  to  sustain 
greater  drafts  on  their  vitality  than  will  very  dry  and  hot  weather.  It 
is  also  probably  true  that  a cool  temperature  during  spring  and  early 
summer  is  either  directly  or  indirectly  favorable  to  the  development  of 
the  grain  Aphis. 

Regarding  the  life  history  of  the  species  under  consideration  we  have 
never  found  them  in  the  fields  at  an  earlier  date  than  April  27.  From 
this  time  we  have  an  unbroken  record  of  their  occurrence  up  to  July  9, 
when  there  is  a break  in  their  continuity  of  appearance  until  Septem- 
ber 1,  when  fall  grown  apterous  females  were  found  on  leaves  of  early 
sown  wheat.  From  this  latter  date  we  again  have  an  unbroken  record 
up  to  December  30.  We  have  also  observed  the  sexes  pairing  on  No- 
vember 11  and  December  3. 


70 


We  have  several  times  attempted  to  follow  the  species  through  July 
and  August,  but  have  always  failed.  Adults  placed  on  various  kinds 
of  grasses  in  breeding  cages  invariably  died  during  July.  The  occur- 
rence of  great  numbers  of  wingless  parasitized  females  on  heads  of 
Poa  pratensis , long  distances  from  grain  fields,  strongly  suggest  this 
grass  as  one  of  its  midsummer  food  plants.  While  in  this  and  other 
cases  we  have  been  unable  to  rear  Aphides  on  certain  plants  in  breed- 
ing cages,  yet  we  do  not  feel  at  all  certain  but  that  outside,  under  the 
usual  environments,  nature  might  accomplish  precisely  the  same  object. 
The  results  of  breeding  cage  experiments  with  Aphides  must  always  be 
accepted  with  extreme  caution. 

The  present  year  we  had  young  grain  growingcontinually  from  spring 
to  November,  yet  not  a single  grain  Aphis  was  to  be  found  on  either 
this  young  grain  or  grasses  from  July  9 to  late  in  October.  Their 
limited  numbers  at  this  season  may,  however,  be  accounted  for  by  the 
fact  that  they  were  very  nearly  exterminated  in  July  by  their  natural 
enemies. 

Dr.  Cyrus  Thomas  states  that  in  1875,  in  Southern  Illinois,  he  ob- 
served winged  and  wingless  specimens  on  wheat  during  winter,  and 
suggests  that  the  species  winters  over  in  other  forms  than  the  egg.* 
There  appears  to  be  no  good  reason  for  doubting  the  truth  of  Dr. 
Thomas7  suggestion,  especially  if  applied  to  mild  winters.  During  the 
time  we  have  been  located  in  a wheat-growiug  district  the  winters  have 
been  quite  severe,  so  that  we  have  not  been  able  to  follow  the  species 
through  the  cold  months.  The  winter  of  1888-’89  was  a mild  one,  but 
we  were  absent  in  Australia  during  the  entire  time. 

Siphonophora  avence  is  by  no  means  the  only  species  of  Aphides  in- 
festing the  plants  of  our  smaller  cereal  grains.  An  undescribed  species 
of  Toxoptera  occurs  on  the  leaves  of  wheat  in  the  latitude  of  La  Fayette, 
in  June.  We  have  carried  this  species  through  July  and  August  on 
wheat  in  breeding  cages,  found  it  again  in  the  fields  in  September,  and 
from  this  on  until  the  22d  of  December.  During  the  latter  month  they 
continued  to  reproduce  in  a room,  which,  though  warm  during  the  day, 
the  temperature  fell  below  the  freezing  point  every  night.  I have  not 
been  able  to  follow  the  species  through  the  winter  months  in  the  fields. 

A species  of  Aphis , undistinguishable  from  A.  mail , appears  regularly 
every  September,  and,  indeed,  sometimes  as  early  as  July  17,  on  young 
wheat  and  rye.  From  the  latter  date  up  to  the  12th  of  November  they 
have  been  observed  on  young  grain,  giving  birth  to  their  young. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  species  is  not  distinguishable  from 
the  apple  tree  Aphis,  yet  the  attempt  to  transfer  them  to  the  apple  leaf, 
or  vice  versa,  has  invariably  resulted  in  failures. 

A second  Aphis , as  yet  undescribed,  is  found  about  the  roots  of  wheat, 
often  in  sufficient  numbers  to  affect  the  "plants.  This  species  occurs 
throughout  the  entire  State,  from  about  the  last  of  September,  and 

* Eighth  Ecp.  St.  Ent.  111.,  1870,  p.  53. 


71 


probably  winters  over  in  the  fields,  in  other  stages  besides  the  egg,  al 
though  we  have  never  yet  found  them  on  grain  during  the  early  part 
of  the  year. 

An  undescribed  species  of  Rhopalosiplium  was  found  on  spring  grown 
volunteer  wheat,  on  July  12,  of  the  present  year.  A few  days  later 
aduits,  both  winged  and  wingless,  and  young  in  all  stages  of  develop- 
ment, were  found  on  the  heads  of  orchard  grass,  Dactylis  glomerata, 
and  also  on  the  heads  of  spring  sown  rye,  working  precisely  after  the 
manner  of  the  true  Grain  Aphis.  This  species  I was  not  able  to  follow 
in  the  fields  after  about  the  10th  of  August,  when  it  left  the  heads  of 
rye,  and,  though  a large  number  were  placed  on  young  wheat  plants, 
in  a breeding  cage,  all  seem  to  have  died. 

When  this  last  species  was  confined  on  wheat,  the  same  cage  and 
plants  were  utilized  as  had  been  used  in  the  attempt  to  carry  the  true 
grain  Aphis  through  the  months  of  July  and  August.  But  as  none  of 
the  many  individuals  placed  on  the  plants  survived,  a large  number  of 
heads  of  rye  thickly  infested  by  the  Rliopalosiphum  were  placed  in  the 
cage.  When  the  first  winged  adult  appeared  in  this  cage,  I was  not  a 
little  surprised  to  find  it  belonged  to  neither  one  of  the  species  inten- 
tionally placed  in  the  cage,  but  to  a species  of  Myzus , which  could  have 
only  gained  admission  by  being  introduced  with  one  or  the  other  or  both 
of  the  other  species. 

By  whatever  way  it  gained  admission,  this  Myzus  has  continued  to 
throw  off  generation  after  generation,  and  at  date  of  writing,  Novem- 
ber 25,  is  still  reproducing,  although  during  the  entire  time — nearly 
four  months — it  has  had  no  other  plants  except  wheat  upon  which  to 
subsist.  It  is  undescribed. 

Still  another  species  (a  Megoura  sp.?)  was  found  giving  birth  to  young, 
on  leaves  of  young  rye,  August  9,  but  not  observed  afterwards. 

The  natural  enemies  of  the  Grain  Aphis  were,  as  we  might  expect, 
unusually  numerous  the  present  year,  and  especially  those  belonging 
to  the  Hymenoptera.  Of  these  we  had  reared,  during  other  years,  a 
species  of  Trioxys  in  quite  abundance,  and  this  season  the  following 
occurred  in  great  numbers:  Bassus  sycophanta  Walsh,  Aphidins  avena- 
phis  Fitch,  Isocratus  vulgaris  Walker,  Encyrtus  websteri  Howard,  Alio - 
tria  tritici  Fitch,  Megaspilus  niger  Howard,  Pachyneuron  micans  Howard. 

Of  the  Syrphids,  Sphacroplioria  cylindrical  Xanthogramma  emarginata , 
and  Allograpta  obliqua  were  very  numerous.  A secondary  parasite, 
Bassus  sycophanta , was  in  some  localities  so  exceedingly  abundant  that 
nearly  all  of  these  useful  flies  were  destroyed. 

Two  species  of  Chrysopa  were  exceedingly  useful.  In  a field  of 
wheat,  near  Indianapolis,  about  the  middle  of  June,  these  were  so 
abundant  that  at  every  step,  from  one  to  four  or  five  individual  adults 
would  be  disturbed,  and  take  wing.  The  field  was  but  very  slightly 
attacked  by  Biplionophora. 


72 


Of  tlie  Coleopterous  enemies,  the  Coccinellidcc  were  by  far  the  most 
industrious.  Of  this  family  probably  CoccinellaQ-notata , with  its  larvae, 
was  the  most  abundant  and  generally  distributed  species. 

In  a field  of  newly  harvested  grain,  in  La  Grange  County,  within  a 
radius  of  3 feet  from  where  I was  standing  at  the  time,  fifteen  individ- 
uals were  counted,  crawling  about  among  the  stubble.  Hippodamia 
parenthesis  followed  next,  in  point  of  numbers,  II.  convergens , II.  13- 
punctata  and  H.  glacialis  being  also  found  in  quite  large  numbers  in 
various  localities.  Megilla  maculata  was  scarcely  noticed  at  all,  and 
Anatis  1 5 punctata  but  once. 

Podabrus  tomentosus  was  exceedingly  useful  in  some  portions  of  the 
State,  while  Telephones  carolinus  was  often  quite  numerous  in  the  fields 
of  the  central  part  of  the  State. 


ENTOMOLOGICAL  NOTES  FROM  MISSOURI  FOR  THE  SEA- 
SON OF  1889. 


By  Mary  E.  Murtfeldt,  Kirkwood,  Mo. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 


Dear  Sir:  I inclose  herewith  such  of  my  notes  and  observations  on  insects  as  may 
he  of  economic  interest,  and  in  this  connection  desire  to  express  my  sincere  thanks 
for  determinations  and  other  assistance,  for  which  I am  indebted  to  yourself  and  to 
others  of  the  official  force  of  the  Division. 

Yours,  very  respectfully, 

Mary  E.  Murtfeldt. 


Prof.  C.  Y.  Riley, 

U.  S.  Entomologist. 


GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

The  Cabbage  Curculio  ( Ceutorhynchus  rapev). — A number  of  my  corre- 
spondents in  the  central  part  of  the  State  have  informed  me  of  the 
serious  ravages  of  this  insect  in  their  hot-beds  and  vegetable  gardens. 
Mr.  F.  M.  Webster  also  wrote  me,  about  the  middle  of  May,  that  it  had 
appeared  in  his  garden  in  La  Fayette,  Ind.  As  yet  I have  not  found 
it  in  Kirkwood  or  vicinity,  and  as  it  was  with  some  difficulty  that  I 
obtained  specimens  for  study,  I have  not  been  able  to  make  such  tests 
of  insecticides  upou  it  as  would  be  practicable  in  the  field.  It  promises 
to  become  a general  and  very  considerable  pest  to  the  market  gar- 
dener. 

The  Wavy-striped  Flea-beetle  (Phyllotreta  vittata). — This  insect  ap- 
peared in  great  numbers  this  year  in  all  parts  of  the  State,  being  very 
destructive  to  peppergrass,  early  radishes,  turnips,  cabbage,  ani}  other 
Cruciferce  during  the  months  of  April  and  May.  Mr.  S.  W.  Gilbert,  of 
Thayer,  in  the  extreme  southern  part  of  the  State,  reported  a loss  of 
over  fifty  thousand  cabbage-plants  from  the  work  of  the  larvae  on  the 
roots.  I could  scarcely  credit  the  statement  that  such  extensive  injury 
was  attributable  to  this  one  insect  until  convinced  by  specimens  of  the 
pest,  and  of  the  injured  plants  which  were  excoriated  and  channeled  on 
the  surface  of  the  roots  from  collar  to  tip,  the  foliage  also  being  injured 

73 


74 


by  the  mature  beetles.  A top-dressing’  of  wood  ashes  with  a slight  ad- 
mixture of  Paris  green  was  recommended,  but  I was  not  informed  witli 
what  results. 

In  company  with  this  flea-beetle  on  the  leaves  of  late  radishes  in  our 
own  garden,  I was  surprised  to  find  great  numbers  of  a species  of 
Podura.  I could  not  determine  whether  it  produced  any  effect  on  the 
radish  foliage  independently,  or  why  it  should  have  appeared  there  so 
numerously. 

Canker-worms  ( Anisopteryx  vernata ),  except  in  orchards  thoroughly 
plowed  and  harrowed  the  previous  autumn,  were  quite  abundant. 
Owing  to  the  very  warm  winter,  and  consequent  irregularity  in  emer- 
gence of  the  moths,  cotton  band  traps,  applied  even  as  early  as  the  first 
of  March,  did  not  capture  as  large  a proportion  of  the  females  as  usual. 
On  some  trees,  therefore,  the  worms  were  numerous  and  where  not 
killed  by  spraying  were  quite  injurious. 

The  Plum  Curculio,  which  last  year  caused  scarcely  any  damage  to 
the  fruits  usually  affected  by  it,  appeared  this  season  with  recruited 
ranks ; and  on  peach  and  plum  trees,  where  spraying  was  not  prac- 
ticed, or  where  the  frequent  rains  washed  oft*  the  arseuites,  a large  pro- 
portion of  the  fruit  was  stung.  As  confirmatory  of  the  single  brooded- 
ness  of  the  species,  I observed  that  all  the  very  late  peaches,  whether 
free  or  cling  stones,  even  when  so  severely  punctured  on  the  surface  as 
to  prevent  the  development  of  the  fruit,  were  entirely  free  from  worms, 
showing  that  the  cuts  had  been  made  for  food  only. 

Aphididce. — It  would  seem  as  though  all  known  and  unknown  species 
of  this  group  of  insects  appeared  in  myriads  throughout  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley,  during  the  spring  and  summer.  In  many  instances  trees 
aud  shrubbery  were  killed  outright  by  the  punctures  of  their  countless 
beaks,  and  the  closing  of  the  stomata  of  the  leaves  by  their  sticky 
exudations.  So  badly  infested  were  the  elms,  maples,  lindens,  box- 
elders,  and  other  shade  trees,  in  and  around  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  during 
the  latter  part  of  June  that  to  pause  or  even  pass  beneath  them  was  to 
endanger  one’s  apparel  from  the  honey  dew  that  continually  dripped 
from  them,  and  from  the  black  mold  that  soon  covered  trunk  and 
branch  and  which  “ smutted  77  everything  touching  it.  All  other  insects 
seemed  to  be  repelled  from  the  aphis-infested  trees;  not  even  a leaf- 
roller  or  leaf-miner  could  I see.  In  the  September  number  of  Insect 
Life,  mentioning  the  prevalence  of  Aphis  avence  in  the  grain-fields  of 
many  of  the  Middle  and  Western  States,  I observe  that  Missouri  was 
omitted  from  the  list.  The  insect,  however,  occurred  quite  extensively 
in  the  middle  and  northern  portions  of  the  State,  but  it  appeared 
rather  late,  and  but  comparatively  little  damage  was  done  so  far  as  I 
have  been  able  to  learn. 

Syrphus  tty,  Coccinellid  and  Chrysopa  larvae  waged  a fierce,  but,  at 
first,  unequal  warfare  with  the  tiny  hosts,  assisted  by  Aphelinus  and 
probably  other  smaller  as  well  as  larger  allies,  so  that  as  the  season 


75 


advanced  the  Aphididce  gradually  disappeared  and  where  seasonable 
rains  followed  the  unfortunate  plants  measurably  recovered,  though 
the  growth  of  trees  and  shrubbery  was  much  retarded  and  distorted 
by  them. 

Codling  Moth,  not  seriously  destructive  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
State,  but  in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Louis  and  in  the  southern  counties,  as  I 
have  been  apprised  by  various  correspondents,  fully  50  per  cent,  of  the 
fruit,  on  trees  not  sprayed,  was  destroyed  by  it. 

The  Stalk-borer  ( Oortyna  nitela)  committed  its  usual  depredations  in 
the  leaf  stalks  of  rhubarb  and  in  shoots  of  blackberry  and  peach. 
Mr.  S.  W.  Gilbert  wrote  me  that  it  was  so  abundant  in  his  young  peach 
orchard  that  in  the  course  of  one  walk  among  the  trees  he  cut  off  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  bored  shoots.  He  says : 

The  worm  seems  to  enter  at  the  second  or  third  bud  from  the  tip  and  bore  through 
the  heart  as  far  as  the  body  of  the  tree  but  does  not  enter  the  hard  wood. 

In  the  flower  garden  this  insect  has  done  considerable  damage  by 
boring  the  stalks  of  dahlias,  cosmos,  and  other  flowers. 

The  Flea  like  Negro-hug  (Gorimelccna  pulicaria). — Mr.  E.  S.  Pollard,  of 
Cameron,  northwest  Missouri,  under  date  of  May  22,  sent  specimens  of 
this  insect  with  the  information  that  they  were  very  abundant  in  his 
strawberry  beds,  and  doing  much  damage  by  puncturing  the  bearing 
stems,  causing  the  fruit  to  shrivel.  As  it  was  the  fruiting  season,  I 
was  at  a loss  to  suggest  a remedy,  since  this  insect  is  not  susceptible  to 
the  effects  of  pyrethrum,  or  other  non-poisonous  applications.  In  Kirk- 
wood it  appeared  in  great  numbers  on  hollyhocks  and  various  other 
flowering  plants,  for  which  the  easiest  remedy  seemed  to  be  to  jar  it 
into  basins  of  soap-suds  to  which  had  been  added  a small  quantity  of 
kerosene. 

Lygus  lineatus  appeared  here  and  there  on  tufts  of  clover,  about  the 
middle  of  May,  injuring  the  foliage  to  considerable  extent.  It  inhabits 
the  under  surfaces  of  the  leaves  which  it  speckles  with  transparent  dots 
and  small  patches  which  cause  the  leaves  to  curl  and  shrivel.  Its  broad, 
flat  larva  is  of  a dull,  pale  green  color,  variegated  with  a few  ferrugin- 
ous marks  and  shadings.  The  pupa  is  very  similar,  with  the  addition 
of  the  wing-pads. 

The  Tarnished  Plant-hug  (Lygus  pratensis  Linn.). — This  insect  was  more 
abundant  than  usual  throughout  the  State,  and  from  numerous  corre- 
spondents I received  bitter  complaints  of  its  injuries  to  apple  and  pear 
buds  and  to  strawberry  beds.  During  the  autumn  it  appeared  in  con- 
siderable numbers  on  chrysanthemums,  on  which  its  peculiarly  poison- 
ous punctures  produce  most  disastrous  effects.  I was  quite  successful 
in  driving  it  from  our  own  plants  by  liberal  applications  of  X.  O.  dust, 
which  proved  at  the  same  time  a good  remedy  for  the  brown  aphis, 
which  is  such  a common  and  unmanageable  pest  on  these  beautiful 
flowers.  The  plants  were  not  injured  in  the  least  by  the  insecticides. 


76 


The  Streamed  Cottomvood  beetle  ( Plagiodcra  scripta)  appeared  in  our 
grounds  during  June  on  a young  Populus , which  it  threatened  to  com- 
pletely defoliate.  The  tree  being  small  admitted  of  thorough  drenching 
with  a plant  syringe  with  the  solution  of  arsenic  and  ammonia — 1 ounce 
of  arsenic  in  3 quart  of  aqua  ammonia — 1 tablespoonful  of  the  solution 
to  a gallon  of  water,  by  which  means  and  a little  hatfd-picking  the  pest 
was  so  thoroughly  exterminated  that  it  did  not  reappear  later  in  the 
season. 

The  12 -spotted  Diabrotica  (7).  12 punctata)  was  a serious  pest  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  season,  not  only  on  squash  and  cucumber  vines, 
but  on  late  sweet-corn,  and  especially  in  its  injuries  in  the  flower  garden 
on  the  blossoms  of  roses,  dahlias,  and  cosmos  on  which  it  literally 
swarmed.  To  save  the  flowers  it  was  necessary  to  make  the  rounds  two 
or  three  times  a day  and  capture  or  put  the  beetles  to  flight.  They 
were  not  much  affected  by  any  of  the  milder  insecticides,  and  the  arseni- 
cal remedies  could  not  very  conveniently  be  applied. 

The  European  Cabbage-butterfly  ( Pieris  'rapes ) acquires  one  or  more 
new  food  plants  annually  and  threatens  to  become  quite  omnivorous. 
This  year  it  proved  in  several  localities  very  destructive  to  nasturtiums 
( Tropceolum ) both  in  flower  and  vegetable  gardens.  None  of  its  para- 
sites have  yet  appeared,  so  far  as  I have  been  able  to  ascertain.  It 
seems  to  have  entirely  supplanted  our  native  P.  protodice  in  this  locality. 
Wishing  to  obtain  some  larvae  of  the  latter  for  a certain  purpose,  I made 
many  examinations  during  the  summer  of  the  neighboring  cabbage 
plantations,  but  did  not  succeed  in  finding  a single  one. 

SPECIAL  STUDIES. 

The  Spinach  Beetle. 

( Disonycha  collaris  Fabr.) 

About  the  middle  of  April  I observed  the  leaves  of  spinach  in  the  gar- 
den were  badly  perforated,  and,  upon  examination,  I found  on  the  un- 
der surfaces  numbers  of  small,  dingy,  white  larvae,  evidently  of  some 
Chrysomelid  beetle.  They  reposed  in  the  numerous  depressions  between 
the  veins,  and  a slight  shake  or  jar  caused  them  to  drop  to  the  ground. 
The  insects  increased  in  size  and  numbers  until  by  the  middle  of  May 
all  the  leaves  were  badly  injured  and  the  gardeners  hereabout  com- 
plained that  their  spinach  was  so  u worm  eaten’7  this  year  that  they 
could  no  longer  offer  it  for  sale.  A few  of  the  same  larvae  were  also  found 
on  young  beet  leaves,  especially  of  the  white  and  yellow  varieties,  and 
upon  the  wild  Chenopodium  album,  the  latter  being,  I suspect,  the  orig- 
inal food  plant  of  the  insect. 

As  the  larvae  drop  so  quickly  upon  being  disturbed,  it  is  not  often 
that  they  are  observed  by  the  gardener  or  cook,  and  the  damage  was 
attributed  by  many  to  “some  kind  of  cut- worm.”  By  plucking  the 


77 


leaves,  carefully,  however,  .as  many  as  fifteen  or  twenty  u grubs”  were 
sometimes  found  on  a single  leaf. 

April  24  I collected  a large  number,  which  were  placed  in  a jar  in 
order  that  their  development  might  be  more  closely  watched.  Most  of 
these  were  still  very  small,  only  from  3 to  4mm  in  length.  When  very 
young  they  merely  gnaw  the  undersurface  of  the  leaf,  noticeable  on  the 
upper  side  as  small  discolored  spots,  but  as  they  increase  in  size  they 
eat  entirely  through  both  cuticles,  making  large  roundish  perforations. 

It  is  probable  that  there  are  but  three  larval  molts,  as,  in  the  case  of 
even  the  smallest  larvae  under  observation,  I was  able  to  note  but  two, 
and  infer  that  one  had  been  passed  before  they  were  brought  in. 

The  larger  larva?  entered  the  ground  the  4th,  5th,  and  6th  of  May, 
penetrating  to  a depth  of  only  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  an  inch  and 
inclosing  themselves  in  frail,  nearly  spherical,  cocoons  or  cells  of  earth 
cemented  witli  a viscid  secretion.  Larva?,  however,  were  found  on 
the  spinach  throughout  the  month  of  May. 

May  25  one  of  the  beetles  emerged,  which  proved  to  be  Disonycha 
collaris  Fabr. ; and  from  this  time  until  after  the  middle  of  June  bred 
specimens  continued  to  come  out. 

A package  of  specimens  was  sent  to  the  Department  in  case  it  should 
be  considered  desirable  to  have  drawings  made  of  the  different  stages 
of  development.  Unfortunately  this  consignment  did  not  reach  Wash- 
ington, and  I did  not  learn  of  the  failure  until  too  late  to  replace  it. 
Specimens  were,  however,  preserved  in  alcohol,  which  retain  all  the 
important  characters. 

No  account  of  the  immature  stages  of  the  insect  or  of  its  spinach- 
feeding propensity  is  to  be  found  in  any  work  on  economic  entomology 
to  which  I have  access,  and  I think  it  has  not  heretofore  been  recog- 
nized among  the  pests  of  the  vegetable  garden.  I therefore  subjoin 
the  following  descriptions. 

Egg,  not  observed. 

Mature  larva,  from  which  the  young  differ  only  in  size,  9mm  in  length,  3 to  4mm  in 
diameter ; form  subcylindrical,  tapering  slightly  each  way  from  middle  segments, 
which,  both  in  resting  and  crawling,  appears  somewhat  elevated  or  “hunched  up.” 
Color  a dirty,  rather  livid  white,  with  a shiny,  slightly  viscid  surface,  each  segment 
produced  with  ten  conical  papillae — lateral  ones  largest — each  of  which  terminates 
in  a minute  bristle.  Head  about  one-half  the  diameter  of  the  thoracic  segments, 
oblique,  circular,  corneous,  fulvous,  paler  in  front,  with  dark  brown  moutliparts  and 
two  dark  brown,  somewhat  elevated,  spots  on  each  side.  The  posterior  end  of  the 
body  terminates  in  a dark  brown,  corneous  wing,  most  pronounced  on  the  dorsal  side, 
fringed  with  bristles.  This  is  always  appressed  to  the  leaf,  and  in  moving  the  bris- 
tles assist  in  propulsion.  Legs  concolorous  with  general  surface,  but  with  fulvous 
or  dingy  brown  annulations,  the  terminal  joint  being  entirely  of  the  dark  color. 

Pupa,  8mm  in  length,  3 in  diameter  across  dorsum,  with  elytra  and  wings  partly 
extended  as  in  other  pupae  of  Ralticinw, ; the  legs  drawn  up  and  folded  close  against 
the  body.  Color  pearly  white  in  all  its  parts,  acquiring  a translucent  gray  tinge 
before  the  last  transformation. 

Beetle  quite  pale  at  first,  gradually  acquiring  the  dark  metallic  green  of  the  elytra, 
buff  thorax,  dark  legs  and  under  surface  and  other  colorational  characteristics  of  the 
mature  insect, 


78 


This  species  seems  to  be  but  single  brooded,  as  no  young  larvae  were 
to  be  found  after  the  first  of  June.  As,  however,  the  spinach  beds 
were  rooted  out  before  midsummer  in  all  the  gardens  of  the  vicinity,  I 
can  not  be  quite  certain  upon  this  point,  but  could  not  discover  it  on 
beets  or  any  of  the  native  Chenopodiacew.  The  insect  is  one  to  which 
it  is  difficult  to  apply  insecticides,  as  the  leaves  which  it  attacks  lie 
close  to  the  earth  and  it  is,  as  a rule,  on  the  under  side. 

New  Rose  Slug. 

( Cladius  isomera  Harris. ) 

Early  in  August  a friend,  residing  at  St.  Charles,  Mo.,  sent  me  speci- 
mens of  a Tenthrediuid  larva  that  was  working  on  her  rose  bushes,  es- 
pecially on  climbers.  This  species,  new  to  me,  devours  the  entire  sub- 
stance of  the  leaves,  gnawing  into  them  large  ragged  holes  and  webbing 
them  together  in  the  formation  of  its  cocoons,  greatly  injuring  and  dis- 
figuring the  plants.  It  is  characterized  as  follows: 

Mature  larva  12mm  in  length,  3mm  in  diameter  across  thorax,  from 
whence  it  tapers  very  slightly  backward ; form  cylindrical.  Color,  pale 
bluish-green,  surface  clothed  with  tufts  of  soft  gray  hairs.  Head 
opaque,  dull  whitish  green,  under  the  lens  densely  mottled  with  pale, 
ferruginous,  small  black  dot,  above  which  is  a rectangular  ferruginous 
spot  on  each  side.  Twenty  legs,  concolorous  with  general  surface. 
Spins  up  between  folded  leaf  or  between  two  leaves,  in  glassy,  gummy, 
pale  brown  cocoon,  7 111111  long,  of  an  oblong  shape,  flattened  on  both 
sides  against  the  inclosing  leaves  and  with  many  gummy  threads 
spreading  in  every  direction. 

Cocoons  were  formed  in  rearing  cage  August  20.  Elies  appeared 
August  29.  On  the  2d  of  September  I detected  two  in  the  act  of  ovi- 
positing, with  their  well  developed  “saws”  deeply  buried,  one  in  the 
midrib,  the  other  in  the  petiole  of  a fresh  leaf.  Two  or  three  minutes 
were  occupied  in  the  placing  of  an  egg  and  each  fly  put  in  three  or  four 
without  pausing  to  rest.  By  carefully  detaching  the  surrounding  fibers 
the  egg  was  revealed.  It  is  oblong,  scarcely  lmm  in  length,  and  almost 
transparent.  These  eggs  failed  to  hatch,  probably  for  lack  of  fecun- 
dation. 

From  what  I have  learned  from  my  friend,  and  infer  from  the  habits  of 
the  insect  in  the  rearing  cage,  there  are  an  indefinite  number  of  broods 
during  the  summer,  and  where  it  has  become  established  it  is  therefore 
a more  serious  pest  of  the  “queen  of  flowers”  than  even  Selandria 
roscv.  I do  not  doubt,  however,  that  by  killing  off  the  earliest  broods 
with  drenchiugs  of  an  infusion  of  white  hellebore,  it  could  be  kept 
in  check  and  by  perseverance  in  the  treatment  eventually  extermi- 
nated. I have  not  been  informed  of  its  occurrence  in  any  other  part  of 
the  State. 


79 


The  White  Fhinge  Slug. 

( Selandria  ? sp.) 

The  White  Fringe  tree  ( Ghionanthus  virginica ),  in  its  season  one  of  the 
most  exquisite  of  flowering  shrubs  or  small  trees,  is  subject  to  the  an- 
nual attack  of  a medium-sized,  spiny  slug  that  perforates  the  leaves 
with  small  round  holes  after  reducing  the  greater  u umber  of  them  to 
mere  lace-work.  This  species  is  single  brooded,  but  the  parent  flies 
appear  irregularly  and  larvae  may  often  be  found  from  the  latter  part 
of  April  until  the  end  of  May,  in  the  interval  seriously  disfiguring, 
often  killing,  the  foliage.  It  lives  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  and 
feeds  chiefly  at  night.  Full  grown  larvae  from  9 to  12mm  long,  3mm  in 
diameter  across  the  thoracic  segments,  form  cylindrical,  nearly  equal 
throughout,  or  tapering  slightly  backward  from  thorax.  Color  green- 
ish-white, surface  very  rugose,  dorsum  and  sides  quite  thickly  beset 
with  bifid  spines,  those  on  dorsum  jet  black,  arising  from  velvety  black 
spots  and  being  largest  in  the  subdorsal  region ; lateral  spines  pale. 
Head  about  one-half  the  diameter  of  thorax,  almost  spherical,  jet  black, 
immaculate.  Legs,  22  in  number,  concolorous  with  general  surface, 
and  unusually  well  developed.  With  me  it  has  proved  a difficult  species 
to  rear,  and  1 confined  the  larvae  for  several  successive  seasons  without 
getting  a single  fly,  and  last  spring  but  two  from  a large  number  of 
larvae  developed.  In  the  rearing  cage,  after  ceasing  to  feed,  the  larvae 
desert  the  leaves  and  wander  restlessly  around  the  cage,  many  of  them 
dying  without  entering  the  ground.  The  few  that  transform  inclose 
themselves  in  very  brittle,  nearly  spherical  cells  *about  an  inch  below 
the  surface,  and  as  with  most  other  saw-fly  larvaB  that  enter  the  ground 
brook  no  disturbance  during  the  quiescent  period.  The  two  flies  that 
I succeeded  in  reariug  came  out  about  the  middle  of  April. 

Syringing  the  under  sides  of  the  leaves  with  a strong  infusion  of 
white  hellebore,  or  with  Paris  green  in  liquid  suspension,  will  kill  the 
pests,  with  but  little  detriment  to  the  foliage. 

. DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  LARVA  AND  PUPA  OF  PALTH1S  ANGULALIS. 

Among  the  insects  trapped  last  spring  in  loose  cotton  around  the 
trunks  of  apple  trees  were  a considerable  number  of  a dingy-colored 
noctuid  larva,  about  1 centimeter  in  length  by  4mm  in  diameter,  of  nearly 
equal  width  throughout,  the  segments  appearing  somewhat  hunched  to- 
gether. Surface  rough,  of  an  earthy-brown  color,  palest  on  dorsum. 
Under  the  lens,  especially  after  being  dropped  in  alcohol,  a tinge  of 
green  appears,  and  the  paler  cast  of  the  dorsal  surface  is  resolved  into 
a spreading  V composed  of  minute  white  stippling.  This  is  especially 
pronounced  on  the  posterior  segments,  where  the  angle  of  the  V is  de- 
veloped into  a papillate  elevation.  Head  small,  much  retracted,  dark 
brown  5 legs  and  prolegs,  and  also  to  some  extent  the  entire  ventral  sur- 
face, verdigris  green.  These  larva?  were  found  from  the  1st  to  the  5th 


80 


of  April,  and,  when  placed  in  the  cage  with  opening  apple  buds,  nibbled 
a little,  but  almost  immediately  changed  to  pupae  within  a cluster  of 
webbed  leaves.  Pupa  smooth,  dark  brown,  without  any  especially  dis- 
tinguishing characters.  Three  imagines  appeared  April  24.  They  were 
of  a species  which  had  been  long  before  determined  for  me  as  a Palthis 
angulalis. 

With  the  idea  that  possibly  the  immature  stages  of  this  insect  had 
not  previously  been  observed,  I submit  the  above  descriptions. 

INSECTICIDES. 

White  arsenic  in  ammoniacal  solution — 1 ounce  arsenic  to  1 quart  aqua 
ammonia — one  tablespoon ful  of  this  to  a gallon  of  water  proved  a 
failure  in  the  case  of  most  insects,  while  it  still  scorched  the  leaves 
somewhat. 

A soda  solution  made  on  a smaller  scale  had  much  the  same  effect  on 
the  foliage  of  peach  and  plum  trees,  and  was  not,  so  far  as  could  be 
observed,  efficient  in  protecting  the  fruit  from  curculio. 

White  arsenic  in  boiling  water,  the  latter  being  only  a partial  sol- 
vent, in  the  proportion  of  an  ounce  of  arsenic  to  20  gallons  of  water, 
was  sprayed  upon  young  peach  and  plum  trees  without  injury  to  the 
foliage.  The  frequent  rains  of  the  late  spring  and  early  summer  ren- 
dered many  of  the  applications  futile  in  the  case  of  the  curculio  and  cod- 
ling moth.  Paris  green  in  liquid,  1 pound  to  100  gallons  of  water,  has 
been  found  the  safest  and  most  reliable  insecticide  for  use  against 
the  canker-worm  and  codling  moth.  Its  effects  on  insect  life  seem  to 
be  due  not  alone  to  the  percentage  of  arsenic,  but  to  the  general  com- 
bination, while  on  vegetation  it  produces  less  injury  than  London  pur- 
ple or  any  of  the  solutions  of  pure  arsenic. 

In  my  somewhat  limited  experience  the  petroleum  emulsions  can  not 
be  excelled  as  a remedy  for  all  species  of  scale  insects,  and  when  ap- 
plied according  to  instructions,  do  no  appreciable  injury  to  trees  and 
shrubs. 

X.  0.  Dust. — Late  in  May  I received  from  the  Department  a package 
of  this  new  patented  insecticide,  with  instructions  to  test  its  value  on  . 
various  injurious  insects.  It  is  to  be  applied  full  strength  and  claims 
to  kill  by  contact  and  at  the  same  time  to  be  innoxious  to  man  and  the 
higher  animals  and  to  vegetable  life. 

June  1 . — Applied  the  powder  about  9 o’clock  in  the  morning  to  Dory- 
phora  larvrn  on  potato,  to  late  specimens  of  the  rose-slug  ( Selandria 
rosce ),  to  Aphis  persiccc  on  young  peach  and  plum  trees,  and  to  Aphis 
sp. % on  chrysanthemums;  also  to  young  cabbages  and  radishes,  on 
which  flea  beetles  (Phyllotreta  vittata  and  zimmermanni ) were  abundant 
and  destructive.  Three  hours  later  visited  these  plants  and  noted  fol- 
lowing results  : Rose-slugs  considerably  affected,  showing  symptoms  of 
sickness  and  paralysis  and  dropping  from  the  leaves  when  jarred. 
Doryphora  larva?  not  seriously  affected,  only  the  smaller  ones  had 
dropped,  while  some  of  those  nearly  grown  continued  feeding,  appar- 


81 


ently  not  inconvenienced  by  the  dust  that  adhered  to  them.  Flea 
beetles  not  killed,  but  evidently  demoralized  and  deserting  rapidly. 
Its  effects  on  Aphulidcv  were  quite  satisfactory.  All  species  to  which 
it  had  been  applied  seemed  to  be  killed  or  paralyzed  and  had  with- 
drawn their  beaks  from  the  stems  or  leaves,  and  if  they  had  not  already 
fallen  did  so  upon  the  slightest  jar.  At  the  same  time  Chrysopa  and 
Coccinellid  hirvoe  appeared  but  little,  if  any,  injured,  and  were  seen 
making  their  way  to  other  hunting  grounds  on  which  the  game  should 
not  be  so  puugently  spiced.  Syrphus-fly  larvae,  however,  did  not 
escape,  and  all  that  received  much  of  the  dust  were  killed. 

At  7 in  the  evening  more  of  the  powder  was  distributed  ou  infested 
potatoes  and  ou  all  species  of  Aphis  that  could  be  reached. 

June  3. — The  effects  of  the  Dust  on  the  Colorado  potato-beetle  are  by 
no  means  so  immediate  and  thorough  as  claimed  iu  the  circulars  of  the 
manufacturers.  Repeated  applications  would  seem  to  be  necessary  to  kill 
the  larvae,  while  according  to  my  experience  the  perfect  beetle  will  live 
for  days  thoroughly  dusted  with  the  powder  and  inclosed  in  a box.  At 
the  same  time  it  certainly  does  protect  the  plants  to  which  it  is  applied, 
especially  while  fresh,  by  acting  as  a repellant. 

September  10. — Tested  the  Dust  on  larvae  of  the  cabbage  butterfly 
which  are  beginning  to  be  found  again  in  cabbage  fields.  Used  the 
insecticide  in  the  open  air,  also  ou  a few  full-grown  larvae  placed  in 
iar,  under  muslin  cover. 

September  15. — Plants  dusted  seem  almost  entirely  free  from  worms, 
but  several  of  the  larvae  confined  completed  their  first  transformation 
without  apparently  receiving  any  injury  from  the  powder. 

September  21. — Repeated  these  tests  with  powder  taken  from  the  bot- 
tom of  the  can  and  found  that  young  Pieris  larvae  succumbed  to  its 
effects  in  two  or  three  hours,  while  the  larger  larvae  often  lived  more 
than  twenty-four  hours,  not  eating,  however,  in  the  mean  time,  but 
lingering  iu  a lethargic  state  until  dead. 

October  19. — Renewed  these  experiments  on  the  latest  brood  of  worms 
which  are  now  to  be  found  of  all  sizes  on  cabbages,  turnips,  and  nastur- 
tiums. The  immediate  effect  of  the  powder  is  to  cause  the  larvae  to 
cease  feeding  and  toss  themselves  about  uneasily,  making  efforts  to 
free  themselves  from  the  irritating  substance.  Two  hours  later  all  were 
in  a lethargic  state,  many  lying  upon  their  sides  in  the  folds  of  the  leaves 
and  on  the  ground.  They  would  squirm  when  touched,  but  gaive  no 
other  sign  of  life.  Twenty-four  hours  later  all  the  small  larvae  were 
dead ; the  others  that  had  passed  the  second  molt  still  lived,  but  were 
inactive  with  a sickly  color.  Forty-eight  hours  afterward  all  were 
dead.  From  these  tests  aud  experiments  I conclude  that  this  X.  O. 
Dust  may  be  classed  with  reliable  remedies  for  this  aud  probably  other 
Lepidopterous  cabbage  pests,  its  value  being  neairly  equal  to  that  of 
Pyre  thrum  powder. 

This  remedy  was  also  used  on  Tarnished  Plant-bug  with  the  effect  of 
23479— No.  22 0 


82 


driving  it  from  the  dusted  p hints,  although  bugs  confined  in  a box  with 
it  would  survive  several  days. 

The  little  Halticus  pallicornis , which  was  this  year  very  troublesome, 
not  only  in  the  clover  fields  and  vegetable  gardens,  on  beans,  cucumbers, 
etc.,  but  was  especially  destructive  to  asters,  was  also  routed  by  having 
this  powder  puffed  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves;  the  young  bugs  were 
killed  and  the  mature  ones  driven  away. 

The  Dust  was  further  tested  on  a few  late  cut-worms,  Agrotis  saucia , 
Celwna  renigera , and  some  other  species  which  1 can  not  name,  but 
without  much  effect,  as  the  powdered  worms  in  the  course  of  an  hour 
all  crawled  out  of  the  deep  box  in  which  they  had  been  confined  and 
escaped. 

All  hairy  larvae,  as  in  the  case  of  Pyrethrum,  seemed  insensible  to  its 
effects,  so  also  did  the  striped  and  twelve-spotted  cucumber  beetles  and 
other  mature  Coleoptera  and  the  squash-bug. 

There  are  quite  a number  of  injurious  insects  on  which  I did  not  have 
opportunity  to  use  it,  and  on  which  I hope  to  experiment  with  it  another 
season. 

From  my  experience  with  it  this  season  I should  rank  it  among  the 
second-class  insecticides,  producing  similar  effects,  but  not  quite  equal 
to  the  California  Buhach,  but  still  valuable  for  use  against  certain  in- 
sects on  which  it  is  not  safe  or  expedient  to  employ  the  arsenates. 

NOTES  ON  PHYLLOXERA  RILEYI  FOR  1889. 

June  15. — Received  instructions  through  Mr.  Howard  to  collect  and 
prepare  specimens  of  Ph.  rileyi  in  all  its  stages  in  fluid  and  in  balsam 
on  microscopic  slides. 

The  post-oaks  (Q.  obtusiloba ),  on  which  the  insect  chiefly  occurs  on 
the  place,  were  found  to  be  less  abundantly  infested  than  during  other 
years.  The  first  leaves  which  have  attained  their  growth  and  are  begin- 
ning to  toughen  are,  however,  considerably  speckled  with  their  punct- 
ures, especially  along  the  midrib  and  principal  veins.  Very  few  besides 
the  pale  yellow,  smooth,  elongate  forms  are  noticeable. 

Put  up  a number  of  infested  leaves  in  alcohol  reduced  about  GO  per 
cent,  with  water.  (These  I afterwards  learned  from  Mr.  Howard  did  not 
keep,  the  alcohol  being  perhaps  too  strong).  I also  prepared  slides. 

July  22. — Have  just  returned  from  Minnesota.  Sent  slides  on  to 
Washington.  Examined  leaves  of  post-oak  around  home,  but  found  no 
winged  Phylloxera,  and  very  little  change  in  the  specimens  on  the  leaves 
during  the  last  month. 

Among  other  insects  preying  on  the  aphis  is  CEcanthus  latipennis  in 
noticeable  numbers,  one  or  more  on  the  under  side  of  nearly  every  leaf. 
They  are  now  nearly  full-grown  larvae.  The  puzzle  is  how  they  come 
to  be  on  the  oaks,  when  I have  never  found  their  punctures  in  the  twigs 
and  when  some  of  the  trees  are  at  quite  a distance  from  raspberry  or 
grape  vines,  in  which  they  mostly  deposit  their  eggs. 

July  29. — After  driving  about  the  country  in  several  directions  1 


83 


found  on  the  roadside  about  a mile  from  town  some  post-oak  sprouts 
on  which  Phylloxera  abounded  in  all  stages  of  development.  The  pale 
smooth  variety  was  most  numerous  on  the  older  and  tougher  leaves, 
while  the  darker,  tubercled  larvae  and  pseudo-pupae  and  a few  winged 
specimens  crowded  the  unfolding  second  growth.  The  young  leaves 
were  much  curled  and  distorted  by  their  innumerable  punctures.  The 
aphids  were  preyed  upon  by  the  larvae  of  the  green  Ghrysopa  and  of 
one  or  two  small  Cocciuellids ; the  deep  red  larvae  of  a small  Thrips  was 
especially  active  and  numerous  among  them,  as  also  was  the  whitish 
gray  larva  of  a small  bug  (No.  3 of  my  consignment  of  October  2). 

Put  up  specimens  on  slides  and  sent  some  alive  to  Mr.  Howard  in 
tubes  ; also  some  in  alcohol.  I also  placed  winged  individuals  in  three 
different  sizes  of  tubes  and  on  clean  leaves  in  water  in  a glass  jar. 

August  3. — Notwithstanding  all  my  care  all  the  winged  lice  perished 
without  leaving  any  eggs,  to  my  great  disappointment.  Probably  the 
extreme  heat  of  the  weather  was  unfavorable.  Cleaned  and  disinfected 
my  tubes  and  put  in  fresh  winged  forms  and  closed  the  tubes  with  loose 
cotton  instead  of  cork  to  preveut  excess  of  moisture. 

August  3. — Another  failure.  All  the  specimens  dead  and  molded 
and  no  eggs.  I can  not  understand  it. 

August  15. — Made  another  excursion  out  into  the  country  and  suc- 
ceeded in  obtaining  a very  few.  Nearly  all  the  young  oaks  so  badly 
infested  two  weeks  ago  are  entirely  cleared,  probably  by  the  migration 
of  the  winged  forms  aud  the  destruction  of  eggs  and  wingless  forms  by 
predatory  insects.  The  tender  shoots  are  also  killed  and  stand  up  stiff 
and  dry ; the  drought  being  severe,  there  was  no  opportunity  for  them 
to  recover  from  the  attacks  of  the  aphis. 

On  the  lower  mature  leaves  the  insect  still  abounds  in  its  wingless 
forms,  mostly  the  flat,  pale,  smooth  variety.  Put  seven  of  the  winged 
aphis  into  a very  small  tube  with  a bit  of  mature  oak-leaf  and  closed  it 
tightly  with  common  cork.  (The  rubber  corks  kill  all  insects  inclosed 
with  them  very  shortly,  probably  with  their  sulphurous  emanations.) 
Also  put  about  a half  dozen  on  growing  sprouts  of  oak,  out  of  doors, 
but  which  seemed  to  be  entirely  free  from  infection,  inclosed  under  tine 
muslin  cover. 

August  17. — Have  at  last  succeeded  in  getting  nine  eggs  in  the  small 
tube.  These  eggs  do  not  differ  much  from  those  of  the  ordinary  apter- 
ous form.  On  close  comparison  they  seem  rather  more  opaque  and  of 
a deeper  yellow  tint  than  the  latter,  but  even  in  these  particulars  there 
is  some  variation.  Each  individual  produces  from  one  to  three  eggs ; 
and  usually  perishes  beside  them. 

August  21. — Eggs  still  healthy  and  beginning  to  show  segmentation 
with  two  red  eye-spots  on  the  cephalic  end.  There  is  evidently  a slip- 
ping backward  of  the  thin  pellicle  that  incloses  them,  although  as  yet 
no  motion  is  discoverable.  The  eggs  were  all  laid  on  the  glass  and  not 
on  the  portion  of  the  leaf  inclosed  with  them. 

August  22. — Three  Phylloxera  have  hatched  from  the  eggs  and  one 


84 


has  crawled  quite  a distance.  The  egg-shells  or  pellicles  are  left  as  an 
almost  transparent  round  dot  at  the  place  of  hatching.  Nearly  all  the 
substance  of  the  egg  seems  to  be  absorbed  into  the  young  aphis.  In- 
serted a bit  of  fresh  young  leaf,  but  they  do  not  seem  to  be  attracted  to 
it,  and  remain  crawling  on  the  glass. 

August  23. — Two  more  have  hatched.  They  appear  all  alike  so  far  as 
can  be  ascertained  with  a lens.  Three  were  sacrificed  for  microscopic 
examination.  Have  the  specimens  under  almost  constant  observation, 
but  am  not  able  to  find  them  pairing  or  exhibiting  any  sexual  attrac- 
tion. Neither  can  I induce  them  to  feed  on  even  the  temlerest  bits  of 
leaf.  They  appear  precisely  like  the  partheuogenetie  forms  through 
my  lens,  which  is  not  sufficiently  powerful  to  resolve  the  mouth  parts 
and  genitalia. 

September  1. — Only  two  still  alive  and  no  eggs.  Transferred  the  sur- 
vivors as  carefully  as  possible  to  fresh  leaf  and  placed  in  clean  tube. 

Examined  inclosed  leaves  out  of  doors  but  could  detect  neither  eggs 
nor  larvae.  It  is  an  almost  impossible  task  to  keep  track  of  such  micro- 
scopic creatures  in  the  open  air. 

The  wingless  lice  have  now  become  quite  abundant  on  all  our  post- 
oaks.  I do  not  find  them  on  the  white  oak  proper,  but  as  I have  ex- 
amined them  almost  daily  since  the'middle  of  July  I am  confident  that 
none  of  the  winged  individuals  occurred  on  any  of  the  oaks  on  the 
place.  I believe  they  never  do  occur  in  any  numbers  except  on  the 
more  succulent  growth  of  sprouts  where  living  trees  have  been  cut. 

September  10. — All  my  progeny  of  winged  lice  have  perished  without 
leaving  a single  egg.  Made  another  excursion  into  the  country  but 
obtained  only  two  or  three  winged  individuals  which  I put  in  tube,  but 
of  which  I do  not  entertain  much  hope. 

On  one  of  the  leaves  out  of  doors,  isolated  about  a month  ago,  I find  by 
critical  examination  a very  few  minute  specimens  which  are  x>robably 
the  progeny  of  the  winged  forms  inclosed.  Put  some  in  balsam,  though 
1 can  not  see  that  they  differ  from  the  other  wingless  young  ou  exposed 
leaves. 

September  15.— No  success  with  the  last  inclosure  in  tube. 

October  25. — Have  had  one  or  two  quite  hard  frosts.  Leaves  all 
turned  in  color,  and  Phylloxera  becoming  very  active,  congregating 
along  principal  veins  and  migrating  on  to  the  twigs.  Their  insect  ene- 
mies have  mostly  disappeared  and  I notice  that  eggs  are  more  plentiful 
than  usual  on  the  leaves. 

From  my  observations  this  year  I incline  to  the  opinion  that  the 
winged  form  is  necessary  merely  for  the  spread  of  the  species,  and  that 
the  young  from  the  eggs  of  this  form  are  not  necessarily  true-sexed 
individuals,  although  it  is  possible  that  these  may  occur  without  any 
especial  regularity  from  the  eggs  of  both  winged  and  wingless  forms. 

Another  year,  if  nothing  happens  to  prevent,  I will  try  to  have  some 
oaks  in  flower  pots  for  more  convenient  and  natural  colonization  of  the 
Phylloxera , and  for  greater  ease  in  examination. 


REPORT  ON  CALIFORNIA  INSECTS. 


By  Albert  Koebele,  Special  Agent. 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 

Alameda,  Cal.  October 25, 1889. 

Sir:  I herewith  submit  my  report  upon  observations  made  and  work  done  since 
my  return  from  Australia. 

After  returning  to  Alameda  on  April  15,  some  time  was  taken  np  in  writing  out 
my  reports  upon  work  done  in  Australia,  and  also  in  assisting  in  raising  and  distrib- 
uting in  the  northern  part  of  this  State  the  Australian  Ladybird-enemy  of  the  Icerya. 
This  Ladybird  does  remarkably  good  and  speedy  work  everywhere.  As  usual  my  chief 
work  has  been  the  breeding  and  studying  of  all  insects,  injurious  and  otherwise,  that 
have  come  under  iny  notice,  the  special  notes  on  which  will  accompany  material  that 
will  be  sent  in. 

Respectfully, 

Albert  Koebele. 

Prof.  C.  V.  Riley, 

U.  S.  Entomologist. 


THE  MADRONA  TREE  BORER. 

( Polgcaon  confertus  Lee.) 

This  destructive  beetle  occurs  to  a greater  or  less  extent  every  spring 
and  summer  upon  various  fruit-trees,  vines,  etc.,  boring  into  the  fresh 
wood  and  destroying  it.  During  my  stay  in  the  Santa  Cruz  Mountains 
the  past  summer  they  were  observed  everywhere,  and  most  abundantly 
during  May  and  June.  On  any  dead  tree,  as  soon  as  the  leaves  begin 
to  fade,  this  beetle  may  be  found,  though  always  most  abundantly  upon 
the  Madrona  tree  (. Arbutus  menziesii).  Old  trees  of  this  species,  such  as 
have  been  allowed  to  lay  on  the  ground  for  a year  or  two,  are  always 
completely  perforated  with  holes  from  which  these  beetles  have  made 
their  exit.  In  cutting  through,  one  finds  the  wood  nothing  but  mines 
produced  by  the  larvae,  the  mines  generally  running  lengthwise,  but  often 
crossing  each  other.  The  Madrona  tree  seems  to  be  the  ordinary  if  not 
the  only  plant  in  which  the  beetle  breeds.  Notwithstanding  that  the 
mature  insect  bores  in  almost  any  kind  of  fresh  wood,  and  especially 
favors  such  as  has  been  somewhat  injured  by  the  hot  sun,  the  larva  is 


85 


86 


not,  or  lias  never  yet  been,  found  in  such  places.  It  is  the  general  be- 
lief here  that  it  breeds  in  the  wood  of  Oak,  yet,  so  far  as  my  experience 
goes,  its  larvm  are  never  found  in  other  than  the  Madrona  wood.  It  is 
very  remarkable,  in  view  of  the  above,  that  they  should  live  and  trans- 
form within  apples  from  which  this  beetle  has  been  bred. 

On  August  2,  1887,  at  St.  Helena,  Cal.,  a large  number  of  the  nearly 
grown  apples  upon  trees  in  a private  garden  were  observed  to  be  dead 
and  yellowish  brown.  One  of  these,  taken  to  Alameda  and  exam- 
ined, proved  to  contain  a small  whitish  Coleopterous  larva.  This  was 
living  and  thriving  on  the  dead  and  dry  apple  until  April  16,  1888, 
when  it  transformed  to  a pupa,  from  which  the  mature  beetle  issued  on 
April  28.  Since  then  no  infested  apples  have  been  observed,  nor  have 
I seen  any  of  the  large  fruit  in  the  condition  described  above.  The 
work  of  these  beetles  was  witnessed  in  the  Santa  Cruz  Mountains  May 
25, 1888,  chiefly  upon  grapes  and  plums,  yet  they  will  attack  olives  and 
other  trees  as  well.  In  many  cases  the  shoots  of  grapes  are  cut  off 
entirely  and  fall  to  the  ground,  where  either  one  or  both  sexes  may  be 
found  at  work.  In  one  case  I noticed  a plum  tree  the  northern  branches 
of  which  were  entirely  destroyed.  The  beetle  will  often  make  several 
holes  into  the  center  of  a branch  before  entering;  no  doubt  being  com- 
pelled to  leave  on  account  of  the  copious  flow  of  sap.  Seven  such  holes 
were  found  in  one  branch,  in  the  lowermost  of  which  the  beetle  had 
entered  and  formed  a tunnel  of  about  3 inches  in  length.  On  the  other 
branches,  aside  from  the  many  holes  started,  but  two  tunnels  were 
found  and  no  insects  were  present.  This  will  show  that  one  of  these 
beetles  alone  is  capable  of  disfiguring  an  entire  tree,  while  two  or  three 
specimens  can  destroy  a tree. 

As  a remedy,  the  recommendation  of  clearing  and  burning  the  dead 
Madrona  wood  alone  would  certainly  have  a most  remarkable  effect 
in  reducing  the  numbers  of  this  beetle. 

( Chrysobotliris  viali  Horn.) 

The  larva  of  this  Buprestid  is  very  destructive  to  currant  bushes. 
It  is  found  in  the  Santa  Cruz  Mountains,  at  least  in  such  numbers  as 
to  destroy  all  the  plants.  Indeed,  it  is  impossible  to  raise  this  fruit  in 
that  district  on  account  of  this  insect.  They  have  not  been  observed 
as  yet  in  the  valleys,  where  in  their  place  Algeria  tipuliformis  Linn,  is 
more  numerously  represented  upon  this  plant  than  in  the  hills.  As 
many  as  fifteen  or  even  twenty  Buprestid  larvra  may  be  found  within  a 
single  plant,  the  stems  of  which  naturally  die  and  break  off  near  the 
ground.  The  beetle  is  found  most  abundantly  during  June  and  July, 
when  they  can  be  seen  resting  on  the  plants  generally  near  the  ground 
during  sunshine.  It  is  then  that  they  lay  their  eggs  on  the  lower  part 
of  the  branches  and  close  to  the  ground  where  most  of  the  larvm  are 
found.  Eggs  are  also  placed  at  a height  of  2 feet,  or  even  more,  ac- 
cording to  the  size  of  the  plant,  and  below  the  ground  to  the  depth  of 


87 


several  inches.  Where  the  larvae  are  very  numerous  the  plants  will  die 
before  the  larvae  are  grown,  and  most  of  the  latter  will  perish ; airly 
such  as  are  situated  near  or  below  the  ground  will  survive.  Empty 
pupae  of  two  species  of  parasites  were  observed  within  the  burrows  of 
the  larvae,  both  apparently  belonging  to  the  Ichneumonidae. 

As  a remedy,  the  collecting  of  the  beetles  may  be  recommended.  Dur- 
ing early  morning  and  evening  they  may  be  found  either  on  the  cur- 
rant bushes  or  the  surrounding  trees,  almost  always  at  rest  on  and 
within  dry  and  dead  leaves  from  which  they  can  be  shaken  into  an 
umbrella.  During  their  operations  upon  the  plants  in  the  day-time  it  is 
difficult  to  get  near  them  as  they  are  very  quick  on  the  wing  and  ex- 
ceedingly shy.  Collecting  and  burning  the  infested  plants  during 
winter,  and  also  the  whitewashing  of  lower  parts  of  plants  may  have  a 
good  effect ; this  should  be  done  about  the  end  of  May. 

( Diabrotica  soror  Lee.) 

This  beetle  occurs  occasionally  in  such  numbers  as  to  become  ex- 
ceedingly destructive  to  fruits  and  vegetables.  As  yet  the  earlier  stages 
have  not  been  studied.  All  attempts  to  get  eggs  and  larvm  have  so 
far  been  a failure  on  my  part  as  well  as  on  the  part  of  other  entomol- 
ogists. A large  number  of  the  beetles  were  kept  in  confinement  for 
weeks  with  various  living  plants  without  any  results.  The  larva,  without 
doubt,  will  be  found  to  have  the  same  habits  as  the  other  species  of  the 
the  group, — feeding  upon  roots  of  various  plants.  Fortunately  this 
insect  is  preyed  upon  by  a dipterous  larva,  which  without  doubt  de- 
stroys the  greater  number  of  them,  in  certain  years  at  least.  As  early  as 
1886,  while  at  Los  Angeles,  Mr.  Alexander  Craw,  of  that  city,  showed 
both  Mr.  Coquillett  and  myself  the  larva  infesting  this  beetle.  I did 
not  succeed  inbreeding  the  same  until  June  last,  and  Mr.  Coquillett  re- 
ports recently  of  his  partial  success  in  this  particular.* 

THE  TENT- CATERPILL AES. 

( Clisiocampa  spp.) 

From  year  to  year  these  worms  become  more  and  more  numerous 
upon  fruit  trees.  Mr.  Stretch  in  his  paper  on  the  genusf  cites  six  species 
as  occurring  on  this  coast, — G.  califoruica  Packard,  as  feeding  upon 
Quercus  agrifolia ; G.  fragilis , Stretch,  from  Nevada;  G.  constricta , 
Stretch,  on  Quercus  conomensis;  G.  strigosa , Stretch,  from  Yosemite 
Valley ; G.  erosa , Stretch,  from  Oregon  ; and  G . thoracica,  Stretch,  as 
feeding  upon  Willow.  The  genus,  however,  seems  to  be  far  more  nu- 
merously represented.  In  addition  to  this  I have  bred  one  species  from 
the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  upon  Geanothus  and  wild  cherry  ( Prunus 
demissa );  a second  species  was  found  to  be  very  abundant  in  Los  An- 

* Insect  Life,  Vol.  II,  No.  3,  p.  74. 

tTapilio,  Vol.  I,  No.  5,  pp.  03-69. 


88 


geles  County  upon  a species  of  Oak  ; a third  species  was  bred  in  the  Santa 
Cruz  Mountains  feeding  originally  upon  Ceanothus  thyrsiflorus , but  it 
was  extremely  abundant  also  upon  fruit-trees,  especially  prunes  and 
plums.  I also  found  eggs  of  one  of  these  moths  in  Shasta  Valley  upon 
a species  of  wild  Currant.  Of  all  the  species  the  most  abundant  upon 
fruit-trees  was  G.  thoracica , originally  feeding  upon  Willow.  This 
species  defoliated  most  of  the  trees  in  Napa  and  Sonoma  Counties  last 
year.  On  my  visit  to  Sonoma  County  this  month  (October),  I found 
numerous  old  skins  still  present  everywhere  upon  apple  trees.  They 
were  either  G.  thoracica  or  G.  constricta , — these  two  larva)  resembling 
each  other  somewhat.  Fortunately  the  eggs  as  well  as  the  larva)  are 
preyed  upon  by  numerous  parasites.  Professor  Rivers,  of  Berkeley,  in- 
formed me  that  of  one  egg-mass  of  G.  constricta  each  egg  produced  a 
small  hymeuopterous  parasite.  I have  myself  bred  something  similar 
from  egg-masses  on  Geanothus  cordulatus.  The  old  remedy*  will  be 
found  best,  viz,  cut  off  and  burn  the  egg-clusters  during  the  winter, 
and  collect  and  burn  the  nests  in  spring. 

CUT  WORMS. 

Various  Noctuid  larvre  are  usually  numerous  and  destructive  to 
orchards,  vineyards,  grain,  and  vegetables  during  spring,  attacking  the 
young  foliage,  twigs,  and  even  fruit  of  trees,  while  in  vineyards  they 
often  defoliate  large  numbers  of  the  vines.  As  yet  I have  never  been 
able  to  obtain  any  specimens  of  these  larvae  from  the  injured  field  for 
breeding.  Dr.  Behr,  of  San  Francisco,  has  shown  me  one  larva  that 
had  been  received  from  Santa  Cruz,  where  they  injure  the  vines  ; he  did 
not,  however,  succeed  in  breeding  them  and  the  species  is  as  yet  not 
known.  The  larvae  bore  the  closest  resemblance  to  those  of  Agrotis 
messoria  Harris  ( cochranii  Riley), t yet  many  of  these  Agrotid  larvae 
resemble  each  other  so  closely  that  their  distinction  can  not  be  made 
with  any  certainty.  A similar  insect,  if  not  the  same,  was  bred  from 
the  eggs.  (No.  378k).  During  September  and  the  first  of  October, 
1887,  many  of  these  moths  came  to  sugar  at  Alameda,  and  were  at  the 
time  the  most  common  of  all  so  collected.  A number  of  them  were  con- 
fined in  boxes  but  no  eggs  could  be  obtained  until  the  middle  of  Octo- 
ber. The  eggs  were  of  a straw-yellow  color  at  first  and  after  ten  days 
changed  to  a dark  grayish  color,  showing  that  the  embryo  had  come  to 
maturity.  The  young  larva),  however,  did  not  come  out  before  the 
rains  set  in,  December  8,  at  which  date  they  began  to  issue  and  con- 
tinued to  appear  into  January,  1888.  They  were  kept  and  fed  in  a room 
and  attained  full  growth  in  about  five  weeks,  pupating  at  the  end  of 
March  and  issuing  as  moths  one  month  later.  This  peculiarity  of 
hibernating  either  in  egg,  larva,  or  pupa  state  during  the  dry  season 
has  been  observed  in  numerous  other  insects  in  California,  which  are 

"Professor  Riley’s  Third  Missouri  Report,  p.  120.  t Ibid,  pp.  74-70. 


89 


dependent  upon  such  plants  as  are  dried  up  from  July  until  the  rains 
set  in,  generally  October  or  November.  I will  give  here  the  history  of 
one  of  these : 

Agrotis  crenulata,  Smith. — On  September  29,  1887,  one  pair  of  these 
moths  was  found  about  10  p.  in.  in  coitu  on  the  upper  side  of  a leaf  of 
Quercus  agrifolia  at  Alameda.  The  female  began  to  lay  her  eggs  the 
following  day  and  continued  until  October  10,  after  which  she  died.  On 
counting  it  was  found  that  the  number  of  eggs  was  1,026.  The  young 
larvae  began  to  issue  on  October  12.  They  are,  when  full  grown,  very  sim- 
ilar to  those  of  A.  clandestina*  for  which  they  were  taken  before  being 
bred.  Naturally  all  such  larva)  grow  very  slowly  during  the  winter 
months,  and  reach  their  full  growth  about  March,  when  they  may  be 
found  most  anywhere  amongst  grass,  grain,  or  vegetables.  Their  chief 
food,  however,  consists  of  grasses.  From  larvte  that  entered  the  ground 
in  breeding  cages  on  March  12,  the  first  moth  came  out  on  April  16. 
In  a state  of  nature  it  would  be  about  the  same  probably,  allowing  for 
a week’s  variation  either  way  in  the  appearance  of  the  moths  according 
to  the  situation  of  the  chrysalids.  The  moths  are  found  from  April  to 
July,  being  most  abundant  during  May  and  June,  at  least  in  localities 
where  food  is. sufficient.  In  the  Santa  Cruz  Mountains  they  were  ob- 
served to  appear  soon  after  dark  upon  the  flowers  of  AEsculus  calif  ornicus 
(Buckeye),  and  could  be  seen  in  numbers  every  night  until  the  flowers 
disappeared  ; in  other  localities,  where  flowers  and  natural  food  are  not 
so  abundant,  they  may  retire  sooner  into  their  hibernating  quarters. 
During  June,  1886,  I found  them  very  abundant  in  a deep,  shady  canon 
in  Los  Angeles  County,  amongst  leaves,  flying  up  at  my  approach  and 
settling  down  a short  distance  off.  On  my  visit  to  the  same  locality 
one  month  later  not  one  moth  was  seen  on  the  wing.  But  if  at  this 
stime  one  searches  closer  down  amongst  the  dead  and  damp  leaves  they 
will  be  found  in  a semi-dormant  state.  After  being  exposed  a short 
time  they  soon  fly  off  to  a dark  corner  and  disappear  again.  In  such 
condition  they  were  observed  all  last  summer  in  the  Santa  Cruz  Mount- 
ains. In  open  country,  distant  from  woods,  they  may  occasionally  be 
found  hidden  under  or  between  boards  or  in  old  stumps,  rubbish,  etc. 
They  prefer,  however,  to  hide  in  the  woods  amid  the  dead  leaves  found 
there.  As  in  other  parts  the  warm  rays  of  the  sun  in  the  spring  awaken 
many  of  the  hibernating  insects,  so  here  the  first  rains  in  fall  will  do 
the  same,  especially  with  the  Noctuidte. 

NOTES  ON  THE  HABITS  OF  THE  CODLING  MOTH  AND  ITS  ENEMIES 
AND  PARASITES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

During  my  repeated  visits  to  the  Santa  Cruz  Mountains  the  past  sum- 
mer some  observations  were  made  upon  the  Codling  Moth  and  its  ene- 
mies which  may  be  of  interest.  The  moth  as  a rule  is  double-brooded 
in  that  locality,  and  no  doubt  will  not  differ  in  its  habits  to  any  extent 

* Professor  Riley’s  First  Missouri  Report,  p.  79. 


90 


throughout  California.  They  may  appear  somewhat  earlier  in  the  val- 
leys. From  dates  uoted  in  1887  some  of  the  moths  were  out  on  April 
22  at  Santa  Clara,  and  one  larva  found  then  did  not  produce  the  moth 
until  May  10.  Two  days  after  this  they  were  also  observed  flying  at 
Alameda.  One  larva  found  under  bark  of  pear  tree  at  Los  Angeles  on 
July  19,  1886,  and  evidently  of  the  first  brood,  did  not  produce  the  moth 
until  the  end  of  April  the  following  year.  During  August,  1887,  the 
moths  were  abundant  at  Alameda ; on  the  2d  of  the  month  a cocoon 
was  found  about  8 feet  from  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  under  a fallen 
apple,  from  which  the  larva  had  issued.  The  moth  from  this  appeared 
on  the  13tli  of  the  same  month.  Two  days  later,  on  a hot  and  sunny 
day,  while  walking  through  an  old  apple  orchard  at  10  p.  m.,  moths 
started  up  either  from  the  trunk  or  lower  leaves  of  nearly  every  tree 
and  settled  down  again,  generally  higher  up  and  on  the  upper  side  of 
leaves  exposed  to  the  sun. 

Larvre  and  chrysalids  were  found  in  abundance  the  same  day,  and 
from  one  of  the  latter  a parasite  issued  on  August  26.  This  proved  to 
be  Pimpla  annulipes.  Up  to  September  17  moths  issued  from  the  chrys- 
alids ; one  larva  that  pupated  during  this  month  did  not,  however,  pro- 
duce the  moth  until  December  10.  During  1888  the  first  moth  was  ob- 
served at  Alameda  as  early  as  March  17,  sitting  on  the  upper  side  of 
an  orange  leaf  exposed  to  the  sun.  But  very  few  of  the  apple  trees 
were  in  bloom  at  this  time.  Two  days  later  moths  began  to  issue  in  the 
house  from  larvra  collected  the  previous  December.  Several  issued  up 
to  March  28.  The  present  season  the  moths  were  not  observed  in  any 
numbers  before  May  25  in  the  Santa  Cruz  Mountains.  The  fruit  at  this 
time  was  about  1 inch  in  diameter.  From  this  date  on  until  the  end  of 
June  there  could  be  seen  at  dusk  from  25  to  50  ou  each  tree.  The 
place  is  situated  on  the  east  side  of  the  hills.  About  a half  hour  after 
the  sun  disappeared  behind  the  mountains,  and  while  it  was  yet  visi- 
ble for  nearly  that  length  of  time  on  the  opposite  hills,  the  moths  be- 
gan to  appear,  flying  with  quick  movements  around  the  trees,  chiefly 
near  the  top,  and  settling  down  again  upon  the  leaves  or  fruit  from 
time  to  time.  This  was  kept  up  until  towards  dark  when  they  became 
less  numerous.  During  this  time  both  sexes  may  be  readily  collected 
with  a long  butterfly-net.  I have  taken  many  near  the  ground  on  the 
lower  leaves  and  often  distant  from  fruit  trees.  By  their  peculiar  flight 
they  are  easily  distinguished  from  any  other  species  of  moths. 

About  the  middle  of  August,  at  which  time  some  of  the  fruit  had 
already  been  taken  off,  the  second  brood  made  its  appearance,  yet  at  this 
time  many  larvm  could  still  be  found  within  the  infested  fruit,  and  from 
material  collected  then  and  taken  to  Alameda,  moths  came  out  in  num- 
bers until  September  12.  I was  informed  that  Bartlett  pears  taken 
from  the  trees  when  the  second  brood  had  made  its  appearance  were 
all  sound,  not  one  in  twenty  being  wormy.  On  examination,  however, 
I found  the  opposite  to  be  the  case.  About  one  pear  in  twenty  only  was 


91 


found  without  any  eggs  or  traces  of  young  larva?  of  Carpocapsa,  the 
second  brood  having  already  begun  its  destructive  work.  From  these 
few  notes  it  is  evident  that  with  a little  care  early  fruit  can  be  kept 
almost  free  from  the  attacks  of  the  worms,  while  with  later  sorts  this 
becomes  more  difficult,  and  such  fruit  generally  is  rendered  useless  by 
the  attacks  of  the  second  brood,  and  is  fed  to  pigs. 

Enemies. — Enemies  of  the  Codling  Moth  appear  to  be  quite  abundant 
in  California  already.  I have  indeed  been  surprised  in  finding  minute 
Chalcids  infesting  the  eggs.*  These  are  not  numerous,  and  had  not 
been  observed  on  eggs  of  the  first  brood,  yet, they  may  have  been  pres- 
ent. In  fourteen  boxes  of  Bartlett  pears  examined  on  August  20  and 
21,  about  seventy  parasitized  eggs  were  found,  and  about  an  equal 
number  from  which  the  parasites  had  issued;  no  doubt  some  were  over- 
looked. But  few  of  the  pears  showed  traces  of  worms  of  the  first  brood, 
yet  nearly  all  contained  eggs  of  the  second  brood  and  very  often  more 
than  one.  As  many  as  eleven  eggs  were  found  upon  a single  pear. 
One  was  found  on  the  stem,  six  on  the  pear  surrounding  the  stem,  two 
on  the  upper  half  and  the  other  two  near  the  calyx.  Of  these,  two  con- 
tained parasites,  one  of  which  had  issued,  two  were  still  fresh,  and  the 
rest  had  hatched.  I should  note  here  that  the  pears  had  been  taken  off 
three  days  previously.  In  other  pears  with  less  eggs,  as  many  as  three 
and  even  four  young  larvm  were  found.  The  eggs  found  upon  pears 
were  most  numerous  near  the  stem,  the  others  almost  invariably  on  the 
upper  surface  of  fruit,  and  but  very  few  on  the  lower  part  or  calyx.  It 
was  also  observed  that  the  young  larvte  very  rarely  enter  the  fruit 
where  an  egg  is  deposited,  but  generally  somewhat  lower  down,  and  in 
many  instances  instead  of  going  to  the  center  they  leave  their  first  mine 
after  a few  days  and  enter  at  the  open  calyx.  On  apples  it  appears 
they  will  oftener  enter  the  fruit  from  the  sides. 

Many  of  the  eggs  of  the  first  brood  were  destroyed  by  some  enemy, 
what  I could  not  learn.  They  had  a brownish  and  shrunken  appearance, 
and  it  is  probable  that  they  were  destroyed  by  the  Chrysopa  larvae, 
which  were  present  in  numbers  upon  the  trees  at  the  time.  With  the 
exception  of  these  and  the  Coccinellid  larvae  no  other  insects  were  ob- 
served in  numbers  likely  to  destroy  the  eggs.  This  was  not  observed 
to  be  the  case  with  eggs  of  the  second  brood,  at  which  time  the  pre- 
daceous larvae  mentioned  had  disappeared.  The  other  three  parasites 
bred  during  the  summer  are  all  from  the  chrysalids.  The  most  efficient 
destroyer  of  Carpocapsa,  however,  is  a small  bat  which  is  always  in 
search  of  the  moths,  appearing  somewhat  later  than  the  latter,  but 
keeping  up  its  chase  until  dark,  when  apparently  the  moths  cease  their 
flight  and  the  bats  go  off  in  search  of  other  food.  Every  night  during 
June  as  many  as  six  of  these  bats  were  to  be  seen  flying  around  an 
isolated  apple  tree  upon  which  there  were  a large  number  of  the  moths, 
not  only  taking  the  Carpocapsa  on  the  wing,  but  very  often  darting  at  a 


This  parasite  is  a species  of  the  genus  Trichor/ramma. — C.  V.  R. 


92 


leaf  to  get  the  resting  moth.  Of  not  less  value  is  the  larva  of  a Neu- 
ropterous  insect,  a Raphidia,  which  is  present  in  numbers.  Its  long 
and  flat  structure  together  with  its  activeness  enables  it  to  hunt  up  any 
larva  that  may  be  present  under  bark  or  in  crevices  of  the  tree. 

Not  only  is  the  larva  devoured  but  the  chrysalis  likewise,  and  with- 
out  doubt  often  the  mature  moth.  It  was  indeed  very  hard  work  to 
find  any  larvm  or  pupm  of  Oarpocapsa  upon  trees  where  the  larvm  of 
Raphidia  were  present,  and  the  latter  occurred  upon  nearly  every  tree. 
As  a rule,  not  more  two  or  three  could  be  found  upon  one  tree  by  break- 
ing off  all  the  loose  bark  and  examining  the  crevices,  and  often  none  at 
all.  These  larvm  are  always  on  the  lookout  for  food,  crawling  up  and 
down  the  trees,  but  being  chiefly  concealed  by  the  bark.  Away  from 
the  trunk  of  the  tree,  however,  more  larvm  are  found.  An  old  and  partly 
decayed  stump  or  piece  of  wood  lying  anywhere  near  an  infested  tree  will 
always  be  full  of  them ; and,  as  has  before  been  pointed  out,  many  of 
the  larvm  of  the  first  brood,  at  least,  spin  up  in  the  dry  ground.  I will 
again  refer  to  the  Dermestid  larvm  mentioned  before,  not  only  as  de- 
stroying the  pupa  of  Carpocapsa  but  likewise  the  larva,  during  the 
summer  season  at  least.  Many  apparently  sound  cocoons  when  cut 
open  will  be  shown  to  contain  larvm  and  skins  of  some  of  these  beetles. 
The  contents  have  been  devoured  while  there  is  no  visible  hole  in  the 
cocoon,  showing  that  the  larva  had  entered  while  ybung.  This  alone 
would  not  be  sufficient  evidence,  but  I have  also  found  small  larvm  of 
Trogoderma  tarsale  within  the  cocoons,  and  with  the  larvm,  dead  and 
living,  of  Carpocapsa. 

In  two  instances  the  half  dead  Carpocapsa  larvm  showed  small  holes 
in  their  sides  which  had  partly  healed  up.  These  no  doubt  were  made 
by  the  Dermestid  larvm,  which  as  a rule  feed  upon  dry  insect  remains, 
and  only  kill  living  larvm  gradually  by  feeding  upon  the  skin  only  at 
first.  In  many  cases  they  were  found  with  larvm  that  had  recently 
died,  having  already  undergone  several  molts  within  the  cocoons  of  the 
last  larvm.  They  are  very  abundant,  especially  around  Alameda,  as 
many  as  four  or  five  large  larvm  being  often  found  within  the  cocoon  and 
feeding  upon  the  dead  pupa  of  Leucarctia  acrcva.  In  almost  any  old 
egg-inass  of  Orgyia  they  are  found.  Whether  they  will  feed  upon  the 
eggs  or  not  I have  as  yet  no  evidence.  Insect  collections  are  not  as 
much  troubled  by  these  beetles  in  California,  especially  in  the  valleys, 
as  in  the  Eastern  States.  I have  often  observed  them,  however,  to  in- 
fest collections  in  the  mountainous  districts.  A coleopterous  (Clerid?) 
larva  was  recently  found  in  the  Sonoma  Valley  feeding  upon  Carpo- 
capsa, but  has  not  yet  been  bred.  Numerous  Carabid  beetles  were 
always  found  at  the  base  of  trees  awaiting  their  chance  to  get  a bite  at 
the  Carpocapsa  larvm.  The  most  numerous  of  these  were  Pterostichus 
californicus  Dej.  and  Galathus  ruficollis  Dej.  A bright  light  with  a 
white  sheet  below  and  behind  was  kept  burning  near  the  orchard  in  the 
Santa  Cruz  Mountains  while  the  moths  were  abundant.  One  female 


only  was  caught  in  this  about  one  hour  after  dusk.  Never  before  dur- 
ing my  fourteen  years  of  collecting  moths  with  lights,  sweeps,  etc., 
have  I,  within  my  memory,  collected  a single  Oarpocapsa. 

THE  HESSIAN  FLY. 

( Cecidomyia  destructor.) 

This  insect  has  been  quite  abundant  and  destructive  to  grain  in  the 
central  part  of  the  State  during  the  season.  A Mt.  Eden  correspond* 
ent  wrote  to  the  Oakland  Engineer , May  2,  as  follows  : 

The  Hessian  fly  has  done  irreparable  damage  to  the  grain  in  this  vicinity.  There 
has  been  hardly  a field  that  has  not  been  attacked.  The  prospect  for  a large  barley 
crop  is  very  good.  The  wheat  crop  will  bo  a comparative  failure.  What  is  left  from 
the  Hessian  fly  is  being  destroyed  by  the  rust. 

Personally,  until  this  spring,  I have  had  no  opportunity  of  making 
any  observations  upon  this  insect.  On  May  2G,  while  in  the  Santa 
Cruz  Mountains,  it  was  noticed  that  some  of  the  barley  had  fallen 
to  the  ground.  On  examination,  puparia  of  the  Hessian  fly  were  found 
in  places  where  the  straw  was  fallen.  The  insect  was  found  at  the  time 
in  all  stages  from  young  larva3  to  puparia,  and  some  of  the  latter  had  re- 
cently hatched.  From  puparia  collected  at  the  time,  flies  made  their 
appearance  until  the  beginning  of  July.  Other  puparia  collected 
about  July  1 have  not  hatched  up  to  date,  and  the  insects  are  still  in 
the  larval  state  within  the  puparia.  A few  specimens  of  parasites 
( Merisus  destructor)  were  bred  from  these,  and  from  the  same  straws 
several  specimens  of  an  Isosoma. 

During  September,  1887, 1 found  puparia,  which  I took  to  be  those  of 
the  Hessian  fly,  on  two  species  of  grasses  near  here.  These  were  for- 
warded to  Washington,  where  they  arrived  in  good  condition,  as  stated 
in  letter  of  October  3d,  and  the  grasses  were  determined  as  Elymus 
americanus  and  Agrostis  sp.  Again  during  the  summer  I found  the 
puparia  upon  several  species  of  grasses  in  the  Santa  Cruz  Mountains. 
I shall  be  prepared  next  season  to  give  a list  of  grasses  upon  which  the 
Hessian  fly  is  found,  and  also  more  accurate  notes  as  to  the  habits  of 
this  insect,  which,  as  it  would  appear,  is  a very  old  resident  of  this  coast. 

JOINT-WORMS. 

( Isosoma  sp.) 

These  insects  have  been  abundant  and  destructive  in  most  wheat- 
growing sections,  and  they  will  continue  to  be  numerous  uutil  stricter 
measures  are  emifloyed  for  burning  the  straw  aud  stubble. 

LOCUSTS. 

These  did  not  appear  in  auy  large  numbers  except  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  State  and,  from  some  accounts,  in  Oregon.  On  my  visit  to 
Shasta  Valley,  Siskiyou  County,  at  the  end  of  July,  locusts  were  no- 


94 


ticedin  large  numbers  north  of  Edgewood  and  throughout  that  valley. 
At  Montague  I was  informed  that,  on  account  of  the  unusually  dry  sea- 
son and  the  crickets  and  grasshoppers,  the  crop  had  been  an  entire 
failure  in  that  district.  Around  this  latter  place  no  vegetation  except 
a few  sage-bushes  were  visible.  Along  the  creeks,  where  a little  grass 
and  vegetation  was  still  growing,  the  locusts  were  swarming.  Dissos- 
teira  obliterata  Thos.  was  abundant  throughout  the  valley.  Even  in 
places  where  for  a half  a mile  not  a shrub  or  any  dry  plant  was  visible 
they  appeared  to  be  happy,  but  were  seen  abundantly  along  water- 
courses and  places  still  affording  some  food.  Melanoplus  cinereus  Scudd. 
was  more  numerously  represented  in  places  where  food  was  still  to  be 
had,  even  if  dry.  But  few  specimems  of  M.  femur -rubrum  DeGeer 
were  seen,  while  M.  packardii  Scudd.  was  the  most  abundant  of  all, 
feeding  upon  grasses  along  streams,  and  in  all  the  meadows,  where  it 
outnumbers  all  the  other  species  put  together.  Here  they  were  often 
observed,  always  the  female,  caught  in  the  web  of  a large  spider,  which 
feeds  upon  them. 

ill.  devastator  Scudd.  was  not  met  with  throughout  the  summer,  while 
Camnula  pellucida  Scudd.  was  only  seen  occasionally  in  the  places  vis- 
ited Another  numerous  species  in  the  Shasta  Valley  was  Resperotettix 
pacificus  Bruner,  but  this  was  found  feeding  upon  sage-bushes  only. 
About  eight  other  species  of  locusts  were  found  at  Montague,  of  which 
Bissosteira  Carolina  Linn.,  Trimerotropis  fallax  Sauss.,  Conozora  wal- 
lula  Scudd.,  and  Stenobothrus  coloradus  Thos.,  were  the  most  abundant. 
Two  species  of  large  crickets  have  been  very  numerous  at  Montague 
also  joining  in  the  destructive  work — Anabrus  simplex  (?)  Hald.,  and  the 
other  a species  of  Steiroxis.  The  common  cricket,  Gryllus  luctuosus 
Serv.,  was  abundant  in  the  central  part  of  the  State,  often  coming  in 
large  numbers  into  cities  and  into  houses. 


REPORT  ON  NEBRASKA  INSECTS. 


By  Lawrence  Bruner,  Special  Agent. 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 

Lincoln,  Nebr.,  Nov.  20,  1889. 

Sir:  In  presenting  a report  on  the  insect  injuries  in  Nebraska  for  tbe  past  spring 
and  summer,  it  is  not  my  intention  to  mention  all  tbe  species  tlial  have  been  observed 
in  tbe  act  of  depredating.  Neither  do  I expect  to  enter  upon  a discussion  of  their 
life  histories.  To  do  this  would  require  altogether  too  much  time  and  occupy  con- 
siderable more  space  than  could  be  allotted  to  such  insects  as  have  been  repeatedly 
described  in  your  various  reports  upon  injurious  insects.  Suffice  it,  then,  for  me  to 
mention  briefly  a few  of  the  species  that  most  attracted  my  attention,  either  by  their 
appearance  in  unusual  numbers,  their  more  than  ordinary  injuries,  or  by  their  pecul- 
iar mode  of  attack. 

During  the  year  most  of  the  well-known  species  that  are  always  present  in  more  or 
less  injurious  numbers,  were  noticed  at  their  regular  seasons  of  appearance.  These 
were,  of  course,  expected;  and,  unless  either  very  numerous  or  scarce,  were  but  little 
noticed.  Aside  from  these,  few  new  or  original  observations  were  made  during  the 
active  season ; but  several  new  enemies  were  observed  to  act  in  connection  with  old 
and  well-known  forms. 

Since  my  last  report,  some  time  has  been  devoted  to  the  A crididce  of  North  America, 
in  the  continuance  of  our  work  upon  that  family  of  the  order  Orthoptera.  The  latter 
work  was  chiefly  in  the  line  of  looking  up  the  matter  of  distribution,  the  character- 
izing of  new  material,  and  the  massing  of  such  additional  species  as  could  conven- 
iently be  obtained  without  expense  to  the  Department.  Some  little  was  also  done  in 
this  connection  in  the  study  of  several  minor  locust  outbreaks  in  different  parts  of 
the  country,  as,  for  example,  in  Utah,  Minnesota,  and  the  White  Mountain  district  of 
the  New  England  States.  Of  these  different  outbreaks  you  already  have  been  ad- 
vised ; Mr.  Otto  Lugger,  of  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station,  reporting  on  that  of 
his  State;  Mr.  C.  L.  Marlatt,  that  of  New  Hampshire,  and  myself  upon  that  of  Utah. 

Lawrence  Bruner. 

Prof.  C.  V.  Riley, 

U.  S.  Entomologist. 


FALSE  CHINCH  BUGS. 

Early  in  the  year,  during  the  month  of  May,  two  or  threespecies  of  sm^l 
hemipterous  insects  began  to  gather  upon  several  farms  just  outside 
the  city  limits  of  Lincoln.  These  appeared  in  much  larger  numbers 
than  is  usual  for  the  insects  under  consideration  ; and  from  their  size, 

95 


order,  and  general  appearance  were  mistaken  for  the  chinch-bug  (Micro- 
pus  leucopterus)  by  many  of  the  residents.  This  mistaken  identity  in 
the  case  of  these  iusects  was  the  occasion  for  much  appreheusion,  as  it 
well  might  have  been  had  that  insect  put  in  its  appearance  in  such 
great  numbers  so  early  in  the  year.  These  u false  chinch-bugs,”  for 
such  they  were,  began  work  by  attacking  the  weeds  and  everything 
else  that  was  green  growing  in  the  fields  which  were  infested.  The 
weeds  soon  disappeared  and  the  insects  transferred  their  attention 
to  apple,  catalpa,  mulberry,  and  other  small  trees.  But  by  far  the  great- 
est injury  was  done  to  grape-vines.  They  were  all  small,  and  were  kept 
divested  of  every  vestige  of  new  growth  for  a time,  and  looked  as  if 
the  vines  never  would  be  green. 

The  three  insects  which  united  in  these  demonstrations  were  the  fol- 
lowing: the  False  Chinch-bug  (JVysius  angustatus),  the  Purslane  bug 
(Geocoris  bullata ),  and  a species  that  is  quite  common  here  in  the  West 
among  various  rank-growing  herbs  and  weed-like  plants,  and  is  known 
to  the  entomologist  as  Trapezonotus  nebulosus. 

The  first  named  of  these  was  by  far  the  most  numerous,  and  if  work- 
ing singly  would  have  occasioned  nearly  the  same  amount  of  damage 
as  did  the  three.  The  second  and  the  last  named  were  present  in 
nearly  equal  numbers,  perhaps  the  last  being  the  commoner  of  the  two. 
All  three  species  gathered  upon  the  main  stems  and  largerjbranches  of 
the  trees  and  even  in  clusters  upon  the  scattered  remnants  of  the  last 
year’s  vegetation,  They  were  pretty  well  scattered  over  the  fields,  but 
appeared  to  be  most  numerous  upon  some  hill-slopes  where  they  had 
been  attracted  during  early  spring  aud  late  fall  by  the  warm  sunshine. 
These  clusters  of  bugs  were  composed  of  individuals  of  all  ages  aud 
sizes,  ranging  from  those  apparently  but  a few  days  old  to  those  fully 
matured  aud  winged.  An  investigation  soon  disclosed  the  reason  for 
their  abundance  in  this  particular  locality.  Last  year  these  fields  had 
been  permitted  to  grow  up  in  weeds  after  the  spring  cultivation.  These 
weeds,  purslane,  tickle-grass,  stink-grass,  and  tumble-weeds,  made  a 
splendid  retreat  for  the  bugs  to  gather,  feed,  and  breed  in,  and  afterwards 
to  winter  in.  The  present  spring  being  dry  weeds  and  grasses  were  slow 
in  starting.  ISIot  so  with  the  bugs.  Eggs  were  laid  at  the  usual  time, 
these  hatched  and  the  little  bugs  soon  exhausted  what  green  vegeta- 
tion there  was  for  them  to  feed  upon,  and  which  was  very  slow  in  ap- 
pearing on  account  of  lack  of  the  necessary  amount  of  moisture.  The 
trees  aud  vines  being  deeper  rooted  sent  out  their  buds  and  green  leaves. 
These  attracted  the  hungry  hordes  of  bugs,  and  were  at  once  attacked 
in  bud,  leaf,  and  stem,  the  bugs  inserting  their  beaks  and  extracting 
the  sap.  The  consequence  was  the  injury  spoken  of  above. 

As  a remedy  against  the  destruction  of  the  grape-vines  I suggested 
covering  the  vines,  which  were  small  ones,  with  dirt  fora  week  or  ten 
days  until  weeds  had  an  opportunity  to  grow,  after  which  time  there 
would  no  longer  be  danger,  and  as  a preventive  for  the  future  to  keep 
down  the  weeds  in  late  summer,  especially  when  the  season  is  a dry  one. 


In  habit  these  three  bugs  resemble  tlie  Chinch  Lug  to  a eonsiderable 
degree,  only  that  they  are  earlier  in  their  egg-laying,  and  that  their 
food-plants  are  weeds  and  other  herbaeeous  plants,  rather  than  grasses. 
They  also  move  about  on  the  wing  in  a similar  manner  to  that  of  the 
Micropus  leucopterus.  Last  spring,  on  one  day  in  particular,  the  air  was 
full  of  these  and  other  small  hemipterous  insects.  At  just  what  date 
this  flight  occurred  I do  not  remember  now,  but  know  it  was  during  the 
month  of  May. 

The  three  species  referred  to  above  in  connection  with  the  injuries 
recorded,  all  occur  upon  ground  that  has  been  neglected  and  allowed 
to  grow  up  to  purslane  and  Amaranthus.  The  two  latter  named  are 
also  occasionally  found  about  smart-weed  ( Polygonum ) during  late 
summer  and  fall,  while  the  first  mentioned  is  also  inclined  to  be  par- 
tial to  u stink”  grass  at  times. 

CUT-WORMS. 

Scarcely  a year  passes  without  a report  of  damages  from  cut-worms 
in  various  parts  of  the  country.  Here  in  Nebraska  quite  a large  num- 
ber of  the  night-flying  moths  belonging  to  the  genera  Agrotis,  Hadena , 
Mamestra , etc.,  are  ofteu  the  cause  of  much  worry  and  not  infrequently 
the  loss  of  much  time  and  money  to  the  farmer  and  gardener. 

At  about  the  same  time  that  the  bugs  mentioned  above  were  the  most 
plentiful  and  doing  their  injury  to  trees,  vines,  etc.,  the  reports  of  cut- 
worm depredations  began  coming  in  to  the  station  from  various  districts 
within  and  without  the  city  limits.  These  reports  included  injuries  to 
both  garden  and  field  crops,  and  from  the  fact  that  they  were  received 
from  widely  separated  localities,  the  pest  was  quite  general  over  the 
eastern  part  of  the  State.  Specimens  of  at  least  a half  dozen  distinct 
species  of  the  worms  were  received  by  me,  along  with  the  statement 
that  they  were  the  authors  of  the  injury.  Among  these  I recoguized 
Agrotis  annexa , A.  suffusa , A.  messoria , A.  saucia , and  A.  clandestina. 

So  abundant  were  several  species  of  these  worms  that  they  literally 
cultivated  the  ground  at  places  where  they  burrowed  during  day- 
time. Nor  did  the  worms  content  themselves  with  feeding  upon  culti- 
vated plants  alone,  but  also,  in  many  instances,  kept  down  the  weeds. 
Here  in  the  city  of  Lincoln,  upon  a vacant  square  that  had  been  used 
by  the  boys  as  a base-ball  ground,  and  where  the  ordinary  “pepper-grass” 
was  growing  in  profusion,  the  Agrotis  annexa  finally  succeeded  in  clear- 
ing the  ground  of  this  weed.  So  voracious  did  the  worms  become  be- 
fore maturity  that  the  pepper-grass  was  even  cut  off  and  the  stems 
drawn  into  their  retreats  in  the  ground,  where  they  might  be  devoured 
during  day-time.  On  cloudy  days  the  worms  even  ventured  forth 
to  feed  openly  by  daylight,  scurrying  back  into  their  holes  when  the  sun 
came  out  for  a moment.  In  the  hard  trampled  ground  their  holes  were 
smooth -cut  and  presented  a very  interesting  sight  indeed  when  the  occu- 
pants issued  forth  and  quickly  returned  upon  the  least  disturbance,  like 
23479— No.  22 7 


98 


some  animal  of  greater  intelligence.  The  larva  of  this  particular  spe- 
cies of  Agrotis  is  exceedingly  active,  reminding  one  not  a little  of  some 
of  the  chipmunks  among  the  rodents. 

A second  species  that  much  interested  me  is  the  larva  of  an  Agrotis  sp, 
that  was  exceedingly  numerous  upon  the  college  farm  and  adjoining  tracts 
to  the  eastward  of  the  city.  This  latter  worm  worked  on  various  plants 
in  the  garden,  but  on  the  farm  showed  decided  taste  for  clover.  Here 
it  literally  u lived  in  clover”  in  large  numbers.  The  different  kinds  of 
clover  growing  in  the  experimental  plats  suffered  much.  It  was  here 
that  one  of  the  instances  above  cited  of  cut-worms  cultivating  the  soil 
occurred. 

The  remedies  used  against  these  different  cut- worms  varied  somewhat 
in  their  character ; but  they  were  chiefly  hand  picked  or  crushed.  Many 
of  the  worms  also  perished  from  the  attacks  of  predaceous  beetles  either 
in  the  larval  or  imago  stages,  and  of  parasites  of  one  or  another  sort. 
A few  of  them  also  from  diseases  that  resulted  from  the  presence  of 
fungi  or  bacteria.  The  parasitized  worms  were  the  result  of  the  eggs 
laid  by  Tachina  flies  in  most  cases.  The  A.  annexa  larvae  suffered  most 
in  this  respect,  on  account  of  their  habit  of  coming  out  to  feed  during 
the  day-time. 

ARMY-WORM. 

As  the  State  grows  older  in  its  settlement  the  reports  of  Army-worm 
depredations  become  more  frequent  year  by  year.  Last  year  I reported 
the  appearance  and  damage  by  this  insect  in  the  extreme  northwestern 
part  of  Nebraska,  as  well  as  in  portions  of  southwestern  Dakota. 
During  the  present  year  several  localities  in  northeastern  Nebraska 
were  overrun  to  a limited  extent  by  the  larvie  of  Leucania  unipuncta. 
None  of  these  areas  infested  were  of  very  great  extent,  nor  was  the 
injury  committed  complete  in  any  of  the  cases  coming  to  my  notice. 
Millet  and  oat  fields  were  the  chief  sufferers. 

A small  black  fly  was  bred  from  larvae  received  from  Mr.  J.  M.  Sey- 
more, of  Pender,  Thurston  County.  This  fly  has  frequently  been  ob- 
served by  me  at  various  points  in  northern  Nebraska,  where  I have 
taken  it  in  my  net  when  sweeping  for  other  insects  on  the  prairie.  It 
must  be  a regular  enemy  of  Leucania  unipuncta , and  perhaps  also  of 
other  allied  species,  since  it  is  by  no  means  an  uncommon  insect  every 
year.  Others  of  the  flesh-flies  (Tachinidae)  also  act  as  guards  against 
this  insect’s  rapid  increase,  as  can  readily  be  seen  from  the  fact  that 
many  of  the  larva}  taken  have  the  eggs  of  these  flies  attached  to  cheir 
bodies. 

Visiting  again  this  year  the  region  last  year  reported  to  you  as  hav- 
ing the  insect  present  in  injurious  numbers  I was  pleased  to  find  that 
the  Leucania  had  not  appeared  in  numbers  sufficiently  great  to  attract 
the  attention  of  those  persons  who  lost  crops  by  their  depredations  last 
year.  In  fact  I am  pretty  confident  in  asserting  that  there  are  no 
grounds  for  fearing  this  insect  uext  year,  in  the  State  of  Nebraska  at 
least. 


THE  GREEN-LINED  MAPLE- WORM. 


For  the  third  time,  now,  many  of  our  soft  maple  trees  in  the  city  of 
Lincoln  have  been  entirely  defoliated  by  the  larvae  of  Anisota  rubicunda. 
This  insect  has  been  steadily  increasing  for  the  past  three  years,  and 
if  it  does  not  soon  die  off  by  some  epidemic  disease  or  is  killed  by  para- 
sites the  growing  of  this  tree  will  be  very  difficult.  This  state  of 
affairs  is  due  entirely  to  the  negligence  of  our  citizens  in  general,  who,  it 
appears,  can  not  be  induced  to  spend  the  little  time  necessary  for  the 
destruction  of  insect  pests  that  attack  their  shade  trees,  garden  and 
farm  produce,  and  flowering  plants.  The  entomologist  can  not  kill  all 
the  insects,  good  and  bad,  in  the  country;  neither  are  his  words  of 
advice  heeded  in  the  least  when  he  tells  how  each  insect  enemy  is  to  be 
gotten  rid  of  by  means  of  the  least  labor  and  expense  to  those  who 
should  be  most  interested. 

THE  BLUE-GRASS  WEEVIL. 

For  the  past  two  years  Sphenophorus'  parvulus  Gyll.  has  been  in- 
creasing quite  rapidly  in  numbers,  so  that  now  it  has  come  to  be  one  of 
our  commonest  beetles  in  the  city  of  Lincoln,  at  least,  if  not  elsewhere. 
From  the  fact  of  its  frequenting  sidewalks,  or  being  concealed  under 
boards,  sticks,  and  stones  that  were  left  lying  about  on  the  University 
campus,  and  on  lawns  elsewhere  in  the  city,  I began  an  investigation  as 
to  its  probable  breeding  place.  Tlite  study  has  led  to  the  discovery  of 
its  feeding  upon  the  roots  of  the  common  blue-grass  ( Poa  pratensis). 
So  plentiful  has  the  insect  become  in  some  lawns  that  the  sod  has  been 
entirely  killed  over  large  patches. 

The  larva  is  a short,  thick,  whitish  grub,  like  those  of  other  species 
of  the  genus,  and  measures  from  4 to  5 millimeters  in  length  when  fully 
matured.  The  beetles  appear  twice  a year,  i.e.*  in  the  spring  and  early 
fall,  the  insect  probably  being  double-brooded.  Some  of  the  beetles 
may  come  out  in  fall,  while  the  remainder  may  lie  over  winter  as  pupae. 
The  fully  matured  larvae  were  found  early  in  June,  while  others  were 
observed  last  October.  Damp  and  well-watered  lawns  appear  to  be  in- 
fested fully  as  badly,  if  not  worse,  that  those  that  are  dryer,  although 
they  do  not  show  the  injury  nearly  so  quickly  in  the  former  as  in  the 
latter  case. 

While  looking  for  larvae  during  the  latter  part  of  last  May,  numerous 
specimens  of  a small  white  u hair-worm’7  Mermis  or  Gordius , or  some 
allied  genus,  were  found  scattered  through  the  soil.  These  were  only 
obtained  at  very  damp  places  under  trees  on  the  University  campus, 
and  as  a rule  were  tightly  coiled.  Whether  these  would  have  or  had 
been  in  any  way  connected  with  the  Sphenophorus  larvae,  Ido  not  know, 
as  I am  not  sufficiently  well  acquainted  with  these  forms  nor  with  their 
life-histories.  Various  ground-beetles  ( Carabidw ) and  their  larvae  cer- 
tainly do  devour  the  larvae  of  Sphenophorus,  since  the  former  were  also 
quite  common  in  the  localities  where  the  latter  abounded.  ISTo  expert 


100 

ments  were  carried  on  with  a view  to  finding  a remedy  against  the  in- 
juries of  this  weevil. 

THE  CORN  ROOT-WORM. 

( Diabrotica  lonyicornis.) 

This  insect  is  becoming  alarmingly  common  in  the  counties  of  eastern 
Nebraska  and  those  of  western  Iowa;  and,  judging  from  the  general 
food  habits  which  the  imago  appears  to  be  developing,  it  may  soon  be- 
come a much  more  dangerous  pest  than  we  at  present  imagine.  During 
the  past  summer  and  fall  the  beetle  has  been  almost  omnipresent,  so 
common  was  it  in  the  vicinity  of  Lincoln.  It  was  found  upon  a large 
variety  of  plauts  belonging  to  different  orders.  It  was  beaten  from 
trees  such  as  maple,  box-elder,  elm,  ash,  willow,  cotton-wood,  and  oak. 
I found  it  rather  common  among  the  grasses  and  obtained  it  in  plenty 
in  gardens  where  it  was  feeding  upon  the  leaves  of  radishes  and 
turnips,  in  several  instances  completely  riddling  these  latter  with  holes. 
As  late  as  September  28,  the  beetle  was  still  quite  active  during  day- 
time, and  quickly  took  to  flight  upon  being  disturbed.  In  August  it 
was  observed  to  be  nocturnal  in  its  movements,  as  was  to  be  seen  by 
the  large  numbers  of  the  beetles  that  were  attracted  to  and  gathered 
about  the  electric  lights.  On  the  morning  of  the  15th,  260  specimens 
of  the  beetle  were  taken  from  the  globe  of  a single  arc  light  that  hangs 
in  front  of  University  Hall  upon  tfie  campus  of  the  State  University. 
These  had  all  been  attracted  to  and  caught  in  the  globe  in  a single 
night.  Whether  or  not  these  came  from  the  farms  in  the  surrounding- 
country  I can  not  say.  Might  not  the  species  work  in  the  roots  (for 
the  larva  is  a root-borer)  of  some  other  plant  or  plants  beside  corn  f 
At  any  rate  it  is  my  present  intention  to  look  into  the  life-history  of  the 
Corn  Root-worm  a little  more  closely  during  next  season.  It  is  getting 
to  be  by  far  too  common  an  insect  in  these  parts  for  us  to  be  running 
chances  in  dealing  with  it.  Rotation  of  crops  may  or  may  not  always 
prove  to  be  a remedy  against  its  depredations. 

INSECTS  DETRIMENTAL  TO  THE  GROWTH  OF  YOUNG  TREES  ON  “ TREE 
CLAIMS  77  IN  NEBRASKA  AND  OTHER  PORTIONS  OF  THE  WEST. 

For  several  years  now  I have  been  interested  in  the  study  of  the  insect 
pests  that  render  the  growing  of  young  trees  upon  claims  entered  under 
the  “timber-culture  act77  quite  a difficult  and  tedious  matter.  This 
interest  in  the  subject  had  its  origin  partly  in  personal  experience  and 
partly  from  the  numerous  complaints  of  others  who  have  experienced 
great  difficulty  in  securing  a sufficient  growth  in  their  young  timber 
within  the  limitations  for  making  final  proof.  Not  infrequently  has  it 
been  the  misfortune  for  those  striving  to  gain  titles  to  Government  lands 
under  this  ayt  to  have  their  trees  completely  defoliated  for  several 
years  in  succession.  Nor  have  these  injuries  been  confined  to  any  single 
kind  of  tree.  Since  commencing  the  study  of  the  subject  I have  either 


loi 


seen  or  heard  of  all  of  the  following  species  suffering  alike  from  this 
cause : Ash,  Box  Elder,  Soft  Maple,  Cottonwood,  and  Willow.  The 
honey  locust,  too,  has  been  subject  to  defoliation  by  insect  enemies  when 
growing  as  hedges  upon  the  uplands  of  the  semi-arid  regions  west  of 
the  97th  meridian.  Some  of  these  trees  thus  attacked  were  killed  out- 
right, while  others  were  set  back  a year  or  more  by  each  defoliation. 

Several  different  lines  of  investigation  have  been  followed  in  the 
study  of  this  subject,  viz,  the  comparative  freedom  from  insect  attack 
of  the  various  kinds  of  trees ; the  influence  of  topography  upon  the 
growth  of  each  kind  of  tree,  as  well  as  upon  the  increase  and  develop- 
ment of  the  insect  life  thriving  upon  the  tree;  also  the  comparative 
abundance  or  absence  of  birds  and  parasitic  insects  in  the  different 
regions,  and  what  relation  these  bear  to  insect  depredations.  Of  course, 
when  fully  carried  out  in  the  several  lines  indicated  above,  the  investi- 
gation of  such  a subject  can  not  fail  to  be  quite  extensive  and  result  in 
some  good  to  the  parties  most  concerned.  For  the  present  paper,  how- 
ever, only  a few  of  the  most  important  of  these  insect  enemies  will  be 
mentioned,  and  then  only  cursorily.  Of  these  there  are  about  thirty 
species  belonging  to  the  orders  Ooleoptera,  Hymenoptera,  Lepidoptera, 
Orthoptera,  and  Hemiptera.  Most  of  these  insects  that  I wish  to  call 
attention  to  are  quite  general  in  their  distribution,  and  therefore  as 
well  known  to  you  as  they  are  to  those  living  in  the  “ tree-claim” 
region.  My  report  will  then  simply  consist  of  a statement  as  to  their 
abundance,  distribution,  and  the  amount  of  injury  done  by  each  species. 
To  do  this  the  following  table  will  best  express  my  wishes  and  at  the 
same  time  be  least  cumbersome.  All  of  the  species  therein  mentioned 
have  been  either  observed  by  myself  or  were  reported  by  others  as 
occurring  in  injurious  numbers  during  different  seasons  upon  tree- 
claims  located  in  Nebraska,  Kansas,  and  Dakota. 


Insect. 

Tree. 

Insect. 

Tree. 

HYMENOPTERA. 

Ores sonia  juglandis  A.  & 

Walnut. 

Cimbex  americana  Leach  . 
Monophadnus  barda  Say  . . 

Willows. 

Ash. 

s. 

Clisiocampa  americana 
Harr. 

Most  kinds. 

COLEOPTERA. 

Clisiocampa  sylvatica 
Harr. 

Do. 

Lina  scripta  Fab 

Willow  and  Cotton- 
wood. 

Do. 

Willow. 

Datana  angusii  G.  & R. 
Anisota  rabicunda  Fab  .. 
Hyphantria  cunea  Drury 
Apatela populi  Riley... I. 
Do .. 

Black  Walnut. 

Chrysomela  sp 

Soft  Maple. 

All  kinds. 

Disonycha  pennsylvanica 

On  Cottonwood. 
Willow. 

Maple,  Box  Elder. 
Honey  Locust. 

Ash. 

Elm. 

111. 

Chrysobothris  femorata 
Fab. 

Lachnosterna(serera\  spe- 

Box  Elder  and  Maple. 

Do 

Tortricid  ( .) 

All  kinds. 

Sphinx 

Do 

Epicauta  cinerea  Forst 

LEPIDOPTERA. 

Honey  Locust,  Coffee 
Bean. 

Tortricid  ( ) 

ORTHOPTERA. 

Boring  twigs  of  Hack- 
berry,  Box  Elder. 

Papilio  turnus  Linn 

Vanessa  antiopa  Linn 

Platysamia  cccropia  Linn . 

Telea polyphemus  Cramer 

Triptogon  modesta  A.  & S. 

Ash. 

Willow,  Elm. 

Maple,  Willow,  Box 
Elder,  etc. 

Maple,  Elm,  Box  El- 
der, etc. 

Willow,  Cottonwood. 

(Ecanthus  niveus  Serv  . . . 
(Ecanthus  latipennis  Ri- 
ley. 

Melanoplus  spretus  Thos 
Melanoplus  femur-rub- 
rum  DeGeer. 

Melanoplus  differentialis 
Thos. 

Stems  of  various  trees. 
Stems  not  so  common. 

Foliage  of  all  when 
numerous. 

102 


Almost  all  of  the  above  named  insects  are  sufficiently  numerous  at 
times,  when  working  alone,  to  kill  or  at  least  to  greatly  retard  the 
growth  of  the  tree  or  trees  upon  which  they  feed.  Of  course,  they  do 
not  all  occur  at  once  in  any  given  locality  in  such  overwhelming  num- 
bers, nor  are  the  injuries  the  same  every  year ; but  quite  frequently 
two  or  more  of  the  species  are  found  feeding  in  company  upon  the  same 
tree  in  numbers  sufficiently  great  to  do  harm.  In  addition  to  the  species 
named  above  there  are  a great  many  others  that  are  also  known  to  at- 
tack and  injure  the  trees  growing  upon  tree-claims ; but  these  latter 
have  not  yet  made  their  presence  so  strongly  felt  as  to  force  us  to  place 
them  on  the  list  of  insect  pests  in  connection  with  tree-claim  culture. 
Fora  description  and  life  history  of  many  of  these  the  reader  is  referred 
to  Bulletin  No.  7 of  the  United  States  Entomological  Commission,  en- 
titled a Insects  Injurious  to  Forest  and  Shade  Trees.” 

Causes  for  these  Insect  Injuries. — There  is  a cause  for  everything,  so 
in  the  present  instance  we  must  look  for  one  or  a combination  of  causes 
that  work  together  in  producing  the  undue  increase  of  insect  life  upon 
the  prairies  when  new  varieties  of  plants  are  introduced.  A very 
superficial  survey  of  the  ground  will  quickly  reveal  to  us  some  of  these 
causes. 

In  the  first  place,  there  are  always  a few  dwarfed  trees  of  most  of  the 
kinds  that  are  usually  planted  upon  claims.  These  trees  are  scattered 
along  the  water  courses,  in  ravines  and  gulches,  and  a few  other  localities 
that  are  protected  from  the  fires  which  have  annually  swept  over  the 
broad  prairies  for  generations.  These  few  trees  furnish  food  for  small 
colonies  of  the  various  species  of  insects  that  we  have  named.  There 
are  always  enough  of  them  to  very  quickly  stock  a claim  close  by  upon 
which  small  trees  are  planted  that  are  to  their  taste.  Then,  too,  all  of 
these  injurious  insects  are  of  a hardy  nature,  used  to  a precarious  life, 
and  are  strong  fliers  capable  of  making  comparatively  long  journeys  in 
search  of  food  for  themselves  and,  their  progeny.  They  are,  in  fact,  the 
nomads  of  the  insect  world,  capable  of  withstanding  the  vicissitudes 
belonging  to  a life  upon  the  vast  prairies  where  the  more  delicate  para- 
sitic forms  could  not  live  or  even  find  shelter.  Then,  too,  their 
requirements  for  quarters  in  which  to  pass  the  long,  cold  winter  months 
are  less  complex  than  are  those  of  the  species  that  come  later  on. 

In  the  second  place,  the  country  being  destitute  of  groves  of  timber 
among  the  branches  of  which  insectivorous  birds  can  find  shelter  and 
build  their  nests  most  of  these  insect  destroyers  are  absent.  Of  course, 
the  absence  of  so  great  a factor  as  are  these  birds  in  the  ridding  a 
country  of  its  insect  pests  soon  becomes  apparent  in  the  increase  of  the 
latter  and  of  the  accompanying  injury  done  by  them.  The  absence  of 
groves,  too,  not  only  keeps  away  the  feathered  tribe,  but  also  prevents 
many  of  the  more  delicate  parasitic  and  a large  number  of  the  preda- 
ceous insects  from  becoming  established  in  the  region.  The  majority 
of  these  latter  forms  of  insects,  as  before  stated,  are  such  as  require 


103 


sheltered  retreats  in  which  to  lurk  or  to  get  away  from  the  hot  dry  sum- 
mers and  the  long  cold  winters. 

In  the  third  place,  the  comparative  aridity  of  the  region  where  these 
claims  are  located  renders  the  growth  of  them  somewhat  slower  than 
where  the  precipitation  is  more  bountiful.  This  slowness  of  growth, 
while  it  is  an  advantage  in  one  respect,  aids  the  insect  foes  to  a con- 
derable  extent  in  their  work  of  destruction.  A rank  and  rapid  growth 
places  a tree  out  of  danger  from  external  enemies  much  more  quickly 
than  will  a slow  growth.  At  the  same  time  in  rank  growth  a much 
greater  amount  of  food  is  furnished  for  the  same  number  of  insects, 
and  as  a consequence  less  injury  to  the  tree  results  than  would  were 
the  grow tli  slower. 

A fourth  cause  for  the  rapid  increase  among  these  different  insects 
in  new  regions  is  the  absence  of  such  fungoid  diseases  as  are  known  to 
attack  and  kill  various  of  these  pests.  After  awhile,  however,  the 
germs  of  these  diseases  become  diffused  through  the  soil,  vegetable 
debris,  and  about  the  encumbering  growths,  buildings,  etc.  These 
germs  are  carried  around  by  the  elements  and  other  agencies,  and  in 
time  some  of  them  find  lodgment  within  the  bodies  of  such  insects  as 
are  susceptible  to  their  growth.  The  result  is  disease  and  death. 

Comparative  Freedom  of  different  Trees  from  the  Attacks  of  Insect  Pests. — 
Up  to  the  present  writing  I have  not  sufficiently  investigated  this  por- 
tion of  the  subject  to  be  entirely  positive  in  my  assertions  as  to  the 
kind  or  kinds  of  trees  most  nearly  exempt  from  the  attacks  of  insect 
foes  in  different  regions.  None  of  them  are  entirely  free ; but  that  there 
are  trees  which  suffer  less  than  others  in  this  respect  is  a well-known 
fact,  and  can  be  seen  at  any  time  where  several  kinds  are  growing  side 
by  side  or  in  the  same  grove.  Again,  a particular  kind  of  tree  might 
be  troubled  in  a given  locality,  while  in  another  it  would  be  compara- 
tively free.  Some  trees  also  suffer  while  small,  and  others  are  usually 
injured  after  they  have  gained  considerable  growth  and  age.  These 
variations  with  regard  to  insect  attacks  among  different  trees,  and  of 
the  same  kind  at  different  ages,  are  governed  by  laws  the  explanation 
of  which  would  require  much  more  time  and  space  than  I have  at  my 
command.  By  looking  over  the  list  of  insects  mentioned  above  it  will 
be  seen  that  no  reference  is  made  of  any  species  injuring  either  the 
Catalpa  or  Russian  Mulberry.  The  Ash  is  affected  by  three,  each  of 
which  at  times  strips  it  of  foliage  while  young;  the  Box  Elder  by  two 
or  three;  the  Willow  by  a dozen  or  more  ; the  Cottonwood  by  four  or 
five;  the  Soft- Maple  by  several ; the  Elm  a couple  ; the  Honey  Locust 
two,  etc. 

In  treating  this  subject  only  such  insects  have  been  mentioned  as 
have  been  ascertained  to  attack  the  various  trees  during  their  first  few 
years  of  growth,  and  before  they  have  attained  any  great  size.  Other 
species  of  insects  injure  these  trees  later  on ; but,  as  a rule,  these  latter 


104 


are  less  destructive  to  them  save  in  a few  instances.  Only  a verv  few 
borers  work  in  healthy  young  trees  in  this  region. 

Remedies  tried  and  suggested . — Only  a few  remedies  have  been  gener- 
ally tried  against  these  pests  in  the  region  of  tree  claims,  and  most  of 
these  were  confined  to  the  various  methods  of  “hand-picking”  and 
crushing.  Spraying  and  dusting  with  poisons  and  kerosene  emulsions, 
or  the  use  of  road  dust,  ashes,  air-slaked  lime,  etc.,  have  been  reported 
only  in  a very  few  instances.  Any  or  all  of  these  methods  of  warfare  when 
properly  carried  on  and  used  intelligently,  in  accordance  with  the  habits 
of  the  insect  that  is  being  fought,  will  repay  one  for  the  time  thus 
spent. 

LOCUSTS  OR  GRASSHOPPERS. 

Aside  from  several  local  outbreaks  there  has  been  no  special  damage 
done  during  the  year  by  locusts  within  the  United  States.  Of  course, 
you  are  already  acquainted  with  the  particulars  in  connection  with  the 
local  injuries,  of  which  the  chief  are  the  following:  The  Rocky  Mount- 
ain or  migratory  species  at  Nephi  City,  Utah ; the  same  in  Otter  Tail 
County,  Minnesota;  and  the  lesser  and  red-thighed  species  in  the  mount- 
ain districts  of  the  New  England  States.  The  Utah  outbreak  was 
partly  investigated  by  me  at  the  time  (May)  of  its  occurrence,  through 
correspondence  with  the  Hon.  James  B.  Darton,  of  Nephi  City.  That 
gentleman  supplied  me  with  specimens  at  different  times  from  which  tlie 
insects  under  consideration  were  determined.  The  conclusions  at  which 
1 then  arrived  were  reported  to  Mr.  Howard  in  your  absence.  If  1 
remember  rightly,  both  the  Rocky  Mountain  ( Melanoplus  spretus)  and 
the  California  locust  (Camnula pellucida)  were  found  among  the  material 
received  from  Mr.  Darton.  The  Otter  Tail  outbreak  has  been  very  care- 
fully written  up  by  Mr.  Otto  Lugger,  of  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Sta- 
tion ; while  Mr.  C.  L.  Marlatt,  of  the  Entomological  Division,  has  reported 
on  the  New  England  outbreak. 

While  it  is  not  my  intention  to  devote  much  time  to  the  subject  of 
locust  abundance  and  injuries,  I do  wish  to  say  a few  words  concerning 
the  fungoid  disease  known  as  Entomoplitliora  calopteni  of  Bessey.  Dur- 
ing the  present  summer  this  disease  has  been  unusually  abundant  in 
and  around  the  city  of  Lincoln,  Nebr.  Several  species  oi  our  native 
locusts  were  attacked  by  it;  but  the  large  yellow  one, known  as  the 
Melanoplus  differ  entialis  Thomas,  was  destroyed  by  the  thousands. 
Whether  the  fungus  in  question  was  more  plentiful  than  usual,  and 
did  its  work  of  extermination  more  effectually  than  during  previous 
summers;  or,  whether  it  was  on  account  of  my  being  surrounded  by  a 
number  of  students  in  botany,  and  located  next  door  to  the  botanical 
laboratory,  that  attracted  my  attention  to  these,  1 do  not  know.  The 
impression  is,  however,  that  the  former  is  the  true  explanation.  On 
the  University  campus  alone,  where  differentialis  hatched  quite  plen- 
tifully and  began  doing  considerable  injury  to  various  small  trees  and 


105 


shrubs,  there  must  have  been  several  thousands  of  the  hoppers  destroyed 
bv  the  disease.  Soon  after  the  locusts  became  fledged  some  of  them 
were  observed  to  die  after  first  showing  signs  of  disease.  After  the 
disease  first  became  apparent  among  the  locusts,  it  spread,  or  at  least 
appeared  in  other  portions  of  the  city,  the  number  of  dead  and  dying 
locusts  increasing  daily.  So  fatal  did  the  disease  finally  become  upon 
the  University  campus  that  but  few  of  the  differentialis  escaped  to 
deposit  eggs.  I know  that  three  or  four  of  the  botanical  students  each 
collected  the  dead  locusts  by  the  chalk-box  full  to  use  as  specimens  in 
their  line  of  work,  and  for  exchange,  while  I gathered  many  of  them 
myself.  During  the  latter  half  of  August,  and  early  in  September,  at 
almost  any  time  one  might  have  secured  from  fifty  to  a hundred  or 
more  specimens  of  the  dead  locusts  in  a few  moments,  by  simply  going 
outside  of  the  science  hall  a few  yards. 

So  rapid  was  the  final  action  of  the  Entomophthora  (or  Empusa , as  it 
has  more  recently  been  called)  that  not  infrequently  the  locusts  were 
found  still  in  copulation,  one  or  the  other  of  the  sex  being  dead.  When 
they  were  found  in  this  condition,  the  female,  though  not  always,  was 
the  first  to  succumb.  This  would  not,  however,  prove  anything  as  to 
the  comparative  fatality  of  the  disease  as  far  as  the  different  sexes  are 
concerned.  There  are  other  matters  to  be  taken  into  consideration  be- 
fore we  can  come  to  a definite  solution  of  comparative  immunity  from 
attacks  upon  the  different  sexes  of  an  insect  by  a disease  like  the  present. 

Just  how  long  a time  is  required  for  the  full  development  of  the 
fungus  after  an  insect  is  first  attacked  I am  not  prepared  to  state ; 
neither  can  I give  an  account  of  the  various  stages  through  which  the 
fungus  passes  during  this  development  from  the  original  spore  to  the 
stage  where  such  spores  are  reproduced.  Nor  am  I posted  as  to  all 
symptoms  present  during  the  different  stages  of  the  disease  occasioned 
by  the  fungus  within  the  tissues  of  a living  locust.  All  that  I know 
is,  that  shortly  before  death  the  stricken  hopper  climbs  up  some  stick, 
weed,  or  blade  of  grass,  to  which  it  clings  frantically  with  its  anterior 
and  middle  pairs  of  legs.  When  found  dead  these  always  have  their 
head  uppermost. 

Whether  or  not  invariabty  fatal  I can  not  say  ; and  imagine  that  to 
ascertain  this  would  be  no  easy  task.  I am  also  quite  ignorant  in  refer- 
ence to  its  capability  of  being  artificially  spread,  since  I have  had  no 
opportunity  to  experiment  in  that  direction.  Besides,  the  disease  does 
not  appear  to  be  common  to  all  species  of  locusts  alike;  or  if  it  is,  we 
do  not  know  it.  The  subject  will  bear  a much  more  careful  study  than 
has  thus  far  been  devoted  to  it.  From  an  economic  standpoint  there  is 
still  a great  deal  to  be  learned  concerning  insect-attacking  fungi,  as  a 
few  recent  experiments  in  this  line  clearly  demonstrate. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  this  locust-destroying  fungus  I wish  to 
add  the  following  notes,  prepared  for  the  present  paper  at  my  request 


106 


by  Prof.  C.  E.  Bessey.  They  will  show  the  most  recent  views  of  bota- 
nists as  to  the  systematic  position  of  the  plant  in  question  : 

j Entomophthora  calopteni  Bessey. — The  original  description  of  this  species  appeared 
in  the  American  Naturalist  for  December,  1883  (page  1280).  It  is  reproduced  here 
verbatim : 

“ I.  Empusa  stage,  not  seen. 

“ II.  Tarichium  stage  : Oospores  globular,  or  from  pressure  somewhat  irregular  in 
outline,  colorless,  36  to  39/*.  in  diameter;  walls  thick  (4/*.),  colorless,  smooth  ; pro- 
toplasm granular,  after  as  if  composed  of  many  small  cells,  often  with  a large  round 
vacuole.  Occurring  as  a clay-colored  mass  in  the  body  cavity  and  femora  of  Calop- 
tenus  diff erentialis. 

“Ames,  Iowa,  August  and  September,  1883.” 

Specimens  of  this  fungus  collected  in  Wisconsin  by  Trelease  and  Seymour  were 
distributed  under  the  name  given  above  by  Ellis  and  Everhart  in  North  American 
Fungi,  No.  1801.  In  April,  1888,  Mr.  Roland  Thaxter  published,  in  the  Memoirs  of 
the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  an  important  paper  on  The  Entomophthorae 
of  the  United  States,  in  which  he  revises  the  species  of  the  group,  and  adopts  the 
older  generic  name  Empusa,  first  proposed  by  Cohn  in  1855,  in  preference  to  Ento- 
mophthora proposed  by  Fresenius  in  1856.  Moreover,  Mr.  Thaxter  concludes  that  the 
fungus  described  above  is  identical  with  one  described  as  Entomophthora  grylli,  by 
Fresenius,  in  1856.  Specimens  of  this  species  were  distributed  in  1885  by  Dr.  Farlow, 
in  Ellis’  North  American  Fungi,  No.  1401.  Our  species  thus  appeared  in  Mr.  Thaxter’s 
paper  under  the  name  of  Empusa  grylli  (Fres.)  Nowakowski. 


r N D E X . 


Algeria  tipuliformis,  86. 

ACsculus  californictis,  89. 

Agallia  flaccida,  29. 

4-punctata,  28. 
sanguinolenta,  29. 

Agriotes  mancus,  51. 

Agrosfcis,  93. 

Agrotis  annexa,  97. 

clandestina.  89,  97. 
cocliranii,  88. 

crenulata,  life-bistory  of,  89. 
herilis,  43. 
messoria,  88, 97. 
saucia,  82,  97. 
sutfusa,  97. 

Allotria  tritici,  71. 

Allygus  irroratus,  30. 

Amaranthus.  97. 

Anabrus  simplex,  94. 

Andropogon  divisitiflorus,  59. 

Anisopteryx  vernata,  74. 

Anisota  rubicunda,  99, 101.  # 

Anomala  varians,  51. 

Anthrax  parasitic  on  Agrotis  berilis,  44. 

Aonidia  aurantii,  7. 

Apatela'populi,  101. 

Apbidins  avenapbis,  71. 

Apbids,  abundance  in  Missouri,  70. 

found  on  wheat,  70. 

Aphis  avenae,  74. 
mali,  70. 
persicm,  80. 

n.  sp.  on  roots  of  wheat,  70. 

Apple,  75,  79,  86,  88,  90,  96. 

Arbutus  menziesii.  85. 

Army  AVorm  in  Iowa,  20. 

Indiana,  45. 

Nebraska,  98. 
parasites  of,  46,  98. 
the  fall.  46. 

Arsenic,  experiments  with,  80. 

Arundinaria  tecta,  59. 

Ash,  100, 101. 

Aspidiotus  aurantii,  7, 10, 14, 17. 

Aster,  82. 

Harley,  57,  93. 

Bassus  sycophauta,  71. 

Bats  capturing  Codling  moths,  91. 

Beans,  52.  82. 

Bean's  Eureka  insecticide,  17. 

Beet,  76. 

Bessey,  Prof.  C.  E.,  description  of  Entomophtbora 
calopteni,  106. 


Bittacus  near  stigmaterus  destroying  Crambus, 
48. 

Blackberry,  74. 

Blissus  leucopterus,  41, 55,  96,  97. 

Bluo  Grass,  19, 42,  99. 

Blue  Grass  Weevil  in  Nebraska,  99. 

Box-elder,  74,  100, 101. 

Bruner,  Lawrence,  Report  by,  95. 

Buckeye,  89. 

Buckton,  quoted,  69. 

Bytboscopns  sanguinolentus,  29. 

siccifolius,  29. 

Cabbage,  52,  73. 

Butterfly,  76. 

Curculio,  73. 

AVorm,  81. 

Calatlius  ruficollis,  92. 

California  Insects,  Report  on,  85. 

Caloptenus  fern  ur-ru  brum,  22, 44,  94, 101. 

Camnula  pellucida,  94, 104. 

Canker  worms  in  Missouri,  74. 

Carpocapsa  {see  Codling  moth). 

Catalpa,  103. 

Ceanothus,  87. 

cordulatus,  88. 
thyrsiflorus,  88. 

Cecidomyia  destructor,  93. 

Celaena  renigera.  82. 

Ceratocbloa  australis,  37. 

Ceuthorhynchus  rapte,  73. 

Chenopodium  album,  76. 

Cherry,  Wild,  87. 

Chinch  Bug,  41,  96. 

Injuring  grasses  in  Iowa,  21. 

In  Indiana,  55. 

Unequal  distribution  in  Indiana,  55. 

Influence  of  rain-fall,  58. 

Fungus  disease  of,  60. 

Chionanthus  virginica,  79. 

Chrysanthemum,  75. 

Clirysobothris  femorata,  101. 

mali,  86. 

Chrysomela  sp.  injurious  to  Willow,  101. 

Chrysopa  larva?  feeding  on  Phylloxera  rileyi,  83. 

probably  destroying  Codling  moth  eggs, 
91. 

preying  on  AVheat  Aphis,  71. 

Cicada  coccinea,  28. 

Cicadula  exitiosa,  30. 

Cimbex  americana,  101. 

Cladius  isomera,  78. 

Clisiocampa  americana,  101. 

ca  liforoica,  87. 


107 


108 


(jlisiocampa  cohstricta,  8?. 
erosa,  87. 
fragilis,  87. 
strigosa,  87. 
sylvatica,  101. 
thoracica,  87. 

Clover,  19, 47,  75,  82,  98. 

-seed  midge  in  Iowa,  19. 

Coccinella  9-notata,  64, 72. 

Codling  moth  in  Missouri,  75. 

California,  89. 

parasites  of,  in  California,  8, 90. 
Coffee  bean,  101. 

Colorado  potato  beetle,  experiments  with,  80,  81. 
Conozoa  wallula,  94. 

Contopus  virens,  48. 

Coquillett,  D.  W.,  Report  by,  9. 

Coriscus  ferus,  26. 

Corn,  43,  46, 47, 48,  52,  53,  57, 100. 

Sweet,  76. 

Corn  root- worm  in  Nebraska,  100. 

Cornus,  33. 

sanguinea,  36. 
sericea,  39. 

Corymelaena  pulicaria,  75. 

Cosmos,  75. 

Cottonwood,  100, 101. 

Cottony  Cushion  Scale,  9, 12. 

Crambus  exsiccatus,  18. 

laqueatellus,  18, 48. 
zeellus,  47,  48. 

Cressonia  juglandis,  101. 

Cruciferae  injured  by  Phyllotreta  vittata,  73. 
Cucumber,  76,  82. 

Currant,  86,  88. 

Cut- worm,  a new,  47. 

Cut-worms  in  California,  88. 

Iowa,  18,  20. 

Nebraska,  97. 

Dactylis  glomerata,  71. 

Dahlia,  75. 

Datana  angusii,  101. 

ministra,  44, 45. 

Destructive  Leaf-hopper,  30. 

Diabrotica  12-punctata,  19,  52,  76. 
longicornis,  100. 
soror,  87. 
vittata,  19. 

Diamond  soluble  bone,  experiment  with,  48. 
Diedrocephala  coccinea,  27,  28. 

mollipes,  26. 
noveboracensis,  27. 
versuta,  27. 

Dipterous  parasite  of  Armj7  Worm,  98. 

Diabrotica  soror,  87. 

Disonyclia  collaris,  76. 

pennsylvanica,  101. 

Dissosteira  Carolina,  94. 

obliterata,  94. 

Dogwood  Plant-louse,  20,  32. 

Its  identity  with  the  grass  root-louse,  32. 
Dorypliora  10-lineata,  80. 

Drasterius  dorsalis,  52. 

elegans,  52. 

Drymeia  sp.  parasitic  on  Army  Worm,  46. 

Elm,  74,  100. 


Elymus  americanus,  93. 

Empusa  grylli,  106. 

Encyrtus  websteri,  71. 

Entomological  notes  from  Missouri  for  1889,  73. 
Entomophthora  disease  of  the  Chinch  Bug,  60. 
Entomophthora  calopteni,  104,  106. 

grylli,  106. 

Epicauta  cinerea,  101. 

Epitrix  cucumeris,  19. 

Eragrostis  megastachya,  37. 

Erax  larva,  probably  parasitic  on  White  Grub,  51. 
Eriosoma?  cornicola,  37,  39,  40. 

? fungicola,  37,  38,  40. 

European  Cabbage  Butterfly  in  Missouri,  76. 
Eureka  insecticide,  experiments  with,  17. 
Fabricius’s  original  description  of  Aphis  corni,  36. 
Fall  Army  Worm,  46. 

False  Chinch  Bugs  in  Nebraska,  95. 

Fertilizing  salt,  experiments  with,  50. 

Flea-like  negro-bug  in  Missouri,  75. 

Fluted  Scale,  9,  12. 

Four-pointed  Agallia,  28. 

Foxtails  (see  Setaria). 

Fungus  disease  of  Chinch  Bug,  60. 

grasshoppers,  104. 

Gas  treatment  for  Scale  insects,  9. 

Geocoris  bullata,  96. 

Gortyna  nitela,  47,  75. 

Grain  Aphis  in  Indiana,  64. 

Severe  outbreak  in  1889,  64. 

Influence  of  temperature  and  moisture,  65. 
Cool  temperature  favorable  to  its  develop 
ment,  68. 

Efficacy  of  parasites,  69. 

Notes  on  life-history,  69. 

Enumeration  of  natural  enemies,  71. 

Other  species  of  Aphids  found  on  wheat,  70. 
Grain  fruits,  insects  injurious  to,  7,  42. 

Grape,  86,  96. 

Grass,  19,  20,  34,  93, 100.  » 

Hungarian,  41. 

Timothy,  45. 

Grasses,  insects  injurious  to,  7,20,41. 

Grass-root  Plant-louse,  32. 

Grasshoppers  in  Iowa,  21. 

fungus  disease  of,  104. 

Green-lined  Maple  worm  in  Nebraska,  99. 

Gryllus  luctuosus,  94. 

Hackberry,  101. 

Hadena  stipata,  47. 

Halticus  pallicornis,  82. 

Hesperotettix  pacificus,  44. 

Hessian  fly  in  California,  93. 

new  food-plants  of,  93. 

Heteroptera  infesting  grasses,  41. 

Hieroglyphic  Leaf-hopper,  28. 

Hippodamia  convergens,  72. 

glacialis,  72. 
parenthesis,  72. 

13-punctata,  72. 

Honey  Locust,  101. 

Hopper  Dozers  recommended  for  Leaf-hoppers,25. 
Hungarian  grass,  41. 

Hurtful  Leaf-hopper,  31. 

Hydrocyanic  gas  treatment,  9. 

Hyphantria  cunea,  101. 


109 


Icerya  purchasi,  7,  9,  12. 

Ichneumon  brevicinctor,  46. 

Insects  affecting  grain  fruits,  7, 42. 

grasses,  7,  20. 

young  trees  on  western  tree 
claims,  100. 

injurious  in  California,  85. 

Iowa,  18. 

Missouri,  73. 

Nebraska,  95. 

Insecticides,  experiments  with,  9, 48,  80. 

Beau’s  Eureka  insecticide,  17. 
hydrocyanic  acid  gas,  9. 

London  purple,  19. 

Paris  green,  80. 

Petroleum  emulsion,  19,  80. 

Besin  soaps  and  compounds,  10. 
Salts,  50,  51. 

White  arsenic,  80. 

Various  substances,  48. 

X.  O.  Dust,  19, 80. 

Iowa,  insects  injurious  in,  18. 

Ischnodomus  falicus,  41. 

Isocrates  vulgaris,  71. 

Isosoma  sp.  destructive  in  California,  93. 
tritici,  42. 

Jassus  inimicus,  31. 

Kerosene  emulsion,  19,  80. 

Koebele,  Albert,  Report  by,  85. 

Lachnosterna  larvrn  destructive  in  Indiana.  48. 

injuring  young  trees  in  the  West, 

101. 

Laphria  tergissa  destroying  Varying  Anomala,  51. 
Lapliygraa  frugiperda,  46. 

Leaf-hoppers  affecting  grass  iu»Iowa,  21. 
Appearance  and  habits,  23. 

Amount  and  nature  of  damage,  22. 

Remedies,  23. 

Enumeration  of  species  observed,  26. 
Lecanium  olem,  13. 

sp.  on  dogwood,  34. 

Leuoania  unipuncta  ( see  Army  Worm). 
Leucarctia  acrsea,  92. 

Lina  scripta,  76, 101. 

Linden,  74. 

Locust  injury  in  1889, 104. 

Locusts  on  the  Pacific  coast,  93. 

London  purple  and  Kerosene  emulsion,  19. 

Long  Bug,  41. 

Luperina  stipata,  47. 

Lygus  lineatus,  75. 

pratensis,  75. 

Madrona  tree-borer,  85. 

Maple,  74, 100, 101. 
soft,  99, 101. 

Maple  Worm,  the  Green-lined,  99. 

Meadows  and  pastures,  insects  injurious  to,  20, 48. 
Megaspilus  niger,  71. 

Megilla  maculata,  72. 

Megoura  sp.  found  on  rye,  71. 

Melanoplus  cinereus,  94. 

devastator,  94. 
differentials,  101, 104. 
femur-rubrum,  22,  24, 94, 101. 
packardii,  94. 
spretus,  101, 104. 


Melaxanthus  salicis,  20. 

Meroinyza  americana,  42. 

found  on  grass  in  Iowa,  19. 

Merisus  destructor,  93. 

Micropus  leucopterus,  41,  55,  96,  97. 

Millet,  98. 

Mir  is  atfinis,  41. 

Monophadnus  barda,  101. 

Mulberry,  96. 

Russian,  103. 

Murtfeldt,  Mary  E.,  Report  by,  73. 

Myzus  sp.  found  on  wheat,  71. 

Nasturtium,  76. 

Nebraska,  insects  injurious  in,  95. 

Nemoraea  leucanhe,  46. 

New  Rose  Slug,  78. 

Life-history,  78. 

Description  of  larva,  78. 

New  York  Leaf-hopper,  27. 

Nomophila  noctuella,  18. 

Nysius  angustatus,  96. 

Oak,  82,  87, 88, 100, 

Oats,  52,  57,  98. 

Oecanthus  latipennis,  82, 101. 
niveus,  101. 

(Estlund,  O.  W.,  quoted,  38. 

Olive,  86. 

Ophion  purgatus,  46. 

Orchard  grass,  71. 

trees,  74,  75. 

Osborn,  Prof.  Herbert,  Report  by,  18. 
Pachyneuron  micans,  71. 

Palthis  angulalis,  description  of  larva  and  pupa, 
79. 

Panicum,  33,  63. 

anceps,  59. 
glabrum,  37, 38. 
prolific  um,  59. 
viscidum,  59. 

Papilioturnus,  101. 

Paspalum  fluitans,  59. 
lseve,  59. 

Passerini,  quoted,  37. 

Peach,  74,  75. 

Pear,  75, 90. 

Bartlett,  90. 

Peppergrass,  73,  97. 

Phosphate  salt,  experiment  with,  49. 

Phyllotreta  vittata,  73, 80. 

zimmermanni,  80. 

Phylloxera  rileyi,  notes  on,  for  1889,  82. 

Pieris  protodice,  76. 
rapae,  76. 

Pimpla  annulipes,  90. 

Pipizapulchella  poasibly  preying  on  Chinch  Bug, 
64. 

Plagiodera  scripta,  76, 101. 

Platysamia  cecropia,  101. 

Plum,  74, 86. 

Plum  curculio  in  Missouri,  74. 

Poa  pratensis,  42, 70,  99. 

Podabrus  tomentosus,  72. 

Podura  found  on  radishes,  74. 

Polycaon  confertus,  85. 

Polygonum,  97. 

Populus,  76. 


110 


Post  Oak,  82. 

Primus  demissa,  87. 

Pterostichus  californicus,  92. 

Purslane,  97. 

Bug,  96. 

Quorcus  agrifolia,  87,  89. 

conomensis,  87. 
obtusiloba,  82. 

Radish,  73, 100. 

Rain-fall  and  temperature  in  Indiana,  66,  67. 
Raphidia  destroying  Codling  Moths  in  Califor- 
nia, 92- 

Red-backed  Leaf-hopper,  28. 

Red  Scale  of  California,  7. 

methods  of  destroying,  9. 

Red  osier  dogwood,  37. 

Resin  soaps  and  compounds  for  Scale  insects,  10. 
Rhopalosiphum  n.  sp.  found  on  wheat,  70. 
Rhubarb,  74. 

Rocky  Mountain  Locust,  101, 104. 

Rose,  78. 

Rose  slug,  anew,  78. 

Ryan,  F.  G.,  experiment  with  rosin  washes,  13. 
Rye,  46,  57,  70, 71. 

Sage  bush,  94. 

Salts,  experiment  with,  as  insecticides,  49,  50,  51. 
Schizoneura  corni,  20,  32,  33,  36. 
crataegi,  19. 
panicola,  33,  38,  40. 
venusta,  37,  40. 

Scirpus  atrovirens,  53. 

Scoliopteryx  libatrix,  46. 

Selandria  rosae,  78,  80. 

? sp.  injurious  to  White  Fringe,  79. 
Setaria,  33,  41,  63. 

glauca,  37, 61. 
italica,  37. 
viridis,  37. 

Shade  trees  infested  by  Aphids,  74. 
Siphonophoraavenae,  64,74. 

Smart-weed,  97. 

Sphaerophoria  cylindrica,  71. 

Sphenophorus  ochreus,  52. 

parvulus,  99. 

Spinach,  76. 

Spinach  beetle,  76. 

Life-habits  and  history,  76. 

Description  of  larva  and  pupa,  77. 

Squash,  76. 

Stalk-borer,  75. 

Steiroxis  sp.,  94. 

Stenobothris  coloradus,  94. 

Stink-grass,  97. 

Strawberry,  75. 

Streaked  Cottonwood  Beetle,  76, 101. 

Swamp  Sphenophorus  iu  Indiana,  52. 

Sweet  corn,  76. 

Systcechus  oreas,  44. 

Tarnished  Plant-bug,  75,  81. 

Telea  polyphemus,  101. 

Telephorus  caiolinus,  72. 


Tenderfoot  Leal-hopper,  26. 

Tent  caterpillars  of  the  Pacilic  coast,  87. 
Tottigonia  hieroglyph ica,  28. 

4-vittata,  28. 

Thomas,  Prof.  Cyrus,  quoted,  37,  38. 

Thorn-tree  Aphid  in  Iowa,  19. 

Thrips  found  on  blue  grass,  19. 

larva}  feeding  on  Phylloxera  rileyi,83. 
Timothy  grass,  45. 

Tortricid  injurious  to  Honey  Locust,  101. 

boring  twigs  of  Hackberry  and  Box- 
elder,  101. 

Toxoptera  n.  sp.  found  on  wheat,  70. 
Trapozonotus  nelmlosus,  96. 

Trees  on  western  tree  claims,  insects  injurious 
to,  100. 

Trichogramma  pretiosa,  8. 

Trimerotropis  fallax,  94. 

Trioxys  sp.  parasitic  on  Grain  Aphis,  71. 
Triptogon  modesta,  101. 

Trogoderma  tarsale..  larva  feeding  on  Codling 
moth  pupae,  92. 

Tropmolum,  76. 

Turf  Web- worms  in  Iowa,  20. 

Turnips,  73,  100. 

Twelve-spotted  Diabrotica,  52,  76. 

Tychea  panici,  38. 

Uhler,  Prof.  P.,  quoted,  26. 

Uniola  latifolia,  59. 

Van  Duzee,  E.  P.,  quoted,  29,  30. 

Vanessa  an tiopa,  101. 

Varying  Anomala,  51. 

Vedalia  cardinalis,  8,  9, 85. 

Walsh,  B.  D.,  quoted,  37. 

Walnut,  101. 

Black,  101. 

Washes  for  Scale  insects,  7, 10. 

Wavy -spotted  Leaf-hopper,  30. 

Wavy-striped  Flea-beetle,  73. 

Webster,  Prof.  F.  M.,  Report  by,  42. 

Weed,  Clarence  M.,  quoted,  39. 

Western  Striped  Cut-worms,  43. 

Interesting  parasite  on,  44 . 

Wheat,  42,  51,  52,  57, 64,  70,  71, 93. 

Wheat  stem  maggot,  42. 
straw  worm,  42. 
wire-worm,  51. 

White  arsenic,  experiments  with,  80. 

White  Fringe  tree,  79. 

White  Fringe  Slug,  79. 

Description  of  larva,  79. 

White  grubs  in  Indiana,  48. 

Iowa,  20. 

experiments  for  destroying,  48. 

Wild  Cherry,  87. 

Willow,  87,88,100,101. 

Willow  Plant-louse,  20. 

Wire-worm  injuring  wheat,  51. 

Wood  Pewee  destroying  Crambus  moths,  48. 
Xanthogramma  emarginata,  71. 

X.  O.  Dust,  experiments  with,  19,  75,  80. 


o 


\ 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

DIVISION  OP  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Bulletin  No.  23. 


REPORTS 


OF 

OBSERVATIONS  AND  EXPERIMENTS 

IN 

THE  PRACTICAL  WORK  OF  THE  DIVISION, 

MADE 

UNDER  THE  DIRECTION  OF  THE  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


(PUBLISHED  BY  THE  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE.) 


WASH  I NGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1891. 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

DIVISION  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Bulletin  No.  23. 


REPORTS 


OBSERVATIONS  AND  EXPERIMENTS 


THE  PRACTICAL  WORK  OF  THE  DIVISION, 

MADE 


UNDER  THE  DIRECTION  OF  THE  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


(PUBLISHED  BY  THE  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE.) 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1891. 


CONTENTS 


Page. 

Letter  of  Submittal 5 

Introduction 7 

Report  on  Nebraska  Insects Lawrence  Bruner . . 9 

Report  on  various  Methods  for  destroying  Scale  Insects,  D.  W.  Coquil- 

lett 19 

Report  upon  Experiments  chiefly  with  Resin  Compounds  on  Phyl- 
loxera VASTATRIX,  AND  OBSERVATIONS  MADE  DURING  THE  YEAR,  Albert 

Eoebele 37 

Entomological  Notes  from  Missouri  for  the  Season  of  1890,  Mary  E . 

Murtfeldt 45 

Report  on  the  Work  of  the  Season  in  Iowa Herbert  Osborn..  bit 

Report  on  some  of  the  Insects  affecting  Cereal  Crops.  ..F.  M.  Webster. . 63 

3 


Chi  ■ 2 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 


Department  of  Agriculture, 

Division  of  Entomology, 
Washington , D.  O.,  January  3,  1891. 

Sir:  I have  the  honor  to  submit  for  publication  Bulletin  No.  23  of 
this  Division.  It  comprises  the  reports  of  the  field  agents  of  the  Division 
for  the  past  year  (1890),  a summary  of  which  has  been  included  in  your 
annual  report. 

Respectfully, 

0.  Y.  Biley, 

Entomologist . 

Hon.  J.  M.  Rusk, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 


5 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  reports  of  the  six  permanent  field  agents  of  tlie  Division  are  in- 
cluded in  this  bulletin.  They  are  printed  this  year  in  full,  but  it  should 
be  understood  that  they  are  little  more  than  summaries  of  the  work  in 
general  performed  by  each  one.  Special  reports  upon  specific  subjects 
have  from  time  to  time  been  sent  in  by  special  direction,  and  these 
have  been  published  in  Insect  Life. 

Mr.  Lawrence  Bruner,  who  last  year  reported  upon  the  insects  inju- 
rious to  young  trees  on  tree  claims,  has  the  present  season  devoted 
much  of  his  attention  to  insects  affecting,  or  liable  to  affect,  the.Sugar 
beet,  a crop  of  growing  importance  in  the  State  in  which  he  is  located. 
Although  but  one  season’s  collecting  has  been  done,  some  64  species 
have  been  observed  to  prey  upon  this  crop.  As  has  been  shown,  nearly 
all  of  these  can  be  readily  kept  in  subjection  by  the  use  of  the  kero- 
sene emulsion  or  the  arsenites. 

Mr.  D.  W.  Ooquillett’s  report  is  mainly  devoted  to  methods  and  ap- 
paratus for  the  destruction  of  scale  insects  by  means  of  fumigation. 
The  experiments  were  aimed  at  the  Red  Scale,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
difficult  to  treat  with  washes.  He  describes  the  simplified  tents,  the 
rigging  which  enables  them  to  be  used  rapidly,  and  shows  the  advantage 
of  excluding  the  actinic  rays  of  the  light.  Judging  from  recent  Cali- 
fornia newspapers  the  use  of  this  method  of  fighting  scale-insects  is 
rapidly  increasing  and  the  comparatively  expensive  apparatus  is  al- 
ready owned  by  a large  number  of  fruit-growers.  This  improved 
method  is  the  legitimate  outgrowth  of  experiments  which  we  instituted 
at  Los  Angeles  in  1887,  and  possesses  the  advantage  over  spraying  that 
it  can  hardly  be  done  in  a slovenly  manner.  If  used  at  all  its  effects 
are  nearly  complete. 

Mr.  Albert  Koebele,  while  reporting  upon  a number  of  interesting 
fruit  pests,  notably  the  Tent  Caterpillars  of  the  Pacific  slope,  and  a 
Noctuid  larva  which  destroys  the  buds  of  certain  fruit  trees,  devotes 
most  of  his  report  to  the  description  of  certain  tests,  which  I directed 
him  to  make  with  different  resin  compounds  against  the  Grape  Phyllox- 
era in  the  Sonoma  Valley  during  September  and  October  of  the  past 
year.  The  results  have  been  fully  as  satisfactory  as  we  anticipated,  and 
the  economy  of  the  process  is  very  striking,  labor  being  practically  the 
only  expense. 


8 


Miss  Mary  E.  Murtfeldt  reports  upon  the  insects  of  the  season  in 
eastern  Missouri,  and  also  gives  the  results  of  experiments  which  she 
has  made  with  certain  insecticides  submitted  to  her  from  this  office  for 
trial.  She  also  presents  descriptions  of  four  Microlepidoptera,  which 
are  new  in  the  role  of  feeders  upon  Apple. 

Prof.  Herbert  Osborn  reports  upon  the  insects  injurious  to  forage- 
crops,  meadows,  and  pastures  in  his  State.  His  report  last  year  was 
mainly  taken  up  with  the  consideration  of  the  Leaf-Hoppers,  to  which 
he  gives  some  further  consideration  this  year,  adding  some  notes  on 
locusts  and  crickets.  He  presents  also  a series  of  miscellaneous  obser- 
vations. 

Mr.  F.  M.  Webster  devotes  his  report  mainly  to  the  Hessian  Fly,  dis- 
cussing the  number  and  development  of  broods,  the  effect  of  the  larvae 
upon  plants,  the  effect  of  the  weather  on  the  development  of  the  fall 
brood,  and  preventive  measures.  He  also  gives  some  notes  upon  three 
of  the  species  of  Plant-lice,  found  commonly  upon  wheat. 

In  presenting  this  bulletin  for  publication,  I desire  to  thank  these 
agents  for  the  care  with  which  they  have  followed  out  instructions  and 
for  the  intelligent  manner  in  which  they  have  conducted  these  investi- 
gations. 


c.  y.  k. 


EEPOET  ON  NEBEASKA  INSECTS. 


By  Lawrence  Bruner. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 


Lincoln,  Nebr.,  October  16,  1890. 

Sir  : Herewith  is  submitted  a report  of  my  work  in  Nebraska  for  the  year  as  special 
field  agent  of  the  Division  of  Entomology  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. 

In  addition  to  my  observations  on  the  general  insect  depredations  within  the  State, 
I have  incidentally  given  some  time  to  the  study  of  such  insects  as  were  taken  upon 
the  sugar  and  other  beets  during  the  summer. 

This  special  study  was  undertaken  at  the  suggestion  of  our  experiment  station 
director,  who  was  quite  anxious  that  “ beet  insects”  should  be  made  the  subject  of 
a special  bulletin  to  be  issued  from  the  station  some  time  during  the  coming  winter. 
I accordingly  include  herewith  a brief  summary  of  the  results  of  this  special  study. 

Yours  truly, 


Lawrence  Bruner, 

Field  Agent . 


Prof.  C.  V.  Riley, 

U.  S.  Entomologist. 


The  past  summer  has  not  been  particularly  noted  as  one  in  which 
insect  depredators  were  especially  abundant  or  destructive  to  the  vari- 
ous crops  that  are  raised  in  the  State.  In  fact,  taking  the  State  as  a 
whole,  the  iujuries  from  this  source  have  been  rather  less  than  is  usually 
the  case.  No  one  species,  so  far  as  I have  been  informed,  has  been  a 
pest  during  the  year.  The  Corn  Eoot-worin  ( Diabrotica  longicornis ), 
while  it  has  spread  some  since  my  last  report,  was  much  less  abundant 
than  last  year.  Cut-worms  did  not  appear  in  early  summer  so  univer- 
sally over  the  State,  nor  did  they  do  anything  near  the  damage  they 
did  the  year  past.  No  Army- worm  depredations  have  been  reported  at 
the  station,  nor  have  any  come  to  my  own  obs  ervation  ; while  the  Corn 
Ear-worm  ( Heliothis  armigera)  has  been  less  destructive  in  most  portions 
of  the  region  along  the  Missouri  Eiver. 

If  any  one  insect  has  been  on  the  increase  and  has  caused  more  in- 
jury than  usual,  it  was  the  almost  universal  Codling  Moth  (at  least 
universal  wherever  apples  are  grown  or  eateu).  But  if  this  insect  has 
become  apparently  more  widespread  within  this  region  than  it  was 

9 


10 


formerly,  it  is  quite  consoling  to  know  that  the  warfare  against  it  has 
also  become  more  general.  Almost  every  fruit-grower  has  at  last  come 
to  the  forced  conclusion  that  warfare  against  this  insect,  at  least,  has 
become  an  absolute  necessity,  and  has  accordingly  instituted  a rigor- 
ous fight  against  it.  The  arseuious  spray  is  the  almost  universal 
remedy  resorted  to  with  our  fruit-growers  here  in  Nebraska,  as  it  is 
in  other  localities.  Either  London  purple  or  Paris  green  are  the  poisons 
used,  and  where  applied  properly  always  result  favorably  to  the  or- 
chards t. 

THE  GREEN- STRIPED  MAPLE  WORM. 

The  Green-striped  Maple-worm  (. Anisota  rubicuncla)  appeared  quite 
numerously  again  in  the  towns  and  cities  of  Nebraska,  and  has  done 
much  injury  to  the  Soft  Maples  ( Acer  saccharinum)  growing  along  their 
streets.  Here  in  Lincoln,  the  first  or  spring  brood  of  larvae  was  suffi. 
ciently  numerous  to  defoliate  many  of  the  largest  trees  before  they 
had  become  fully  matured,  and  in  that  manner  proved  to  be  quite 
effectual  towards  self-extermination.  Many  of  the  larvae  actually 
starved  to  death ; while  others  were  so  weakened  from  starvation  that 
they  either  died  in  the  chrysalis  state,  or  else  were  so  exhausted  when 
they  emerged  as  moths  that  there  was  but  little  egg-laying  for  a sec- 
ond brood.  Some  of  the  neighboring  cities  and  towns  were  less  for- 
tunate, and  had  a much  more  plentiful  fall  brood  of  the  larvae,  and 
hence  will  be  well  supplied  with  the  insect  next  spring  unless  something 
unforeseen  prevents  it. 

Considerable  has  been  doue  in  the  way  of  remedies  by  the  citizens  of 
Lincoln  against  the  second  brood.  Many  of  the  moths  were  gathered 
and  destroyed  before  they  had  time  to  deposit  their  eggs  and  later  on 
in  the  season  spraying  the  trees  with  London  purple  and  Paris  green 
was  resorted  to  with  good  results. 

While  a moderately  dry  summer  usually  has  the  tendency  to  increase 
the  number  of  most  of  our  injurious  insects,  several  such  years  imme- 
diately following  one  another  have  the  opposite  effect.  So  it  has  been 
with  the  summer  which  has  just  closed.  The  drought  was  so  very 
marked  that  even  the  more  hardy  insect  life  was  sensibly  affected  by 
its  severity.  Such  species  as  had  been  favored  by  the  scarcity  of  their 
more  frail  parasites  during  several  years  of  moderate  drought,  this  year 
were  themselves,  to  a certain  degree,  sensibly  affected  by  its  continu- 
ance and  severity. 


LOCUSTS  OR  GRASSHOPPERS. 

Locusts  or  grasshoppers  of  several  species  were  quite  numerous  in 
certain  localities,  especially  in  cities  away  from  the  destructive  influ- 
ence of  fowls  and  such  other  predaceous  animals  as  are  always  at  hand 
in  the  country  ready  to  “ gobble  up 79  various  insects.  These  locusts  did 
some  damage,  of  course,  but  not  nearly  so  much  as  was  done  by  them 


11 


last  year.  Whether  this  decrease  in  their  numbers  has  been  due  to 
parasites  or  to  disease,  I can  not  say. 

One  noticeable  fact  in  connection  with  the  subject  of  insect  depreda- 
tions, in  this  particular  region  at  least,  is  the  growing  interest  which 
the  general  public  is  taking,  and  the  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  people 
to  help  themselves  agaiust  this  host  of  insect  enemies  which  is  assailing 
them  on  all  sides.  Whether  this  interest  is  traceable  to  any  particular 
source,  or  whether  necessity  is  the  awakening  factor,  I can  not  say.  I 
trust,  though,  that  my  work  in  this  direction  has  not  been  entirely  in 
vain. 

BEET  INSECTS. 

Ever  since  the  Sugar  Beet  industry  was  first  agitated  here  in  the 
West,  and  now  especially  since  the  project  has  assumed  such  a prac- 
tical form,  it  has  become  of  general  interest.  For  several  years  now  the 
cultivation  of  the  sugar  beet  has  been  a theme  for  much  speculation, 
and  to  some  extent  also  of  experimentation.  Now  that  a large  factory 
has  been  built  at  Grand  Island  in  this  State,  the  sugar  beet  is  to  be  one 
of  our  regular  crops  year  after  year.  It  will  no  longer  be  a plant  that 
is  grown  out  of  mere  curiosity  or  simply  for  experimentation. 

It  has  been  ascertained  in  connection  with  the  culture  of  the  sugar 
beet  that  certain  insects  show  a tendency  to  attack  and  injure  it.  In 
this  respect  the  beet  is  not  any  different  from  other  cultivated  plants; 
or,  for  that  matter,  wild  or  native  ones  also.  In  fact,  it  is  too  evident 
that  certain  ones  of  these  insect  enemies  seem  to  prefer  this  “new” 
crop  to  any  of  these  which  have  been  cultivated  in  the  same  region  for 
a considerable  time. 

It  was  therefore  thought  here  at  the  experiment  station,  early  last 
summer,  that  it  might  be  well,  as  far  as  practicable  in  connection  with 
other  lines  of  work,  to  give  some  attention  to  these  insect  enemies  of 
the  sugar  beet.  Accordingly  the  following  “ press  bulletin”  was  sent 
out  over  the  State: 

SUGGESTIONS  IN  REGARD  TO  THE  SUGAR-BEET  CULTURE. 

Reports  from  the  sub-stations  established  in  the  spring  by  the  State  Experiment 
Station  for  the  purpose  of  determining  tho  effect  of  the  varying  conditions  of  the 
soil  and  climate  on  the  growth  of  and  the  production  of  sugar  in  the  Sugar  beet  are 
in  the  main  good. 

In  many  places,  especially  in  the  extreme  western  part  of  the  State,  beets  have 
suffered  from  hot  weather  and  a lack  of  rain ; as  a rule,  though,  they  seem  to  withstand 
these  unfavorable  conditions  as  well  as  corn  aud  better  than  small  grain. 

From  some  points  reports  tell  us  that  insect  enemies  have  begun  their  rav- 
ages. * * * 

As  there  are  several  kinds  of  insects  that  attack  the  beet,  and  as  they  have  already 
been  reported  as  having  begun  operations,  it  seems  the  proper  time  to  begin  to  learn 
something  of  their  appearance,  habits,  and  the  best  means  of  meeting  their  advances. 
To  this  end  the  beets  should  be  watched  very  carefully,  from  day  to  day  and  at  dif- 
ferent times  of  the  day,  and  even  in  the  evening,  for  any  insect,  bug,  or  worm  that 
seems  to  have  an  interest  in  them ; search  the  leaves,  pull  up  the  beets  and  search  the 


12 


roots  and  the  top  layer  of  the  soil,  and  when  any  marauder  is  found  send  it  to  the 
experiment  station  for  study  and  identification. 

Directions  for  sending  such  specimens  I copy  from  Bulletin  XIV  on  “ Insects  Inju- 
rious to  Young  Trees  on  Tree  Claims,”  just  issued : 

“Whenever  possible,  insects  should  be  packed  alive  in  some  tight  tin  box — the 
tighter  the  better,  as  air-holes  are  not  needed — along  with  a supply  of  their  appro- 
priate food  sufficient  to  last  them  on  the  journey  ; otherwise  they  generally  die  on 
the  road  and  shrivel  up. 

“Send  as  full  an  account  as  possible  of  their  habits;  what  part  of  the  plant  they 
infest,  time  of  day  when  they  are  most  active,  amount  of  damage  done,  etc. 

“ Packages  should  be  marked  with  the  name  of  the  sender  and  should  be  addressed 
to  the  entomologist  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Lincoln,  Nebr.” 

It  will  aid  very  materially  in  forming  conclusions  if  all  people  who  have  planted 
seed  this  season  will  send  from  time  to  time  reports  of  the  conditions  of  their  beets 
to  the  experiment  station. 

Address : 

H.  H.  Nicholson, 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Lincoln,  Nebr. 

The  very  dry  summer  may  have  had  considerable  to  do  towards 
influencing  much  of  the  insect  injury  to  the  beets  grown  within  the 
region  designated,  and  some  species  of  insects  may  have  worked  upon 
this  plant  that  ordinarily  would  not  have  done  so.  In  many  localities 
various  insects  were  observed  to  congregate  among  the  leaf  stems  just 
above  the  ground  that  could  not  have  been  there  for  mischief,  since 
they  were  such  forms  as  do  not  feed  upon  growing  plants.  Especially 
was  this  true  in  portions  of  the  State  where  the  drought  was  severest 
and  where  other  refugees  from  the  burning  sun  and  parched  soil  were 
scarce  or  entirely  wanting.  In  many  of  these  localities  a great  variety 
of  insect  life  was  always  sure  to  be  found  hidden  away  during  the  day- 
time in  such  places.  Not  only  beetles  but  also  representatives  of  such 
other  orders  as  the  Hymenoptera,  Hemiptera,  Neuroptera,  Orthoptera, 
Diptera,  and  Lepidoptera  were  quite  common  in  such  localities.  Even 
many  water-inhabiting  forms  frequently  occurred  in  company  with  the 
others. 

Of  course  all  of  these  insects  that  were  found  on  or  about  the  roots 
of  the  beets  were  sent  in  to  the  station  both  by  the  field  agents  and 
by  the  various  correspondents,  who  took  an  interest  in  the  investiga- 
tions under  way.  To  separate  most  of  these  “refugees”  from  such 
other  forms  as  might  possibly  be  there  for  mischief  was,  of  course,  quite 
easily  done  at  the  station  by  those  who  were  accustomed  to  the  babits 
of  most  of  the  insects  under  consideration.  A few  of  them  were,  how- 
ever, more  difficult  to  single  out,  and  required  special  study  to  decide 
positively,  which  in  nearly  every  case  was  accomplished. 

In  the  study  of  this  subject  it  was  quickly  demonstrated  that  almost 
all  of  the  insect  enemies  of  the  sugar  beet,  as  well  as  of  the  common 
garden  and  other  varieties,  were  either  weed  feeders  or  else  were  such 
as  are  very  general  feeders.  It  was  also  ascertained  that  nearly  if  not 
quite  all  of  the  insects  of  whatsoever  description  that  attack  other 


13 


Ohenopodiaceous  plants,  as  the  various  species  of  “tumble  weeds,” 
the  “pig- weed,”  Atriplices,  etc.,  the  purslane  and  other  juicy  weeds, 
as  also  many  of  those  that  attack  the  various  Cruciferae  and  Solauaceae, 
will  also  feed  upon  the  beet.  Not  a single  species  of  insect  has  thus 
far  been  reported  by  any  of  the  agents  of  the  station,  or  by  correspond- 
ents, that  is  exclusively  a beet  feeder.  Every  one  of  them  has  been  as- 
certained to  attack  some  one  or  more  of  the  other  plants  that  are  also 
common  to  the  region.  Only  a very  few  species  have  appeared  in  num- 
bers sufficiently  great  to  be  what  could  be  termed  “destructive”  to  the 
beet  within  the  region  covered  by  these  studies  or  investigations ; and 
these  few  are  of  such  a nature  that  they  can  be  readily  combated. 

In  their  modes  of  attack  upon  the  beet  these  various  insects,  so  far 
as  they  have  been  studied,  are  either  leaf-feeders  or  root-borers,  i.  e ., 
they  either  attack  the  foliage  which  they  devour  or  from  which  they 
suck  the  juices  by  inserting  their  beaks,  or  they  bore  into  or  gnaw  the 
roots.  Later  on  in  our  investigations  we  may  find  that  there  are  others 
that  will  attack  the  seeds  and  seed  stems.  In  either  of  the  former  cases 
the  result  is  an  injury  to  the  beet,  whether  it  is  being  cultivated  for  the 
table,  for  feeding  to  stock,  or  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar.  Should 
future  study  reveal  others  that  attack  the  seed  of  the  beet  these  latter 
would  of  course  be  of  direct  injury  to  the  seed  industry  since  much 
seed  will  necessarily  have  to  be  raised  to  provide  for  the  large  crops 
that  are  required  each  year  for  sugar. 

Having  now  become  fully  convinced  that  the  cultivation  of  the  Sugar 
Beet  is  not  without  its  drawbacks  here  in  the  West,  and  that  there  are 
insects  which  we  must  contend  against  ajid  overcome  in  raising  this 
crop,  as  well  as  in  the  raising  of  corn,  wheat,  and  potatoes,  we  see 
the  necessity  of  beginning  our  fight  at  once  if  we  would  prevent  much 
future  loss.  By  prompt  action  in  the  beginning,  when  the  enemies  are 
few  in  numbers  and  less  generally  distributed,  we  will  have  a much 
easier  time  of  it  j besides,  our  losses  from  this  cause  will  be  infinitely 
smaller  than  if  we  neglect  them  and  permit  them  to  go  on  increasing 
and  spreading  unmolestedly. 

The  following  list  embraces  all  such  species  of  insects  as  were  either 
found  to  injure  the  beet  here  in  Nebraska  or  else  have  been  recorded 
by  others  as  attacking  this  plant  within  the  region  referred  to : 

List  of  Beet  Insects. 

Species  that  attack  the  Leaves. 

Lepidoptera. 

1.  Spilosoma  virginica,  Fab. — The  larva  of  this  very  common  insect,  is  one  of 

the  first  noticed  to  injure  the  beet.  It  also  infests  a large  number  of  other 

plants. 

2.  Spilosoma  Isabella,  Abb. — The  larva,  like  that  of  the  preceding,  attacks  the  beet 

and  many  of  our  common  weeds. 

3.  Mamestra  picta,  Harr. — Larva  occasionally  attacks  the  leaves  of  beet  and  other 

garden  plants. 


14 


4.  Eurycreon  rantalis,  Gnen.— The  larva  of  this  small  Pyralid  moth  is  one  of  our 

most  destructive  beet  insects.  It  is  the  one  usually  known  as  the  Garden  Web- 
worm;  and  also  attacks  a number  of  other  plants  among  which  are  the  “Pig- 
weed,” the  tumble  weed,  purslane,  etc. 

5.  Mamestra  trifolii,  Rott. — Larva  quite  common  on  beets ; and  sometimes  doing 

considerable  injury  by  gnawing  away  the  leaves  and  the  entire  tops  of  small 
plants.  Also  a purslane  insect. 

6.  Plusia  brassicce,  Riley.— The  larva  occasionally  attacks  the  beet,  but  more  com- 

monly the  turnip,  cabbage,  and  other  Cruciferse. 

7.  Deilepliila  lineata,  Fab.— Larva  found  feeding  on  beet  leaves  in  Lincoln,  Nebr., 

by  Mr.  H.  Marsland.  A very  common  purslane  insect. 

8.  Copidryas  gloveri,  G.  and  R. — Taken  several  times  on  the  leaves  of  beets  which  it 

had  eaten  more  or  less.  An  abundant  purslane  moth. 

9.  Agrotis,  spp. — Several  species  of  these  “cut-worms”  are  occasionally  quite  de- 

structive to  the  beet  while  it  is  still  small.  They  work  more  or  less  all  summer, 
but  are  most  destructive  early  in  the  year.  They  cut  off  the  plant  just  at  or  a 
little  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Some  of  them  also  work  upon  the  leaves 
above  the  ground. 

10.  Leucania  unipuncta,  Haw. — The  Army  Worm,  when  it  is  abundant,  does  consider- 

able damage  to  beets  and  other  garden  plants  by  eating  their  foliage. 

11.  Botis  pesticata,  Grt. — The  larva  of  this  moth  is  said  to  be  quite  destructive  to  a 

number  of  plants  here  in  the  West.  “In  1873  we  found  the  larvae  feedi:  g 
upon  Helianthus,  Ambrosia,  potatoes,  and  beets,  skeletonizing  and  ruining  the 
plants  for  miles  along  the  Neosho  Valley  and  throughout  Kansas,”  writes  Pro- 
fessor Riley  in  the  U.  S.  Agricultural  Report  for  1883. 

ORTIIOPTERA. 

12.  Melanoplus  femur -rubrum,  DeG. — Occasionally  injuring  the  leaves  of  beets  and 

other  vegetables. 

13.  M.  atlanis,  Riley. — When  common,  a general  feeder,  at  least  upon  the  products 

of  the  garden  and  farm — beets  of  course  included. 

14.  M.  spretus,  Thos. — Attacks  the  beet  during  times  of  invasions.  Sometimes  en- 

tirely eating  away  the  leaves  and  portions  of  root  that  protrude  from  the 
ground. 

15.  M.  differentialis,  Thos. — When  plentiful  it  occasionally  does  some  injury  to  the 

foliage  of  the  beet  and  other  garden  plants. 

16.  M.  bivittatus,  Say. — Where  beets  are  planted  on  low  ground  or  are  growing 

close  to  some  rank  vegetation,  it  attacks  their  tops,  but  never  does  much 
damage. 

17.  Dissosteirci  Carolina,  Lin. — Found  feeding  upon  the  tops  of  sugar  beets  during  the 

month  of  July,  at  McCook,  Nebr. 

18.  Trimerotropis  latifasciata,  Scudd. — Taken  in  company  with  the  preceding,  also 

feeding  on  sugar  beets. 

19.  Spharagemon  (equate,  Scudd. — Several  specimens  were  received  during  the  sum- 

mer from  McCook  and  Ravenna,  Nebr.,  with  the  accompanying  statement  to 
the  effect  that  they  fed  on  the  sugar  beet. 

20.  Pezotettix  olivaceus,  Scudd. — I have  seen  this  hopper  in  beet  fields  several  times 

under  such  circumstances  as  led  me  to  think  it  feeds  upon  that  plant.  It  is  also 
quite  partial  to  Helianthus  and  Chenopodium. 

COLEOPTERA. 

21.  Diabrotica  YZ-punctata,  Oliv. — Quite  common  on  the  leaves  of  beets,  which  it  in- 

jures by  gnawing  holes  in  them. 

22.  Disonycha  triangularis,  Say. — The  beetle  feeds  upon  the  leaves  of  beets  and  other 

Chenopodiaceous  plants.  Sometimes  quite  common  here  in  the  West. 


15 


23.  D.  cervicalis,  Lee.— Has  similar  habits  to  the  preceding,  but  is  less  abundant. 

24.  D.  xanthomclcena,  Dalm.— Common  on  beets  and  other  Chenopodiaceous  plauts, 

the  leaves  of  which  it  riddles  with  holes.’ 

25.  D.  crenicollis,  Say.— One  of  the  5-lined  flea-beetles  that  occur  here  in  moderate 

numbers ; is  also  occasionally  taken  on  beet  leaves  at  Lincoln,  Nebr. 

26.  Systena  frontalis,  Fab. — Found  feeding  upon  beet  leaves  on  the  College  farm,  Lin- 

coln, Nebr. ; also  on  the  leaves  of  Hibiscus  militaris  at  West  Point,  Nebr. 

27.  S.  twniata , var.  blanda,  Melsh. — A very  numerous  species  in  all  parts  of  the  State 

from  which  beet-feeding  insects  have  been  received.  It  literally  riddles  the 
leaves  of  beets  with  pit-like  holes,  in  some  instances  entirely  destroying  the 
leaves  of  quite  large  plants.  I have  also  taken  it  upon  white  clover,  purslaue, 
and  amaranthus.  This  is  liable  to  be  one  of  our  most  destructive  beet  insects 
here  in  the  West,  especially  in  Nebraska. 

28.  Psylliodes  convexior,  Lee. — Another  of  the  flea-beetles  that  is  very  abundant  on 

the  leaves  of  beets  in  some  portions  of  Nebraska,  and  which  wmrks  in  a some- 
what similar  manner  to  the  preceding. 

29.  Chwtocnema  denticulata,  Illig.  — I found  still  another  of  our  small  flea-beetles  at 

work  on  the  beets  growing  on  the  State  farm  here  at  Lincoln,  although  in  much 
fewer  numbers  than  either  of  the  two  species  preceding. 

30.  Epitrix  cucumeris,  Harr. — This  small  flea-beetle  was  found  to  be  quite  abundant 

at  Ashland,  Nebr.,  where  it  was  taken  by  Mr.  T.  A.  Williams,  upon  the  potato, 
Solarium  nigrum , and  the  beet,  the  leaves  of  all  of  which  were  more  or  less 
closely  riddled  wTith  holes. 

31.  Epicauta  pennsylvanica , DeG. — This  black  blister-beetle  injures  the  leaves  of  quite 

a number  of  plants,  prominent  among  which  are  the  potato,  “pigweed,”  and 
beet.  It  has  been  received  at  the  station  from  central  and  western  Nebraska 
as  one  of  the  most  destructive  insects  attacking  the  plant. 

32.  Epicauta  cinerea,  Forst. — Another  of  these  blister-beetles  was  found  here  at  Lin- 

coln by  Mr.  Herbert  Marsland,  who  said  it  almost  ruined  a small  bed  of  beets 
growing  in  his  garden.  I have  also  collected  the  same  species  from  one  of  the 
wild  beans  and  several  other  native  plants. 

33.  Epicauta  maculata,  Say. — This  insect  has  been  received  from  Medicine  Lodge, 

Kans.,  and  from  Grant  and  Neligh,  Nebr.,  where  it  was  found  to  injure  the 
sugar  beets  by  feeding  on  the  leaves.  It  is  a very  common  insect  here  in  the 
West  upon  quite  a number  of  the  Chenopodiaceous  plants,  and  especially  upon 
the  various  species  belonging  to  the  genera  Chenopodium  and  Atriplex. 

34.  j Epicauta.  vittata,  Fab.— This  striped  blister-beetle  is  also  a beet  insect;  and  has 

been  received  from  Ogalalla,  this  State,  where  it  was  reported  as  doing  much 
damage  to  sugar  beets.  It  also  is  quite  a general  feeder.  Among  its  food  plants 
are  to  be  mentioned  the  Solanaceae,  some  of  the  Leguminosse,  and  I have  found 
it  to  be  quite  destructive  to  several  of  the  Sagittarne. 

35.  Epicauta  cinerea,  var . marginata. — This  large  black  blister  beetle  also  frequently 

gathers  upon  vegetables  of  different  kinds  in  the  semi-arid  regions  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  but  chiefly  upon  beans.  I have  taken  it  on  beets  once  or 
twice  here  in  Nebraska. 

36.  Cantliaris  nuitalli,  Say. — During  the  late  summer  and  early  fall  of  1888  this  in- 

sect was  very  destructive  to  garden  plants,  beets  included,  in  the  Black  Hills 
of  South  Dakota.  It  also  abounds  in  the  western  and  northwestern  parts  of 
Nebraska. 

37.  Colaspis  brunnea,  Fab. — This  small  leaf  beetle,  which  appears  to  be  quite  a gen- 

eral feeder,  has  been  taken  on  several  different  occasions  upon  the  beet  both  by 
myself  and  different  ones  of  the  field  agents,  and  also  by  some  of  the  correspond- 
ents. 

38.  Epiccerus  imbricatus,Ssij. — The  Imbricated  Snout-beetle  has  been  known  to  attack 

the  beet  among  the  many  other  plants  upon  which  it  feeds.  It  is  a general 
feeder. 


16 


39.  Centrinus  penicillus,  Hbst. — Another  of  the  Snout-bettles  that  attack  the  beets 

here  in  the  West  is  the  one  known  to  the  entomologist  by  the  above  name.  It 
gnaws  small  holes  in  the  leaf-stem,  and  when  numerous  does  considerable  harm 
to  the  plants  attacked.  Whether  or  not  the  insect  breeds  here  I was  unable  to 
ascertain. 

40.  C.perscitus,  Hbst. — Still  a third  species  of  weevil  was  found  upon  the  beets  grow- 

ing on  the  State  farm.  It  is  a much  commoner  insect  than  penicillus , and  works 
in  a similar  manner  upon  the  leaf-stem. 

41.  Apion,  sp. — This  little  Apion  was  taken  on  the  leaves  of  beets  here  at  Lincoln  on 

two  separate  occasions. 

42.  DoryplioralO-Hneata , Say. — The  Colorado  Potato-beetle  was  brought  into  my  office 

at  different  times  during  the  summer  by  those  who  reported  its  having  been 
captured  on  the  leaves  of  beet  which  it  was  “ certainly  eating.” 

HETEROPTERA. 

43.  Blissus  leucopterm,  Say. — The  Chinch  Bug  has  quite  frequently  been  taken  by 

me  upon  beet  tops  in  company  with  several  others  of  the  plant  bugs.  Whether 
or  not  it  was  there  only  temporarily,  I can  not  say ; but  suppose  it  was,  since 
all  of  our  leading  economic  entomologists  assert  that  its  food-plants  are  limited 
to  the  grasses. 

44.  Piesma  cinerea,  Say. — A very  common  bug  on  the  beet  and  various  others  of  the 

Chenopodiaceous  plants.  Sometimes  doing  much  damage  to  the  leaves  of  the 
former. 

45.  Nysius  angustatus,  Uhl. — Another  bug  that  often  gathers  upon  the  beet  and  other 

garden  plants  is  what  is  called  the  False  Chinch-bug.  When  numerous  it 
often  does  considerable  harm  to  the  plants  which  it  attacks.  It  is  also  one  of 
the  weed  insects  that  enjoys  a wide  range. 

46.  Geocoris  bullatus,  Say. — The  Large-headed  False  Chinch-bug,  or  Purslane  Bug,  is 

also  much  addicted  to  infesting  the  beet  here  in  Nebraska.  In  fact  it  has  been 
received  from  all  over  the  State  as  one  of  the  commonest  of  insects  infesting 
the  beet.  It  is  also  a great  weed  bug. 

47.  Trapezonotus  nebulosus,  Fall. — This  bug  also  frequents  the  beet  and  several  other 

Chenopodiaceous  plants.  It  is  especially  partial  to  the  Pigweed  (Chenopo- 
dium  album)  here  in  Nebraska. 

48.  Emblethis  arenarius . Linn. — Taken  several  times  on  the  beet  in  company  with  the 

preceding.  This  insect  also  is  a frequenter  of  localities  where  Chenopodium  al- 
bum is  growing.  The  species  also  occurs  about  the  roots  of  “ Stink  Grass” 
( Eragrostis  major). 

49.  Lygus  pratensis,  Linn. — Probably  one  of  the  most  general  feeders  among  the  true 

bugs,  and  sometimes  a very  destructive  enemy  of  the  beet.  It  occurs  through- 
out the  entire  North  American  continent  in  the  temperate  regions. 

50.  Euthoctha  galeator,  Fab. — This  bug  has  also  been  taken  several  times  ou  the  beet 

in  the  vicinity  of  Lincoln,  Nebr.  I Have  collected  it  also  from  the  wild  cucum- 
ber ( Echinocystis  lobata). 

HOMOPTERA. 

51.  Agallia  siccifolia. — This  little  leaf-hopper,  which  seems  to  be  especially  partial  to 

the  different  species  of  Amarantus  and  Chenopodium  and  allied  weeds,  is  also 
equally  fond  of  the  beet,  at  least  such  would  appear  to  be  the  fact,  judging  from 
the  large  numbers  of  the  insect  that  are  invariably  to  be  found  upon  this  plant 
all  through  the  summer.  It  occurs  in  all  stages. 

52.  Immature  forms  only.— Found  in  moderate  numbers  on  the  sugar  beet  at  Grant, 

Nebr.,  a rather  large  leaf-hopper,  which  also  occurs  upon  the  Amarantus  and 
Chenopodium. 


17 


5:*.  Allygus  sp. — This  prettily  marked  leaf-hopper  is  very  partial  to  Chenopodium  al- 
bum,, on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  of  which  it  breeds  throughout  the  summer. 
This  insect  also  attacks  other  species  of  the  same  genus,  those  of  the  genera  Ama- 
rantus  and  Montilia,  etc.  Besides  these  it  is  very  frequently  found  on  the  beet. 
Characteristic  marks  of  its  presence  are  the  rather  large  purplish  spots  that  are  seen 
upon  the  leaves  of  plants  that  have  been  punctured  by  its  beak. 

54.  Erythroneura  sp. — Another  small,  slender,,  green  leaf-hopper  that  is  occasionally 
met  with  upon  the  beet. 

55.  Athysanus  (?  sp.). — Still  another  of  these  leaf-hoppers  that  is  found  upon  the  beet. 

56.  Liburnia  intertexta. — There  is  still  a sixth  of  these  leaf-hoppers  that  has  been  taken 
on  the  beet  here  in  Nebraska;  and  which  presumably  also  does  some  injury  to  that 
plant  by  sucking  its  juices. 

57.  Aphis  atriplicis,  Linn. — Mr.  T.  A.  Williams  tells  me  that  he  has  taken  this  plant- 
louse  on  the  beet  at  Ashland,  this  State,  where  it  was  quite  common  during  the 
year. 

58.  Aphis  cucumeris,  Forbes. — This  past  summer  Mr.  Williams  also  took  what  he  de- 
termined to  be  the  Aphis  cucumeris,  Forbes,  breeding  quite  abundantly  upon  some 
beets  that  grew  right  by  the  side  of  some  cucumber  vines  that  had  been  infested 
by  the  same  insect. 

59.  Siphonopbora pisi,  Kalt. — The  same  gentleman  tells  me  that  he  has  also  taken  the 
common  garden  aphid  here  at  Lincoln,  on  the  beet.  He  found  it  in  the  pupa  and 
winged  stages. 


Species  that  attack  the  Root. 

. COLEOPTERA. 

60.  Ligyrus  gibbosus,  De  G. — This  beetle  has  been  quite  destructive  to  the  sugar  beet 
over  limited  areas  towards  the  western  part  of  the  State  during  the  present  season. 
It  attacks  the  root,  into  which  the  mature  insect  gnaws  great  holes,  sometimes 
entirely  imbedding  itself.  It  worked  most  on  old  ground  and  where  irrigation  was 
resorted  to.  It  worked  on  the  roots  from  the  surface  to  a considerable  depth  but 
most  at  about  3 or  4 inches  below  the  surface.  In  some  instances  it  reached  a depth 
of  fully  7 inches  below  the  surface. 

61.  Lachnosterna  fusca,  Froh.— Not  unfrequently  the  common  white  grub  attacks  the 
roots  of  the  beet,  and  does  injury  to  the  plant  in  that  way.  There  are  very  likely 
several  kinds  of  the  “ grub”  that  are  concerned  in  these  attacks,  since  almost  every 
locality  has  its  particular  species  of  “ June  bug  ” that  predominates  in  numbers. 

62.  Wire  Worms. — Several  of  the  larvae  of  “ snapping  beetles,”  or  click  beetles,  are 
also  to  be  charged  with  injuring  the  roots  of  beets  in  some  localities. 

63.  Unknown  larva. — On  two  different  occasions  during  the  past  summer  I found  beets 
that  had  been  attacked  by  some  unknown  larva  just  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  from  which  the  depredator  had  already  escaped.  The  work  resem- 
bled that  of  an  insect  that  works  in  the  roots  of  different  “tumble  weeds”  and 
causes  them  to  break  off.  The  larvte  are  rather  short,  thick,  whitish  grubs  with 
brownish  heads,  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  length,  slightly  largest  in  the  mid- 
dle ; possibly  the  larva  of  some  snout  beetle. 

UNCERTAIN. 

64.  Silpha  opaca,  Linn. — This  insect  has  been  taken  several  times  by  me  in  beet  fields, 
and  in  gardens  w'here  beets  were  growing.  In  Europe  the  insect  is  said  to  be  quite 
injurious  to  the  beet  crop,  by  attacking  and  devouring  the  leaves.  Whether  or  not 
it  has  the  same  habit  in  this  country  I can  not  say. 

In  addition  to  the  above  list  of  insects  that  are  known  to  actually 
attack  one  or  the  other  varieties  of  beet  there  are  several  others  that 
25910— Bull.  23—2 


18 


have  been  taken  so  frequently  upon  that  plant,  and  under  such  pecu- 
liar circumstances,  that  they,  too,  may  prove  to  be  its  enemies.  Among 
these  latter  I would  mention  several  of  the  Eleodes,  one  Collops,  and 
several  Diptera. 

REMEDIES  THAT  CAN  BE  USED  AGAINST  BEET  INSECTS. 

It  will  be  quickly  seen  by  any  one  who  has  taken  the  pains  to  go 
over  the  foregoing  list,  that  in  nearly  every  case,  at  least  so  far  as  men- 
tioned here,  the  insect  enemies  of  the  beet  are  identical  with  those  that 
work  upon  our  common  garden  weeds,  or  else  they  are  such  as  are  very 
general  feeders.  It  will  also  be  observed  that  most  of  them  are 
leaf  feeders;  i.  e .,  they  nearly  all  attack  that  portion  of  the  plant 
above  ground.  These  being  the  facts  in  the  case,  the  remedies  that  at 
once  suggest  themselves  are  simple.  A spray  of  some  kind  scattered 
over  the  plants  will  be  effectual  as  well  as  economical.  The  beet  tops 
are  seldom  utilized  for  food,  either  for  man  or  beast.  Hence  for  pro- 
tection against  insects  with  gnawing  mouth  parts  that  attack  them  au 
arsenical  spray  can  be  used,  whilst  for  such  as  receive  their  nourish- 
ment by  means  of  a sucking  mouth  the  kerosene  emulsion  will  answer 
the  purpose.  This  latter  remedy  will  also  be  effective  against  No.  27, 
as  has  been  demonstrated  by  actual  experiment  by  at  least  one  of  our 
correspondents,  who  writes  that  u The  kerosene  emulsion  which  you 
directed  me  to  try  on  my  beets  against  the  flea-beetles  was  a perfect 
success.” 

A direct  as  well  as  useful  remedy  is  the  careful  destruction  of  all 
such  weeds  as  furnish  food  for  the  same  insects  that  attack  the  beet. 
Clean  culture  in  this  case  becomes  doubly  necessary.  First,  to  prevent 
the  appropriation  by  the  weeds  of  nourishment  that  should  be  taken  by 
the  beets,  and  secondly,  to  give  less  room  for  the  propagation  of  inju- 
rious insects. 


REPORT  ON  VARIOUS  METHODS  FOR  DESTROYING  SCALE 

INSECTS. 


By  D.  W.  Coquillett,  Special  Agent. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 

Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  October^,  1890. 

Sir:  I herewith  submit  my  annual  report  for  the  season  of  1890.  The  Australian 
lady-bird  ( Vedalia  cardinalis  Mnlsaut)  recently  introduced  by  this  Division,  success- 
fully survived  the  winter  unprotected  out  of  doors,  and  as  early  as  the  month  of 
March  I was  able  to  distribute  several  colonies  to  those  requesting  them.  Lest  this 
species,  after  exterminating  the  Fluted  or  Cottony-cushion  Scale  ( Icenja  purchasi 
Maskell)  should  become  extinct  on  this  coast,  our  State  Board  of  Horticulture,  at  the 
suggestion  of  its  president,  Hon.  Ellwood  Cooper,  has  erected  two  propagating 
houses  over  two  large  orange  trees  belonging  to  Col.  J.  R.  Dobbins,  in  the  San  Ga- 
briel Valley ; in  these  houses  the  Vedalias  are  to  be  propagated  and  distributed  to 
those  requiring  them.  At  the  present  writing  it  is  no  easy  matter  to  find  a single 
living  leery  a anywhere  in  this  part  of  the  State,  although  in  the  early  part  of  the 
season  they  appeared  in  limited  numbers  in  a great  many  places ; later  in  the  season 
the  Vedalias  also  appeared  in  considerable  numbers,  and  by  sending  colonies  of  these 
to  the  different  localities  where  the  Iceryas  had  appeared,  the  latter  were  effectually 
held  in  check. 

The  Red  Scale  ( Aspidiotus  aurantii  Maskell),  so  destructive  to  Citrus  trees  in  certain 
localities,  is  rapidly  reduced  in  numbers  through  the  agency  of  the  treatment  with 
hydrocyanic  acid  gas,  described  in  my  previous  reports.  This  treatment  is  now  being 
largely  used  for  the  above  mentioned  purpose,  and  is  giving  far  better  results  thau 
have  ever  been  obtained  by  the  use  of  any  kind  of  a spray ; numerous  instances  have 
occurred  where,  upon  large  Citrus  trees  treated  with  this  gas,  neither  myself  nor  other 
parties  were  able  to  find  a single  living  Red  Scale,  either  upon  the  bark,  leaves,  or 
fruit — a result  which  so  far  as  I am  aware  has  never  been  obtained  by  the  use  of  any 
kind  of  a spray.  The  cost  of  treating  trees  with  the  gas  is  scarcely  greater  than  that 
of  using  a spray,  while  the  method  has  been  so  greatly  simplified  that  trees  can  now 
be  treated  with  the  gas  very  nearly  as  rapidly  as  they  can  be  sprayed.  I have  not  as 
yet  learned  that  any  person,  or  even  a single  domestic  animal,  has  ever  been  acci- 
dentally injured  either  by  the  gas  itself  or  by  the  materials  used  in  producing  it.  All 
of  the  objections  which  at  first  were  urged  against  the  use  of  this  gas — the  danger  of 
being  poisoned  by  it  or  by  the  chemicals  used,  the  great  expense  attached  to  its  use, 
ami  the  impracticability  of  operating  the  tents— have  finally  been  overcome,  and  the 
treatment  is  now  in  successful  operation. 

In  my  last  report  I gave  an  account  of  the  spraying  of  a number  of  orange  trees 
at  Orange  according  to  instructions.  These  trees  were  not  again  sprayed  until  the 
lapse  of  a little  over  one  year.  At  this  latter  date  the  trees  were  again  badly  infested 

19 


20 


with  the  Red  Scale  ( Aspidiotus  aurantii  MaskelL),  although  these  were  not  so  numer- 
ous as  they  were  at  the  time  that  I had  them  sprayed  a little  over  oue  year  previously. 
The  oranges  when  gathered  in  the  following  spring  were  quite  free  from  the  scales, 
none  of  them  having  been  rejected  by  the  purchaser  on  account  of  being  too  badly 
iufested  with  these  pests.  Those  who  depend  upon  spraying  for  ridding  their  trees 
of  these  scales  usually  spray  their  trees  twice  a year,  in  March  or  April,  and  again 
in  August  or  September,  although  some  growers  perform  these  operations  only  in  the 
autumn,  the  second  spraying  being  given  to  the  trees  about  two  months  after  the 
first. 

During  the  past  season  I have  received  numerous  favors  from  you,  especially  in 
the  matter  of  identifying  insects,  for  all  of  which  please  accept  thanks. 

Respectfully  yours, 

D.  W.  COQUILLETT. 

Prof.  C.  Y.  Riley, 

United  States  Entomologist. 


THE  GAS  TREATMENT  FOR  THE  RED  SCALE. 

The  process  of  treating  trees  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  for  the  de- 
struction of  scale  insects  (Family  Coccidse)  is  now  being  extensively 
used  in  southern  California,  not  only  in  the  orange  groves,  but  also  in 
the  nursery  where  the  imported  trees  are  subjected  to  this  treatment 
for  the  purpose  of  ridding  them  of  insect  pests.  In  Orange  County 
alone  fully  20,000  orange  and  lemon  trees  have  been  subjected  to  this 
treatment  the  present  year  in  order  to  free  them  from  the  red  scale 
( Aonidia  aurantii  Maskell). 

Since  the  year  1887  various  accounts  of  this  process  have  been  pub- 
lished in  some  of  the  Annual  Keports  and  Periodical  Bulletins  of  this 
Department.* 

But  as  these  are  somewhat  scattered,  and  include  an  account  of  the 
various  improvements  that  have  been  made  from  time  to  time,  I have 
thought  it  desirable  to  give  in  this  place  a brief  account  of  this  process 
as  at  present  used  in  actual  field  work,  including  in  the  account  such 
improvements  as  have  been  made  since  writing  up  my  last  report  upon 
this  subject.  Briefly  speaking,  this  process  consists  in  covering  the 
infested  tree  with  an  air-tight  tent  and  afterward  charging  the  tent 
with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas.  The  material  commonly  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  tent  is  what  is  known  as  blue  or  brown  drilling.  A 
few  persons  have  used  common  ducking  in  place  of  the  drilling,  but 
this  is  much  inferior  to  the  latter;  in  the  ducking  the  threads  of  which 
it  is  composed  extend  only  lengthwise  and  crosswise,  whereas  in  the 
drilling  they  also  extend  diagonally — this  belonging  to  the  class  of 
goods  to  which  our  merchants  apply  the  term  “twilled” — and  for  this 
reason  the  drilling  is  both  stronger  and  closer  in  texture  than  the 
ducking. 

* See  Annual  Report  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  for  the  year  1887, 
pp.  123-142 ; and  1888,  pp.  123-126.  Also  Insect  Life,  vol.  1,  pp.  41,42  and  286 ; and 
vol.  ii,  p.  202-207. 


21 


After  the  tent  is  sewed  up  it  is  given  a coat  of  black  paint,  as  it  lias 
been  ascertained  that  tents  treated  in  this  manner  last  longer  than 
those  which  have  been  simply  oiled  with  linseed  oil.  Some  persons  mix 
a small  quantity  of  soap  suds  with  the  paint  in  order  to  render  the  lat- 
ter more  pliable  when  dry,  and  therefore  less  liable  to  crack.  Instead 
of  thus  painting  the  tent  some  persons  simply  give  it  a coating  made  of 
an  inferior  grade  of  glue  called  u size,”  first  dissolving  this  in  water  and 
then  covering  the  tent  with  it,  using  a whitewash  brush  for  this  pur- 
pose. Sometimes  a small  quantity  of  whiting  or  chalk  (carbonate  of 
lime,  Ca  Co3),is  added  to  this  sizing  with  or  without  the  addition  of  lamp- 
black. A few  make  use  of  the  mucilaginous  juice  of  the  common  Cactus 
( Opuntia  engelmanni  Salm.)  for  this  purpose;  to  obtain  this  the  Cactus 
leaves  or  stems  are  cut  or  broken  up  into  pieces,  thrown  into  a barrel 
and  covered  with  water,  after  which  tliej^  are  allowed  to  soak  for  three 
or  four  days ; the  liquid  portion  is  then  drawn  off  and  is  ready  for  use 
without  further  preparation.  Tents  which  I saw  that  had  been  pre- 
pared with  this  substance  were  to  all  appearances  as  air-tight  and  pli- 
able as  when  prepared  in  any  other  manner. 

A tent  26  feet  tall  by  60  feet  in  circumference — a size  large  enough  to 
cover  the  largest  orange  tree  now  growing  in  this  State — if  made  out  of 
drilling,  and  either  painted  or  sized,  as  described  above,  will  cost  com- 
pleted about  $60.  Where  the  trees  to  be  treated  are  not  more  than  12 
feet  tall  the  tent  can  be  placed  over  them  by  means  of  poles  in  the 
hands  of  three  persons ; to  accomplish  this,  three  iron  rings  are  sewed  to 
the  tent  at  equal  distances  around  and  6 or  7 feet  from  the  bottom  of 
the  tent ; immediately  under  each  of  these  rings  an  iron  hook  is  attached 
to  the  lower  edge  of  the  tent.  When  the  latter  is  to  be  placed  over  a 
tree  each  of  the  hooks  is  fastened  into  the  corresponding  ring  above  it ; 
one  end  of  a pole  is  then  inserted  into  each  of  these  rings  and  the  tent 
raised  up  and  placed  on  the  tree.  The  hooks  are  then  released  from  the 
rings  and  the  lower  edge  of  the  tent  allowed  to  drop  upon  the  ground. 

Instead  of  allowing  the  tent  to  rest  directly  on  the  tree  some  growers 
use  an  umbrella-like  arrangement,  the  handle  of  which  is  in  two  pieces, 
which  are  fastened  together  with  clamps  provided  with  pins;  this 
allows  the  handle  to  be  lengthened  or  shortened  according  to  the  height 
of  the  tree.  This  apparatus  is  put  up  over  the  tree  and  the  tent  allowed 
to  rest  upon  it.  By  the  use  of  this  simple  device  the  danger  of  break- 
ing off  the  small  twigs  on  the  upper  part  of  the  tree  by  the  weight  of 
the  tent  is  avoided.  Mr.  Leslie,  of  Orange,  used  four  tents  and  tent- 
rests  of  this  kind,  and  he  informs  me  that  with  the  aid  of  two  men  he 
fumigated  120  trees  in  one  night.  To  remove  the  tent  from  one  tree, 
place  it  over  another,  and  charge  the  generator  required  only  one  minute 
and  a half.  In  the  place  of  poles  some  persons  attach  a circle  of  gas 
pipe  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  tent ; then  two  men,  each  taking  hold  of 
opposite  sides  of  this  circle,  throw  the  tent  over  the  tree.  Dr.  J.  H. 
Dunn,  of  Pomona,  informs  me  that  four  men,  using  six  tents  like  the 


22 


above,  fumigated  240  orange  trees  in  one  nigbt,  and  that  the  average 
for  each  night  was  over  200  trees,  the  latter  being  8 feet  or  less  in 
height. 

Trees  over  12  feet  tall  will  require  a derrick  of  some  kind  for  the  pur- 
pose of  putting  on  the  tent  and  removing  it  again.  For  this  purpose  a 
stout  mast  is  erected  in  the  center  of  a strong  framework  mounted 
upon  the  running  gears  of  a common  farm  wagon,  the  height  of  the 
mast  depending  upon  the  height  of  the  trees  to  be  operated  upon.  This 
mast  is  braced  in  four  directions,  and  to  the  upper  end  of  it  is  firmly 
attached  a cross-piece,  extending  transversely  to  the  length  of  the 
wagon,  and  long  enough  to  reach  from  one  row  of  trees  to  another.  To 
each  end  of  this  cross-piece  are  attached  small  pulleys,  through  which 
pass  ropes  which  are  attached  to  the  tents ; by  pulling  down  on  these 
ropes  the  tents  are  drawn  up  to  the  cross  piece  after  which  the  wagon 
is  drawn  ahead  until  the  tents  are  directly  over  two  of  the  trees  to  be 
treated ; the  ropes  are  then  let  out  and  the  tents  lowered  down  over 
the  trees.  The  ropes  are  usually  attached  to  the  lower  edge  of  the 
tents  as  well  as  to  their  apices,  and  when  the  tent  is  to  be  taken  off  of 
the  tree  the  ropes  attached  to  the  bottom  of  it  are  first  pulled  down- 
ward, thus  drawing  the  lower  part  of  the  tent  up  to  the  cross-piece 
first,  and  in  a measure  turning  the  tent  inside  out.  But  for  this  device 
it  would  be  necessary  to  have  the  cross-piece  at  least  twice  the  height 
of  the  trees  to  be  operated  upon.  This  apparatus  is  drawn  between 
two  rows  of  trees  and  the  trees  on  each  side  of  it  treated  with  the  gas. 
It  is  customary  for  the  men  themselves  to  draw  the  fumigator  from  tree 
to  tree,  thus  doing  away  with  the  use  of  horses  for  this  purpose.  Stout 
planks  are  frequently  used  for  the  wheels  of  the  fumigator  to  run  upon. 
A fumigator  of  this  kind,  without  the  accompanying  wagons  and  tents, 
can  be  built  for  about  $15,  it  being  the  cheapest  and  simplest  apparatus 
ever  used  for  this  purpose.  It  has  not  as  yet  been  patented,  and  is 
more  largely  used  at  the  present  time  than  any  other  kind,  operating 
the  tents  successfully  even  upon  the  largest  orange  trees.  The  first 
fumigator  of  this  kind  was  built  by  Mr.  O.  H.  Leefeld,  a prominent 
orange-grower  of  Orange,  and  a man  who  has  had  considerable  experi- 
ence as  a machinist. 

Within  the  past  few  weeks  a new  kind  of  a fumigator  has  been 
brought  out  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Souther,  of  Covina,  Los  Angeles  County, 
Cal.  This,  like  the  preceding  one,  is  mounted  upon  a common  farm 
wagon,  and  operates  two  tents,  one  on  either  side  of  it.  At  each  end 
of  this  fumigator  are  four  upright  posts  attached  at  their  lower  ends  to 
the  framework,  which  is  mounted  on  the  wagon  $ the  outermost  posts 
are  shorter  than  the  inner  ones,  and  to  the  upper  end  of  each  is  attached 
a long  spar  by  a hinged  joint,  which  allows  the  spar  to  be  moved  back 
and  forth  transversely  to  the  length  of  the  wagon.  The  two  spars  on 
one  side  of  the  fumigator  are  connected  with  each  other  near  their  upper 
ends  by  means  of  a wooden  cross-piece,  and  are  drawn  back  and  forth 


23 


by  means  of  ropes  passing  through  pulleys.  The  tents  are  operated  by 
means  of  ropes,  which  pass  through  pulleys  attached  to  the  spars  and 
cross-pieces  described  above,  there  being  five  ropes  attached  to  each 
tent;  one  of  these  is  attached  * to  the  apex  of  the  tent,  and  passes 
through  a pulley  fastened  to  the  middle  of  the  above-mentioned  cross- 
piece ; two  other  ropes  are  attached  to  opposite  sides  of  the  tent,  about 
midway  between  its  apex  and  base,  and  pass  through  pulleys  fastened 
to  each  of  the  spars  near  their  upper  ends;  the  other  two  ropes  are 
attached  to  opposite  sides  of  the  lower  edge  of  the  tent  and  pass  through 
pulleys  fastened  to  each  of  the  spars  a few  feet  higher  up  than  those 
above  described.  To  the  bottom  of  the  tent  is  attached  a wooden  cir- 
cle in  several  pieces,  and  the  two  ropes  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the 
tent  are  fastened  to  this  circle ; these  ropes  are  not  exactly  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  tent,  the  space  between  them  equaling  about  one-third  of 
the  entire  circumference  of  the  lower  edge  of  the  tent. 

In  taking  the  tent  off  of  a tree  the  two  ropes  attached  to  the  tent 
midway  between  its  base  and  apex  are  first  drawn  downward  until  their 
points  of  attachment  are  slightly  above  the  tot)  of  the  tree,  after  which 
the  two  ropes  attached  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  tent  are  drawn  down- 
ward until  their  points  of  attachment  are  drawn  up  against  the  spars 
at  the  places  where  the  pulleys  thsough  which  these  ropes  pass  are  fas- 
tened ; the  lower  edge  of  the  tent  at  this  stage  will  be  perpendicular 
to  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  these  ropes  are  further  pulled  upon 
until  the  spars  on  this  side  of  the  wagon  are  perpendicular  to  the 
wagon,  thus  bringing  the  weight  of  the  tent  upon  the  middle  of  the 
wagon ; the  spars  are  prevented  from  going  over  backward  any  farther 
by  the  presence  of  the  inner  upright  posts  referred  to  at  the  beginning 
of  this  description.  When  both  of  the  tents  have  thus  been  drawn  upon 
the  wagon  the  latter  is  moved  forward  until  the  tents  are  brought  op- 
posite the  next  two  trees.  Before  the  tents  are  again  let  down  over 
the  trees  the  fumigator  is  first  braced  up  by  means  of  four  long  braces 
attached  to  each  of  the  four  corner  posts  at  a distance  of  about  8 feet 
from  the  ground ; these  are  attached  in  such  a manner  that  they  may 
be  swung  out  at  right  angles  to  the  fumigator,  or,  when  not  in  use,  may 
be  swung  around  and  loaded  upon  the  wagon  without  first  detaching 
them.  After  these  four  braces  are  in  position  the  ropes  attached  to  one 
of  the  tents  are  let  out  and  the  tent  allowed  to  fall  down  over  the  tree, 
a guide  rope  being  attached  to  its  lower  edge  to  aid  in  guiding  it  in  its 
downward  descent  over  the  tree. 

Mr.  Souther,  the  inventor  of  this  fumigator,  informs  me  that  a fumi- 
gator of  this  kind,  without  the  wagon  and  tents,  could  be  built  for  about 
$G0.  He  also  informs  me  that  a patent  has  been  granted  to  him  upon 
this  fumigator. 

Besides  the  above  fund gators  T may  also  mention  one  which  has  been 
used  in  a few  instances  with  very  good  results.  It  is  an  extremely 
simple  affair,  consisting  of  an  upright  post  the  lower  end  of  which  is 


24 


attached  to  a framework  on  a wagon  or  sled,  while  to  its  upper  end  is 
attached  a long  stick  of  timber,  the  latter  being  attached  near  its  middle 
to  the  top  of  the  post,  like  the  sweep  of  an  old-fashioned  well.  The 
tent  is  then  attached  to  one  end  of  the  sweep,  and  by  pulling  downward 
on  the  opposite  end  the  tent  is  raised  up,  and  may  then  be  swung 
around  and  let  down  over  a tree. 

After  the  tent  is  placed  over  the  tree  the  next  step  is  to  charge  it 
with  the  gas.  The  materials  used  for  the  production  of  the  gas  consist 
of  commercial  sulphuric  acid  (K2  S04),  fused  potassium  cyanide  (KON), 
and  water,  the  proportions  being  1 fluid  ounce  of  the  acid,  1 ounce  by 
weight  of  the  dry  cyanide,  and  2 fluid  ounces  of  water.  The  generator 
is  placed  under  the  tent  at  the  base  of  the  tree ; it  consists  of  a common 
open  earthenware  vessel.  The  water  is  first  placed  in  the  generator, 
then  the  acid,  and  last  the  cyanide,  after  which  the  operator  withdraws 
to  the  outside  of  the  tent  and  the  bottom  of  the  latter  is  fastened  down 
by  having  a few  shovelfuls  of  earth  thrown  upon  it.  The  tent  is  allowed 
to  remain  over  the  tree  for  a period  of  from  15  to  30  minutes,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  tree. 

It  was  found  by  experimenting  that  the  trees  were  less  liable  to  be 
injured  by  the  gas  when  treated  at  night  than  they  were  when  operated 
upon  in  day  time,  and  at  the  same  time  the  gas  is  just  as  fatal  to  the 
scale  insects  when  applied  at  night  as  it  would  be  if  applied  in  the  day 
time ; and  indeed  it  appears  to  be  even  more  fatal  when  applied  at  night. 
This  is  accounted  for  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  in  the  day  time  the  light 
and  heat  decompose  the  gas  into  other  gases  which,  while  being  more 
hurtful  to  the  trees,  are  not  so  fatal  to  insects.  At  night  the  trees  are 
also  more  or  less  in  a state  of  rest,  and  therefore  are  not  so  liable  to  be 
injured  by  the  gas  as  they  would  be  in  the  day  time,  when  they  are 
actively  engaged  in  absorbing  nourishment  and  replacing  wasted  tissue 
with  new  materials. 

Of  the  different  materials  used  in  generating  the  gas,  the  most 
important  is  the  potassium  cyanide;  of  this  there  are  three  grades: 
The  mining  cyanide,  commercial  cyanide,  and  the  0.  P.  (chemically 
pure).  Of  these  three  brands,  the  mining  cyanide  is  wholly  unsuitable 
for  the  production  of  the  gas,  and  the  0.  P.  is  too  expensive;  the  com- 
mercial brand  (fused)  is  the  only  one  that  is  used  for  producing  the 
gas,  but  even  this  varies  greatly  in  strength,  containing  all  the  way 
from  33  to  58  per  cent,  of  pure  potassium  cyanide.  It  is,  therefore,  of 
the  utmost  importance  that  the  operator  should  know  the  exact  per- 
centage of  pure  potassium  cyanide  that  his  cyanide  contains,  and  when 
large  quantities  of  it  are  purchased  at  one  time  it  would  be  advisable 
to  obtain  one  or  more  analyses  of  it  by  a reliable  analytical  chemist; 
or  if  it  is  not  possible  to  submit  the  cyanide  to  such  person,  an  analysis 
of  it  could  be  made  by  almost  any  person  accustomed  to  the  use  of 
chemicals  ordnigs. 

The  only  substance  required  for  this  purpose  is  the  crystals  of  nitrate 


25 


of  silver  ( AgN03),  which  may  be  obtained  at  almost  any  well-stocked 
drug  store.  Dissolve  the  nitrate  in  cold  water  contained  in  a glass  or 
earthen  vessel,  using  one-fourth  of  an  ounce  (Troy)  of  the  crystals  to  1 
pint  of  water ; this  dissolves  in  a few  minutes,  forming  a whitish,  semi- 
transparent solution.  The  cyanide,  when  dissolved  in  water,  forms  a 
transparent,  nearly  colorless  solution ; when  a small  quantity  of  the 
nitrate  of  silver  solution  is  added  to  this  it  at  first  spreads  out  in  a white 
cloud,  like  milk,  but  it  soon  breaks  up  into  small,  white,  fioccy  pieces 
which  gradually  disappear  upon  being  agitated,  leaving  the  solution 
nearly  as  transparent  as  at  first;  when  more  of  the  nitrate  of  silver 
solution  is  added  from  time  to  time  the  above  process  is  repeated,  ex- 
cept toward  the  last,  when  the  cyanide  solution  becomes  somewhat 
milky,  but  it  still  remains  semi  transparent,  permitting  the  operator  to  see 
quite  clearly  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  containing  the  solution.  As  soon 
as  a sufficient  quantity  of  the  nitrate  of  silver  solution  has  been  added 
to  the  cyanide  solution  the  latter  immediately  becomes  white  and  opaque, 
like  milk,  completely  concealing  from  view  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  con- 
taining it.  This  completes  the  operation,  and  the  quantity  of  nitrate 
of  silver  solution  used  will  indicate  the  strength  of  the  cyanide  tested. 
When  absolutely  pure,  5f  grains  of  the  potassium  cyanide  dissolved  in 
water  will  require  1 fluid  ounce  of  the  above  nitrate  of  silver  solution 
before  the  turbidity  occurs,  indicating  that  the  cyanide  is  100  per  cent, 
strong;  if  only  one-half  of  a fluid  ounce  of  the  nitrate  of  silver  solution 
produces  this  turbidity,  this  indicates  that  the  cyanide  in  only  half 
strength,  or  50  per  cent,  strong;  if  only  one-fourth  of  a fluid  ounce  is 
required,  then  the  cyanide  is  25  per  cent,  strong;  and  so  forth.  The 
nitrate  of  silver  solution  should  be  added  to  the  cyanide  solution  very 
slowly,  the  latter  being  agitated  by  gently  shaking  it  each  time  that 
any  of  the  nitrate  solution  is  added.  Wherever  any  of  the  nitrate  of 
silver  solution  comes  in  contact  with  the  skin  or  nails  of  the  hand  it 
produces  a reddish  or  black  stain  which  can  easily  be  removed  by  wash- 
ing the  stained  part  in  a solution  of  potassium  cyanide  and  water;  this 
will  quickly  remove  the  stain  without  causing  any  injury  to  the  parts 
affected,  except,  of  course,  when  the  stains  occur  upon  a sore  or  cut  in 
the  hand,  in  which  case  it  would  be  very  dangerous  to  apply  the  cyanide 
to  these  places. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  percentage  of  cyanogen  (ON  or  Cy)is 
given,  instead  of  the  percentage  of  potassium  cyanide  (KON  or  KCy); 
but  in  cases  of  this  kind  the  percentage  of  cyanide  can  be  readily  ascer- 
tained by  always  bearing  in  mind  that  two-fifths  of  a given  quantity  of 
potassium  cyauide  is  cyanogen.  Thus  if  a certain  brand  of  cyanide 
contains  24  per  cent  of  cyanogen,  this  is  equivalent  to  GO  per  cent  of 
pure  potassium  cyanide.  Potassium  cyanide  when  absolutely  pure 
(equal  to  100  per  cent.)  contains  40  per  cent,  of  cyanogen;  and,  there- 
fore, no  grade  of  cyanide  could  contain  a larger  percentage  of  cyano- 
gen than  this. 


26 


The  potassium  cyanide  used  for  producing  the  hydrocyanic  acid  gas 
is  principally  manufactured  by  two  firms:  Power  & Weightman,  of 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and  the  Mallinkrodt  Chemical  Works,  of  St.  Louis? 
Mo.  That  made  by  the  first  named  firm  is  the  most  largely  used ; when 
purchased  by  the  ton  the  price  is  36  cents  per  pound  for  the  grade  con- 
taining about  57  per  cent  of  pure  potassium  cyanide,  packages  and 
carriage  extra.  It  is  put  up  in  tin  cans  holding  10  pounds  each,  and 
also  in  barrels  holding  about  400  pounds  each.  That  in  the  cans  is 
much  to  be  preferred,  since  the  quantity  in  each  is  so  small  that  it  will 
soon  be  used  up  after  the  can  is  opened  ; whereas,  the  barrel  contain- 
ing so  large  a quantity,  the  cyanide  used  toward  the  last  will  have  lost 
much  of  its  strength  by  contact  with  the  air.  It  is  customary  to  weigh 
out  the  cyanide  in  small  paper  parcels,  and  mark  each  parcel  with  the 
number  of  ounces  of  cyanide  that  it  contains;  then  when  the  tree  is  to 
be  fumigated  it  is  an  easy  matter  for  the  operator  to  select  one  of  the 
parcels  containing  a sufficient  quantity  of  the  cyanide  for  the  tree,  thus 
saving  the  trouble  of  weighing  out  the  cyanide  as  it  is  to  be  used  for 
each  tree.  As  the  fumigating  is  done  only  at  night  the  weighingof  the 
cyanide  is  frequently  done  by  the  ladies  of  the  house  upon  the  day  pre- 
ceding its  use. 

The  quantity  of  cyanide  to  be  used  on  each  tree  will,  of  course,  de- 
pend not  only  upon  the  size  of  the  tree  but  also  upon  the  strength  of  the 
cyanide  used.  The  following  table  will  aid  in  determining  the  proper 
quantity  of  each  ingredient  to  be  used  on  different  sized  citrus  trees, 
the  cyanide  being  about  58  per  cent  pure : 


Height 
of  tree. 

Diameter 
of  tree-top. 

Water. 

Sulphuric 

acid. 

Potassium 

cjanide. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Fluid  ozs. 

Fluid  ozs. 

Ounces. 

6 

4 

3 

2, 

3 

i 

8 

6 

2 

1 

1 

10 

8 

H 

2i 

2£ 

12 

10 

8 

4 

4 

12 

14 

16 

8 

8 

14 

10 

10 

5 

5 

14 

14 

19 

9| 

16 

12 

16 

8 

8 

16 

16 

29 

1^2 

18 

14 

26 

13 

13 

20 

16 

36 

18 

18 

22 

18 

52 

26 

26 

24 

20 

66 

33 

33 

Not  only  is  this  gas  fatal  to  the  lied  scale  (Aspidiotus  aurantii  Mas- 
ked), but  also  to  the  San  Jose  scale  ( Aspidiotus  perniciosus  Comstock), 
and  indeed  to  all  of  the  armored  scales.  It  is  also  fatal  to  the  Brown 
scale  (Lecanium  hesperidum  Linn.)  and  to  the  Black  scale  ( Lecanium 
olece  Bernard),  but  the  eggs  of  this  species  are  not  affected  by  it. 
The  common  Bed  Spider  (Tetranychus  telarius  Linn.)  and  the  Woolly 
Aphis  ( Schizoneura  lanigera  Hausmann)  are  also  not  affected  by  the  gas 
when  used  strong  enough  to  destroy  the  Bed  scale,  although  I have 
known  it  to  prove  fatal  to  true  spiders  (species  not  determined).  House- 
flies ( Musca  domestica  Linn.),  Lace-winged  flies  ( Chrysopa  spJ),  and  cer- 


27 


tain  kinds  of  Ichneumon  flies  (Ophion  macrurum  Linn.)  are  also  de- 
stroyed by  the  gas.  On  one  occasion  I obtained  a cluster  of  eggs  of  a 
species  of  Psocus  fly  ( Ccecilius  aurantiacus  Hagen)  that  were  deposited 
upon  a leaf  of  a tree  before  the  latter  had  been  treated  with  the  gas, 
and  from  these  eggs  afterwards  issued  a number  of  parasitic  flies  be- 
longing to  the  family  Proctotrupidse  and  to  the  genus  Alaptus ; but  the 
species  is  as  yet  undescribed.  Various  kinds  of  Lady  birds,  which  are 
in  the  tree  when  the  latter  is  treated  with  the  gas,  become  stupefied  and 
fall  to  the  ground,  but  finally  recover  and  are  to  all  appearance  none 
the  worse  for  their  temporary  loss  of  consciousness.  Birds,  lizards,  and 
even  barn-yard  fowls  sometimes  refuse  to  leave  the  large  orange  trees 
while  the  tent  is  being  let  down  over  them  at  night,  and  are  therefore 
inclosed  in  the  tent  and  subjected  to  the  gas;  the  latter  proves  fatal  to 
all  of  these.  The  small,  pale  yellow  mites  which  are  frequently  found 
on  orange  trees,  especially  beneath  the  dead  scales,  are  not  affected  by 
the  gas;  these  have  a general  resemblance  to  the  young  of  the  Bed  scale, 
and  several  operators,  finding  these  mites  still  alive  after  the  tree  had 
been  subjected  to  the  gas,  came  to  the  erroneous  conclusion  that  the 
gas  had  not  been  effectual,  thinking  that  these  mites  were  the  young  of 
the  Bed  scale. 

From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  the  gas  treatment  is  not  a sure 
specific  for  every  kind  of  insect  pest,  but  for  destroying  Bed  scales  on 
citrus  trees  it  is  far  superior  to  any  other  method  at  present  known. 

THE  RESIN  WASH  FOR  THE  SAN  JOSE  SCALE. 

During  the  past  winter  I carried  on  quite  a series  of  experiments  with 
various  kinds  of  washes  for  the  destruction  of  the  San  Jose  scale 
{Aspidiolus  perniciosus  Comstock)  on  dormant  deciduous  trees,  kindly 
jflaced  at  my  disposal  by  Mr.  C.  H.  Bichardson,  the  inspector  of  fruit 
pests  for  the  Pasadena  district,  Mr.  Bichardson  also  aiding  me  in  mak- 
ing many  of  these  experiments.  Among  all  of  the  washes  tried  the  fol- 
lowing gave  the  best  results  : 


Resin pounds..  30 

Caustic  soda  (70  per  cent) do 9 

Fish  oil pints..  4£ 

Water,  enough  to  make gallons..  100 


For  making  100  gallons  of  the  above  wash  a kettle  holding  30  gallons 
will  be  required.  Place  all  of  the  ingredients  in  the  kettle  and  cover 
with  water  to  a depth  of  4 or  5 inches,  boil  briskly  for  about  2 hours,  or 
until  it  will  dilute  evenly  with  water,  like  black  coffee,  which  it  closely 
resembles  in  color.  When  this  stage  is  reached  the  kettle  should  be 
filled  up  with  water,  adding  this  very  slowly  at  first ; the  contents  of 
the  kettle  can  then  be  emptied  into  a tank  or  other  vessel,  and  a suffi- 
cient quantity  of  water  added  to  make  100  gallons.  Care  should  be 
taken  not  to  chill  the  wash  by  adding  large  quantities  of  cold  water  at 
one  time. 


28 


The  making  of  this  wash  will  be  greatly  accelerated  if  the  resin  and 
caustic  soda  are  first  pulverized  before  being  placed  in  the  kettle ; if  in 
large  pieces,  a considerable  length  of  time  will  be  required  in  which  to 
dissolve  them.  If  a sufficient  quantity  of  water  is  not  used  at  first  the 
materials  when  dissolved  will  form  a thick,  pasty  mass,  which  simply 
breaks  open  in  places  to  allow  the  steam  to  escape,  and  pieces  of  the 
mixture  will  be  thrown  out  of  the  boiler  or  against  its  sides  or  lid  by 
the  escaping  steam.  When  this  occurs,  water  should  be  added  until 
the  solution  boils  up  in  a foamy  mass.  Whenever  there  is  a tendency 
to  boil  over  a small  quantity  of  cold  water  should  be  added,  but  not 
too  much,  or  the  making  of  the  solution  will  be  retarded;  after  a few 
trials  the  operator  will  learn  how  much  water  to  add  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  solution  from  boiling  over  and  yet  keep  it  in  a brisk  state  of 
ebullition.  If  it  is  not  desired  to  add  all  of  the  water  at  the  same  time 
that  the  solution  is  made,  then  enough  can  be  added  to  equal  two- 
fifths  of  the  quantity  required;  the  balance  of  the  water  can  then  be 
added  at  any  subsequent  time  without  again  heating  the  solution. 
Thus,  if  a sufficient  quantity  of  the  solution  is  boiled  to  make  when 
diluted  100  gallons,  this  could  first  be  diluted  to  make  only  40  gallons, 
and  the  remaining  60  gallons  of  water  added  at  any  time  as  required. 
If  it  is  desired  to  use  it  in  a still  more  concentrated  form  than  this,  it 
need  not  be  diluted  at  all  after  it  has  been  boiled  sufficiently,  but  in 
this  case  it  will  be  necessary  to  heat  it  again  before  adding  the  water. 

On  the  11th  of  February,  between  the  hours  of  1:30  and  4:20  p.  in. 
(sun  shining,  light  breeze),  I had  60  dormant  deciduous  fruit  trees 
sprayed  with  the  above  solution.  These  consisted  of  peach,  plum,  apple, 
pear,  and  quince  trees;  none  of  them  had  started  to  leaf  out  except  the 
quince,  which  had  put  forth  a few  leaves  at  the  tips  of  some  of  its 
branches.  Each  of  these  trees  was  infested  with  the  San  Jose  scale 
(Aspidiotus  perniciosus  Comstock)  and  several  of  them  had  been  almost 
killed  by  the  attacks  of  this  pest.  April  23  I made  a careful  examina- 
tion of  these  trees  and  found  only  a very  few  living  Sau  Jose  scales; 
all  of  the  trees  except  those  which  were  nearly  dead  when  sprayed  were 
now  making  a vigorous  growth.  May  12  I again  examined  these  trees, 
and  found  living  San  Jose  scales  on  only  three  of  them,  about  half  a 
dozen  scales  on  each.  I made  another  examination  on  the  11th  day  of 
June,  and  found  a few  San  Jose  scales  on  some  of  the  pears  on  the 
above  trees.  All  of  the  Black  scales  (Lecanium  oleoe  Bernard)  which 
I found  on  these  trees  were  dead,  and  their  eggs  were  dry.  July  24  I 
again  examined  these  trees  and  found  three  or  four  living  San  Jose 
scales  on  a few  pears  and  apples  on  some  of  the  trees,  but  the  fruit  was 
practically  clean,  whereas  on  adjoining  trees  which  had  not  been 
sprayed  nearly  all  of  the  pears  were  very  badly  infested  with  these 
scales.  There  was,  however,  a singular  exception  to  this:  A LeConte 
pear  tree  that  stood  in  the  midst  of  several  Bartlett  and  Winter  Nelis 
pear  trees,  which  were  very  badly  infested  with  the  San  Jose  scale,  was, 


29 


wholly  free  from  this  pest.  Nor  is  this  an  isolated  case,  since  I saw 
the  same  thing  in  another  pear  orchard  located  several  miles  from  this 
one.  Mr.  Richardson  informs  me,  however,  that  the  fruit  of  this  tree 
is  almost  worthless. 

Wishing  to  test  the  effects  of  the  above  wash  on  growing  trees,  I 
sprayed  a prune,  peach,  apricot,  apple,  aud  orange  tree  on  the  12th  day 
of  May,  between  the  hours  of  10  and  11  a.  in.,  sun  shining,  light  breeze. 
I examined  these  on  the  11th  of  June;  on  the  prune  all  of  the  fruit  had 
dropped  off,  and  upon  one-third  of  the  leaves  were  dead  brown  spots, 
these  spots  not  exceeding  one-sixth  of  the  entire  surface  of  any  of  the 
leaves;  on  the  peach  all  of  the  fruit  was  dead,  but  still  clingingto  the 
tree,  and  half  the  leaves  had  brown  spots  in  them,  these  leaves  being 
much  more  injured  than  were  those  on  the  prune  tree ; on  the  apricot 
the  fruit  was  not  injured  in  the  least  and  three-fourths  of  the  leaves 
were  uninjured,  but  the  remaining  leaves  had  small  brown  spots  in 
them,  these  spots  not  exceeding  one-fifteenth  of  the  surface  on  any  of 
the  leaves ; on  the  apple  all  of  the  fruit  had  dropped  off  and  half  the 
leaves  had  large  brown  spots  in  them,  these  spots  sometimes  exceeding 
one-half  of  the  entire  surface  of  the  leaf ; on  the  orange  nearly  all  of 
the  fruit  had  dropped  off  (the  young  oranges  being  about  half  an  inch 
in  diameter),  but  the  leaves  were  uninjured. 

This  indicates  that  of  the  different  kinds  of  fruit  thus  experimented 
upon  the  apricot  was  the  hardiest  and  was  the  least  affected  by  the 
wash  ; next  to  the  apricot  is  the  orange,  then  the  prune,  after  this  the 
X>each,  the  apple  having  suffered  most  from  the  effect  of  the  wash. 

The  orange  tree  experimented  upon  was  infested  with  the  Yellow 
scale  (Aspidiotus  citrinus ),  and  also  with  the  Black  scale  (Lecanium  olece 
Bernard),  and  all  of  these,  as  well  as  the  eggs  of  the  Black  scale,  were 
destroyed  by  the  wash. 

According  to  the  scale  of  prices  furnished  me  by  the  Los  Angeles 
Soap  Company  of  this  city,  the  material  for  making  100  gallons  of  the 
above  wash,  when  purchased  in  large  quantities,  would  amount  to  $1.14, 
being  but  a trifle  over  1 cent  a gallon  for  the  diluted  wash. 

The  materials  used  in  preparing  the  above  wash  are  the  same  as 
those  I used  in  spraying  orange  trees  last  season  for  the  destruction  of 
the  Red  scale  ( Aspidiotus  aurantii  Maskell),  an  account  of  which  is 
given  in  my  report  to  Professor  Riley  for  last  year,  published  in  Bulle- 
tin No.  22  of  the  Division  of  Entomology  (pp.  10-14) ; but  the  spray  I 
then  used  was  only  three-fiftlis  as  strong  as  the  one  I used  for  the  de- 
struction of  the  San  Jose  scale  as  above  described.  On  the  19th  of 
December  I tested  the  spray  of  the  same  strength  that  I had  used 
for  the  Red  scale  on  orange  trees,  but  it  did  not  prove  fatal  to  all  of 
the  San  Jose  scales  that  it  came  in  contact  with. 

The  question  as  to  the  manner  in  which  the  above  resin  spray  proves 
fatal  to  the  scale  insects — whether  the  caustic  property  imparted  by  the 
caustic  soda  is  the  destructive  agent,  or  whether  it  is  the  suffocating 


30 


effect  of  tlie  resin  and  fish  oil  saponified  by  the  caustic  soda  that  pro- 
duces this  result — is  a very  important  one.  Quite  a number  of  our 
fruit  growers  were  at  first  inclined  to  believe  that  it  is  the  caustic  prop- 
erty of  the  wash  that  destroys  the  scale  insect,  and  they  therefore  in- 
creased the  quantity  of  this  particular  ingredient,  only  to  find  that  the 
wash  so  constituted  is  not  apparently  more  fatal  to  the  insects,  while 
at  the  same  time  it  is  very  liable  to  injure  the  fruit.  My  own  studies 
and  experiments  lead  me  to  believe  that  the  above  sprays  kill  for  the 
most  part  by  suffocation.  In  the  course  of  experimenting  I found  that 
a wash  composed  of  the  following  ingredients : 


Caustic  soda pounds..  8 

Resin do 33 

Water  enough  to  make gallons..  100 


did  not  prove  fatal  to  as  large  a percentage  of  Red  scale  as  did  one  con- 
sisting of: 


Caustic  soda pounds..  6 

Resin do 20 

Fish  oil pints..  3 

Water  enough  to  make gallons..  100 


Now,  if  it  is  the  caustic  property  of  the  wash  that  proves  fatal  to  the 
scale  insects,  it  is  evident  that  the  wash  containing  the  largest  amount 
of  the  caustic  agent  would  prove  fatal  to  the  largest  number  of  scale 
insects,  but  the  reverse  of  this  was  really  the  case $ the  wash  containing 
the  smallest  amount  of  the  caustic  agent,  the  caustic  property  of  which 
was  still  further  lessened  by  the  addition  of  the  oil,  proved  fatal  to  the 
largest  number  of  the  insects.  On  the  other  hand,  the  addition  of  the 
oil,  while  reducing  the  caustic  property  of  the  wash,  would  increase  its 
varnishing  qualities,  since  it  is  a fact  well-known  to  painters  that  the 
addition  of  oil  to  a varnish  improves  its  qualities.  For  these  reasons 
it  seems  quite  certain  that  it  is  the  suffocating  properties  of  the  wash 
and  not  its  caustic  nature  that  cause  it  to  prove  fatal  to  the  scale  insects 
which  have  been  sprayed  with  it. 

I have  seen  orange  trees  that  had  been  sprayed  with  a wash  so  caustic 
that  it  killed  fully  nine-tenths  of  the  leaves  on  the  trees,  burnt  the  bark 
brown,  and  caused  nearly  all  the  oranges  to  drop  off,  and  yet  quite  a 
number  of  the  Red  scale  insects  located  on  the  oranges  still  remaining 
on  the  tree  were  alive.  This  will  show  the  utter  uselessness  of  attempt- 
ing to  destroy  the  Red  scale  on  citrus  trees  by  the  use  of  caustic  washes. 


THE  LIME,  SALT,  AND  SULPHUR  WASH  FOR  THE  SAN  JOSE  SCALE. 

For  destroying  the  San  Jose  scale  (Aspidiotus  perniciosus  Comstock) 
on  dormant  deciduous  fruit  trees  many  growers  in  this  State  use  a wash 
composed  of  the  following  ingredients  in  the  proportions  here  given  : 


Sulphur pounds ..  33 

Lime do 42 

Salt do....  25 

Water  enough  to  make ....„ gallons..  100 


31 


All  tlie  sulphur  and  half  of  the  lime  are  placed  in  a kettle  and  33 
gallons  of  water  added,  after  which  the  contents  of  the  kettle  are  boiled 
briskly  for  about  1 hour ; the  solution  will  then  be  of  a very  dark  brown 
color  and  having  a reddish  tint.  All  of  the  salt  is  added  to  the  remain- 
ing 21  pounds  of  lime  and  the  latter  slaked,  after  which  this  slaked 
lime  and  salt  are  added  to  the  above  described  sulphur  and  lime  solu- 
tion and  the  whole  then  diluted  with  a sufficient  quantity  of  water  to 
make  100  gallons ; this  is  then  strained,  after  which  it  is  ready  to  be 
sprayed  upon  the  trees. 

This  does  not  form  a perfectly  liquid  solution  but  contains  a consid- 
erable quantity  of  undissolved  sulphur  and  lime,  which  soon  settles  to 
the  bottom  unless  the  solution  is  stirred  almost  constantly  while  being 
sprayed  on  the  trees.  It  is  therefore  somewhat  of  the  nature  of  a thin 
whitewash,  and  the  trees  sprayed  with  it  have  the  appearance  of  hav- 
ing been  whitewashed.  On  the  26th  of  November,  at  12:45  p.  m.,  sun 
shining,  light  breeze,  I sprayed  a pear  tree  with  a wash  made  according 
to  the  above  directions,  the  tree  being  very  thickly  infested  with  the 
San  Jose  scale.  January  15  I found  14  living  San  Jose  scales  on  this 
tree,  and  on  the  23d  of  April  1 found  several  more $ on  the  lltli  of 
June  I found  on  this  tree  a Black  scale  ( Lecanium  olece  Bernard)  con- 
taining healthy  eggs. 

I also  tested  this  wash  in  the  following  proportions : 


Sulphur pounds..  50 

Lime do 63 

Salt do....  37 

Water  enough  to  make gallons..  100 


This  was  applied  to  a pear  tree  at  1 p.  m.,  November  26,  sun  shining, 
light  breeze.  On  January  15  I found  6 living  San  Jose  scales  on  this 
tree,  and  on  the  23d  I found  several  more. 

At  the  time  of  making  these  tests  there  were  several  green  leaves  on 
each  of  these  trees,  but  all  of  these  were  killed  by  the  washes.  The 
trees  otherwise  were  not  apparently  injured,  and  in  the  following  spriug 
started  into  a vigorous  growth  which  was  continued  throughout  the 
summer.  These  trees  were  not  over  10  feet  tall,  and  were  very  thor- 
oughly sprayed,  so  it  seems  quite  certain  that  every  scale  insect  located 
upon  them  must  have  been  covered  with  the  wash. 

The  philosophy  of  this  wash  is  not  at  present  clearly  understood,  it 
seems  very  probable  however  that  the  product  of  the  lime  and  sulphur 
(bisulphide  of  lime,  OaS2)  furnishes  the  insecticidal  property,  and  the 
presence  of  the  salt  and  slaked  lime  simply  imparts  permanency  to  the 
wash.  I made  quite  a series  of  experiments  with  the  above-named  in- 
gredients, with  a view  of  ascertaining  which  of  the  ingredients  were 
really  insecticides,  but  these  experiments  have  thus  far  resulted  nega- 
tively. The  following  is  a brief  account  of  these  experiments: 

Salt. — Experiment  229  : Table  salt,  19  pounds ; water,  100  gallons. 
I simply  dissolved  the  salt  in  cold  water  and  then  sprayed  the  solution 


32 


on  a pear  tree  at  12:30  p.  m.,  November  2G,  sun  shining,  light  breeze. 
This  did  not  kill  all  of  the  green  leaves  that  were  upon  the  tree.  Jan- 
uary 15  I found  a great  many  living  San  Jose  scales  on  this  tree. 

Experiment  228:  Salt,  38  pounds ; water,  100  gallons.  Dissolved  the 
salt  in  water  as  before  and  sprayed  on  a pear  tree  at  noon,  November  26, 
sun  shining,  light  breeze.  This  killed  all  of  the  green  leaves  that  were 
upon  the  tree.  January  15, 1 found  many  living  San  Jose  scales  on  this 
tree. 

Experiment  237  : Salt,  60  pounds  ; water,  100  gallons.  Dissolved  the 
salt  as  before  and  sprayed  on  a pear  tree  at  10  a.  m.,  January  20,  sun 
shining,  light  breeze.  April  23,  I found  a great  many  living  San  Josd 
scales  on  this  tree. 

Salt  and  Lime.— Experiment  238 : Salt,  25  pounds ; slaked  lime, 
8J  pounds;  water,  100  gallons.  The  salt  and  lime  were  added  to  the 
cold  water,  stirred  occasionally,  and  strained  through  a piece  of  Swiss 
muslin  and  then  sprayed  upon  a pear  tree  at  10:30  a.  m.,  January  30, 
sun  shining,  light  breeze.  April  23  I found  a great  many  living  San 
Jose  scales  on  this  tree. 

Salt  and  Sulphur.— Experiment  232 : Salt,  25  pounds ; sulphur, 
75  pounds ; water,  enough  to  make  100  gallons.  The  sulphur  was  boiled 
for  an  hour  in  75  gallons  of  water,  after  which  the  salt  was  added,  and 
the  solution  diluted  with  a sufficient  quantity  of  cold  water  to  make  100 
gallons.  After  standing  for  a few  minutes  the  greater  portion  of  the 
sulphur  settled  to  the  bottom,  making  it  necessary  to  stir  the  solution 
almost  constantly  while  applying  it  to  the  tree.  Sprayed  on  a pear  tree 
at  2:45  p.  in.,  November  26,  sun  shining,  light  breeze ; this  killed  allot 
the  green  leaves  on  the  tree.  January  15  I found  a great  many  living 
San  Jose  scales  on  this  tree. 

Sulphur. — Experiment  233 : Sulphur,  100  pounds ; water,  enough  to 
make  100  gallons.  Placed  the  sulphur  in  the  water  and  boiled  for  1 
hour,  then  when  cold,  sprayed  the  solution  on  a pear  tree  at  3 p.  m. 
November  26,  sun  shining,  light  breeze.  This  did  not  injure  any  of  the 
green  leaves  that  were  on  the  tree.  January  15  I found  a great  many 
living  San  Jose  scales  on  this  tree,  a smaller  proportion  being  killed 
than  in  either  of  the  preceding  experiments. 

Lime. — Experiment  239 : Slaked  lime,  10  pounds ; water,  enough 
to  make  100  gallons.  The  lime  was  placed  in  the  water,  stirred  occa- 
sionally and  in  two  hours  the  solution  was  strained  through  a piece  of 
thin  Swiss  muslin  and  sprayed  upon  a pear  tree  at  10:45  a.  m.  January 
20,  sun  shining,  light  breeze.  April  23,  I found  a great  many  living 
San  Jose  scales  on  this  tree. 

Lime  and  Sulphur. — Experiment  240 : Quicklime  (CaO),  100 
pounds;  sulphur,  33^  pounds;  water,  enough  to  make  100  gallons. 
Placed  the  lime  and  sulphur  in  a copper  vessel,  added  30  gallons  of 
water,  and  boiled  for  two  hours,  then  filtered.  The  solution  was  of  a deep 
orange-red  color.  After  standing  for  a few  minutes  needle-like  crystals 


33 


somewhat  resembling  the  down  on  the  seeds  of  thistles  separated  out. 
These  were  composed  of  bisulphide  of  lime  (OaS2)  and  being  freely  solu- 
ble in  water,  were  dissolved  when  the  balance  of  the  water  was  added. 
In  this  action  all  of  the  sulphur  had  been  incorporated  with  the  lime, 
since  the  residue  when  dried  would  not  ignite.  Added  a sufficient 
quantity  of  water  to  the  above  solution  and  sprayed  an  apple  tree  with 
it  at  10:30  a.  m.  March  18,  sun  shining,  light  breeze. 

About  14  hours  after  making  the  above  experiment  it  began  to  rain 
very  gently  and  this  was  continued  for  24  hours.  April  23,  I found  a 
great  many  living  San  Jose  scales  on  this  tree.  At  the  time  of  making 
the  above  test  I also  sprayed  some  of  the  solution  on  a branch  of  a 
peach  tree  in  full  blossom,  but  this  did  not  appear  to  produce  any  in- 
jurious effect  upon  the  blossom,  since  at  the  time  of  my  visit  ou  the 
23d  of  April  this  branch  bore  as  many  peaches  as  did  any  of  those  I 
had  not  sprayed.  It  seems  almost  certain  that  the  rain,  coming  on  so 
soon  after  the  wash  was  applied,  rendered  neutral  the  effect  of  the 
above  solution  on  the  scale  insects  sprayed  with  it.  I have  seen 
orange  trees  that  had  been  sprayed  with  the  resin  wash  on  a certain 
day  and  a rain  occurred  during  the  night  following  the  application; 
but  the  wash  did  not  prove  fatal  to  nearly  as  large  a percentage  of  the 
red  scales  as  would  have  been  the  case  had  no  rain  occurred. 

On  the  same  day  that  the  above  test  was  made  (March  18),  I also 
tried  the  above  mentioned  lime  and  sulphur  solution  at  half  strength, 
but  it  did  not  produce  any  apparent  effect  upon  the  San  Jose  scales 
infesting  the  tree  sprayed  with  it.  It  was  now  too  late  in  the  season 
to  make  additional  tests  of  this  solution,  but  I hope  to  be  able  to  fol- 
low up  this  subject  during  the  coming  winter. 

From  the  above  experiments  it  would  appear  that  neither  lime,  salt, 
nor  sulphur  when  used  separately  are  effectual  in  destroying  the  San 
Jose  scale;  and  the  same  is  true  in  regard  to  any  two  of  them  when 
used  in  combination,  except,  perhaps,  the  lime  and  sulphur,  which  have 
not  as  yet  been  sufficiently  tested.  It  is  very  probable,  however,  that 
these  two  ingredients  give  to  the  wash  its  insecticidal  property,  while 
the  addition  of  the  slaked  lime  and  salt  simply  impart  stability  to  the 
wash,  rendering  it  less  liable  to  be  washed  off'  the  trees  by  the  winter 
rains.  Should  this  surmise  prove  correct,  then  the  directions  given  at 
the  head  of  this  article  for  preparing  this  wash  should  be  changed,  an 
equal  number  of  pounds  of  lime  being  required  with  the  33  pounds  of 
sulphur,  instead  of  only  21  pounds  of  lime,  as  at  present  used. 

I experienced  considerable  difficulty  in  preparing  and  applying  this 
wash,  owing  to  the  fact  that  some  of  the  materials  used  are  not  solu- 
ble in  water,  necessitating  an  almost  constant  stirring  of  the  solution 
while  it  is  being  sprayed  upon  the  trees.  On  this  account  it  is  quite  im- 
possible to  spray  it  uniformly  upon  all  of  the  trees,  and  this  difficulty 
has  also  been  experienced  by  each  of  our  fruit-growers  who  have  used  it 
and  with  whom  I have  conversed  upon  the  subject,  or  who  have  written 
25910— Bull.  23 3 


34 


to  me  in  regard  to  it.  Some  of  the  trees  sprayed  by  this  solution 
would  be  very  much  whitened,  as  if  whitewashed,  whereas  other  trees 
sprayed  from  the  same  tank  as  these  would  be  scarcely  discolored  by 
the  wash.  It  is,  of  course,  the  slaked  lime  added  to  the  solution  that 
causes  it  to  give  the  trees  the  appearance  of  having  been  whitewashed, 
since  neither  the  salt  nor  the  sulphur  discolor  the  tree  to  any  appreci- 
able extent,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  bisulphite  of  lime,  which  is  pro- 
duced by  boiling  the  quicklime  and  sulphur  together. 

The  cost  of  100  gallons  of  this  wash  according  to  prices  furnished  me 
by  Howell  & Craig,  wholesale  grocers,  of  this  city,  for  the  sulphur  and 
salt,  and  by  the  Southern  California  Lumber  Company,  also  of  this 
city,  for  the  lime,  is  as  follows,  the  materials  being  purchased  in  large 


quantities : 

Sulphur,  33  pounds,  at2|-  cents  per  pound $0.70 

Lime,  42  pounds,  at  £ of  a cent  per  pound .33 

Salt,  25  pounds,  at  -29o  of  & cent  per  pound 11 

Total $1. 14 


The  salt  quoted  above  isapoor  grade,  such  as  is  used  for  sal  ting  hides, 
and  the  price  quoted  is  by  the  ton ; the  sulphur  is  in  sacks,  and  the 
lime  in  barrels  containing  about  220  pounds  each. 

Of  the  two  washes  above  described — the  resin,  caustic  soda,  and  fish 
oil,  and  the  lime,  salt,  and  sulphur  washes — the  one  containing  resin  is 
greatly  to  be  preferred.  Not  only  is  this  wash  easier  to  prepare  than 
the  other,  but  it  is  also  much  easier  to  apply  it  to  the  trees,  since  it  is 
perfectly  soluble  in  water  and  therefore  does  not  require  to  be  stirred 
while  being  sprayed  upon  the  trees.  For  this  reason  more  uniform  re- 
sults will  be  obtained  by  its  use  than  would  be  obtained  by  using  the 
sulphur  wash.  Moreover,  the  resin  wash,  by  being  properly  diluted, 
can  also  be  used  in  the  summer  season,  and  thus  only  one  wash  need  be 
used  at  any  time  of  the  year.  In  my  own  experiments  better  results 
were  obtained  by  the  use  of  the  resin  wash  than  were  produced  by  the 
sulphur  wash.  The  price  per  gallon  of  each  of  these  washes  is  about 
the  same.  The  sulphur  wash  should  never  be  used  on  trees  in  leaf  nor 
on  those  just  starting  to  leaf  out,  and  this  is  also  true  of  the  resin  wash 
when  made  according  to  the  formula  given  in  the  preceding  article. 

MISCELLANEOUS  EXPERIMENTS. 

Corrosive  sublimate  (also  known  as  mercuric  chloride,  HgCl2). — 
Some  time  ago  one  of  the  Horticultural  Commissioners  of  San  Ber- 
nardino County  remarked  to  me  that  he  had  used  a simple  solution  of 
corrosive  sublimate  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  various  kinds  of  scale 
insects  on  nursery  trees,  and  had  obtained  very  good  results  by  the 
use  of  the  same ; and  it  was  also  reported  in  some  of  the  San  Diego 
papers  that  a gentleman  living  in  that  county  had  obtained  better  re- 
sults by  the  use  of  a solution  of  the  above  kind  than  he  had  by  using 
any  other  kind  of  insecticide  for  the  destruction  of  the  black  scale. 


35 


Thinking  the  subject  worthy  of  investigation,  I made  a few  experi- 
ments with  this  substance,  but  the  results  were  far  from  being  satis- 
factory. I dissolved  the  sublimate  in  cold  water  by  frequent  stirring  ; 
this  required  about  15  minutes,  and  the  solution  was  of  a dark  bluish- 
gray  color.  Following  is  a brief  account  of  these  experiments : 

(224)  Corrosive  sublimate,  2£  ounces ; water  100  gallons.  Sprayed 
on  an  orange  tree  infested  with  the  red  scale  at  3 p.  m.,  October  10,  sun 
shining,  light  breeze.  November  13,  leaves  and  fruit  uninjured ; found 
great  many  living  red  scales  on  this  tree. 

(223)  Corrosive  sublimate,  4J  ounces ; water,  100  gallons.  Sprayed 
on  an  orange  tree  at  2:30  p.  m.,  October  10,  sun  shining,  light  breeze. 
November  13,  leaves  and  fruit  uninjured;  found  great  many  living  red 
scales  on  this  tree. 

(236)  Corrosive  sublimate,  1|  pounds;  water,  100  gallons.  Sprayed 
on  a dormant  pear  tree  infested  with  the  San  Josd  scale  at  10  a.  m., 
December  31,  sun  shining,  light  breeze.  February  3,  found  a great 
many  living  San  Jose  scales  on  this  tree. 

The  price  in  this  city  of  the  corrosive  sublimate  in  10-pound  lots  is 
at  the  rate  of  $1.40  per  pound;  at  this  rate  the  strongest  solution  I 
used  (experiment  236)  would  cost  about  $1.63  per  100  gallons.  I did 
not  test  a stronger  solution  than  this,  since  its  cost  alone  would  prevent 
its  being  extensively  used. 

Glue. — For  the  purpose  of  testing  this  substance  as  an  insecticide 
for  the  destruction  of  the  red  scale  on  citrus  trees  I made  a few  experi- 
ments with  it,  but  with  very  unsatisfactory  results.  The  grade  I used 
is  of  a ligh^j  brown  color,  not  the  white,  nor  yet  the  poorest  grade,  but 
such  as  is  used  by  cabinet-makers.  To  dissolve  the  glue  I simply  boiled 
it  in  water,  and  it  dissolved  in  about  10  minutes.  Following  is  a brief 
account  of  these  experiments : 

(227)  Glue,  4J  pounds ; water  100  gallons.  Sprayed  on  an  orange 
tree  infested  with  the  red  scale  at  4:30  p.  ra.,  October  11,  sun  shining, 
light  breeze.  November  13,  leaves  and  fruit  uninjured;  found  great 
many  living  red  scales  on  this  tree. 

(226)  Glue,  8.1  pounds ; water  100  gallons.  Sprayed  on  an  orange 
tree  at  4 p.  m.,  October  11,  sun  shining,  light  breeze.  November  13, 
leaves  and  fruit  uninjured;  found  great  many  living  red  scales  on  this 
tree. 

(225)  Glue  12 J pounds;  water  100  gallons.  Sprayed  on  an  orange 
tree  at  3:30  p.  m.,  October  11,  sun  shining,  light  breeze.  November  13, 
leaves  and  fruit  uninjured ; found  great  many  living  red  scales  on  this 
tree. 

In  this  city  (Los  Angeles)  the  price  of  glue  of* the  above  grade  in  10- 
pound  lots  is  at  the  rate  of  50  cents  per  pound;  at  this  rate  the  strongest 
solution  I used  (experiment  225)  will  cost  $6.25  per  100  gallons.  This, 
of  course,  is  much  too  expensive  for  ordinary  use  as  an  insecticide,  and 
for  this  reason  I did  not  test  a stronger  solution. 


36 


Aloes. — Dr.  M.  F.  Bishop,  of  Alameda,  the  owner  of  a large  orchard 
of  deciduous  fruit  trees  in  the  vicinity  of  San  Jose,  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  State,  gave  me  a package  of  aloes,  with  the  request  to  test 
it  on  the  scale  insects  infesting  citrus  trees.  Accordingly  I made  a 
few  tests  with  it,  simply  dissolving  the  aloes  in  cold  water,  straining 
the  solution  through  a piece  of  Swiss  muslin,  and  then  spraying  it 
upon  the  tree.  The  aloes  is  not  readily  soluble  in  cold  water,  and  4 
days  were  required  for  it  to  dissolve,  being  occasionally  stirred  during 
this  time.  The  experiments  are  as  follows : 

(243)  Aloes,  12J  pounds ; water,  100  gallons.  Sprayed  on  an  orange 
tree  infested  with  the  yellow  scale  ( Aspidiotus  citrinus)  at  10:30  a.  m., 
March  22,  sun  shining,  light  breeze.  April  23,  leaves  and  fruit  unin- 
jured; found  many  living  yellow  scales  on  this  tree. 

(242)  Aloes,  25  pounds  ; water,  100  gallons.  Sprayed  on  an  orange 
tree  at  10  a.  m.,  March  22,  sun  shining,  light  breeze.  April  23,  leaves 
and  fruit  uninjured;  found  several  living  yellow  scales  both  on  the 
leaves  and  fruit  of  this  tree. 

The  price  of  the  aloes  in  large  quantities  is  at  the  rate  of  10  cents 
per  pound;  at  this  rate  the  strongest  solution  I used  (experiment 242) 
would  cost  $4  per  100  gallons.  At  this  strength  (25  pounds  of  aloes  to 
100  gallons  water)  it  proved  fatal  to  a large  percentage  of  the  scale 
insects,  and  doubtless  if  it  had  been  used  one-half  stronger  it  would 
have  been  entirely  effectual ; but  the  high  price  of  a solution  of  the 
latter  strength  would  prevent  its  being  used  on  a large  scale. 


REPOET  OF  EXPERIMENTS  WITH  RESIN  COMPOUNDS  ON 
PHYLLOXERA,  AND  GENERAL  NOTES  ON  CALIFORNIA 
INSECTS. 


By  Albert  Koebele. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 

Alameda,  Cal.,  Octoler  20,  1890. 

Sir:  I herewith  submit  report  upon  experiments,  chiefly  with  resin  compounds,  on 
Phy  'loxera  vastatrir,  and  observations  made  during  the  year. 

Very  respectfully, 

Albert  Koebele, 

Field  Agent. 

Prof.  C.  V.  Riley, 

U.  S.  Entomologist. 


By  your  direction  a series  of  experiments  was  carried  on,  chiefly  with 
resin  compounds,  upon  the  Phylloxera  in  Sonoma  Yalley  during  Septem- 
ber and  the  beginning  of  October. 

In  preparing  the  compounds  the  following  were  used : Bicarbonate 
of  soda,  sal  soda,  and  Greeubank’s  caustic  soda,  98  per  cent.  Three 
pounds  are  required  of  the  former  to  dissolve  4 pounds  of  resin  prop- 
erly, or,  in  other  words,  to  make  a resin  soap ; 1 pound  of  the  latter  is 
sufficient  to  dissolve  10  pounds  of  resin  or  even  11,  but  I did  not  suc- 
ceed in  dissolving  12  pounds,  as  parts  of  the  resin  would  always  re- 
main. In  repeated  and  careful  trials  this  could  not  be  overcome. 

The  results  showed  somewhat  in  favor  of  the  bicarbonate  of  soda  as 
far  as  to  destruction  of  the  insects,  but  the  price  has  to  be  considered. 
Next  to  this  seems  to  be  the  emulsion  prepared  with  caustic  soda,  but 
it  is  a difficult  matter  to  decide  which  will  work  best  without  carrying 
on  an  extensive  series  of  trials.  It  is  safe  to  say,  however,  that  the 
results  will  not  vary  greatly. 

One  pound  of  resin  was  used  to  each  10  pints  of  compound,  and 
this  again  was  diluted  with  water  at  a strength  of  1 pound  of  resin  in 
2J  gallons  of  water,  up  to  1 pound  in  37£  gallons  of  water — one  part  of  • 
compound  in  thirty  parts  of  water.  This  compound  will,  as  has  been 
previously  stated,  do  effective  work  on  unprotected  Aphids,  i.  e.,  such 
as  are  not  covered  with  cottony  or  mealy  exudations,  at  one  part  in 

37 


38 


fifteen  parts  of  water,  or  1 pound  of  resin  in  about  1G  gallons  of  water. 
(The  former  mixtures  were  somewhat  stronger;  1 pound  of  resin  in 
9 pints  of  liquid.)  The  action  upon  the  Phylloxera  is  much  more 
marked  and  with  a mixture  of  one  part  of  compound  in  thirty  parts  of 
water  the  insects,  if  immersed  for  a few  seconds  only  and  left  exposed, 
will  die,  notwithstanding  this  solution  will  not  adhere  to  parts  of  the 
roots,  not  having  at  this  strength  the  required  penetrating  power  which 
a sufficiently  strong  solution,  say  about  1 pound  resin  in  15  gallons  of 
water,  has,  and  more  so  than  any  other  insecticide  I know  of.  The 
experiments  were  made  on  25 -year-old  Tokay  vines  (the  only  ones  re- 
maining that  have  withstood  the  ravages  of  the  Phylloxera),  in  loamy 
soil,  which  was  completely  dry  and  hard  at  this  time  of  the  year,  no 
moisture  being  noticeable  until  a depth  of  from  10  to  12  inches  below 
the  surface  was  reached. 

In  all  cases  the  ground  was  removed  to  a depth  of  about  6 inches, 
forming  a hole  4 feet  in  diameter.  Ten  gallous  of  the  solution,  it  was 
observed,  penetrated  here  to  12  inches  in  depth  around  the  roots  where 
the  hole  was  deepest,  or  about  18  inches  from  original  surface  of  ground, 
and  most  of  the  insects  were  destroyed  to  about  16  inches  in  depth,  if 
the  10  gallons  contained  4 pints  of  compound.  In  the  later  experiments 
these  holes  were  made  only  about  2 feet  in  diameter,  and  nearly  if  not 
the  same  results  were  obtained  with  only  half  the  amount  or  5 gallons 
of  the  mixture.  This  is  more  practical,  as  the  chief  roots  only  are 
reached  and  the  solution  can  be  used  so  much  stronger.  The  less 
solution  required  the  better,  providing  it  will  do  the  work,  for  at  10  gal- 
lons to  each  plant  this  would  mean  7,000  gallons  or  over  per  acre.  If 
the  solution  is  applied  at  another  time  of  the  year,  say  early  spring, 
when  rain  is  still  expected,  the  results  undoubtedly  will  be  still  more 
favorable.  I have  had  excellent  results  with  solutions  prepared  with 
caustic  soda  by  using  4 pints  of  this  to  1G  pints  of  water  only  and  ap- 
plying 5 gallons  of  water  soon  after  and  5 gallous  the  following  day. 
This  destroyed  the  Phylloxera  to  nearly  the  depth  the  fluid  reached. 
Thus  it  will  be  seen  if  a small  amount  of  the  mixture,  sufficiently  strong, 
be  applied  in  early  spring  the  following  rains  will  do  the  rest.  As  it 
was,  with  the  dry  soil,  the  4 pints  of  compound  in  10  gallons  of  diluent 
did  better  work  than  the  same  amount  of  compound  in  only  5 gallons, 
for  the  simple  reason  that  it  penetrated  farther  and  thus  reached  more 
of  the  insects  in  sufficient  strength  to  kill.  It  must  also  be  remembered 
that  a completely  dry  soil  will  take  up  a large  amount  of  the  1 quid, 
whereas  in  a moist  soil  this  is  not  the  case. 

The  compounds  were  prepared  as  formerly,  sal  soda  3 pounds,  resin  4 
pounds,  dissolved  together  with  1 quart  of  water,  and  water  added 
• slowly  while  boiling  to  make  40  pints.  The  caustic  soda,  which  comes 
in  10-pound  tin  cans,  is  dissolved  in  4 gallons  of  water,  after  which  4 
gallons  more,  should  be  added.  This  lye  will  dissolve  100  pounds  of 
resin  and  make  125  gallous  of  compound,  sufficient  for  250  plants,  and 


39 


costing  at  wholesale  in  San  Francisco  (T.  W.  Jackson  & Co.,  No.  104 
Market  street)  $2.50.  This  is  sufficiently  strong,  and  to  use  more  is 
unnecessary,  as  it  was  found  that  even  3 pints  of  the  emulsion  to  the 
plant  would  do  the  work. 

I will  give  here  a receipt  for  preparing  the  cheapest  compound.  This 
is  with  common  caustic  soda,  such  as  is  sold  at  wholesale  at  about  5 


cents  per  pound : 

Caustic  sotla,  77  per  cent pounds..  5 

Resin do...  40 

Water  to  make ...gallons..  50 


First  the  soda  should  be  dissolved  over  fire  with  4 gallons  of  water, 
then  the  resin  added  and  dissolved  properly,  after  which  the  required 
water  can  be  given  slowly  while  boiling  to  make  the  50  gallons  of  com- 
pound. This  will  make  500  gallons  of  the  diluent,  sufficient  for  100 
plants,  and  costing  about  84  cents. 

While  a much  weaker  solution  would  kill  the  Phylloxera,  this  is 
recommended,  as  it  also  destroys  their  eggs  effectively.  Below  are 
given  the  results  of  some  of  the  experiments  to  show  the  effects  of 
various  strengths.  Most  of  these  have  been  duplicated  or  tried  upon 
several  plants.  A small  mite  (Tyroglyphus  sp.),  always  very  abundant 
among  the  Phylloxera,  and,  as  a rule,  feeding  upon  the  sap  of  the 
roots,  yet  from  numerous  empty  skins  appearing  to  feed  also  upon  the 
lice,  was  in  no  case  injured  by  these  resin  washes. 

Compound  No.  1. — Bicarbonate  of  soda,  3 pounds  ; resin,  4 pounds,  and 
water  to  make  40  pints , costing  15  cents . 

Compound,  1 gallon ; water,  G gallons ; in  holes  4 feet  in  diameter. 
Destroyed  insects  to  about  12  inches  in  depth  from  original  surface,  as 
well  as  the  eggs  of  the  same,  which  became  dark  in  color. 

Compound,  one  half  gallon ; water,  4 gallons.  Destroyed  all  insects 
where  they  were  reached  (occasionally  a living  one  running  about). 

Compound,  1 part;  water,  10  parts;  about  10  gallons  of  the  fluid 
used.  This  will  destroy  all  lice  and  their  eggs  completely  to  12  inches 
from  original  surface,  but  not  deeper. 

Compound,  1 part;  water,  12  parts;  9f  gallons  used.  Twenty-four 
hours  after  application  some  of  the  solution  remained  still  on  top,  and 
on  examining  G days  later  it  was  found  that  it  had  penetrated  the  ground 
to  12  inches  from  original  surface.  Much  of  the  solution  had  evap- 
orated and  left  a brown  scum  (dry  soap)  on  top.  It  will  also  destroy 
most,  if  not  all,  of  the  eggs. 

Compound,  1 part;  water,  14  parts.  Three  and  three  fourths  gallons 
of  the  diluent  in  holes  2 feet  in  diameter  killed  the  insects  to  8 inches 
in  depth,  or  14  inches  from  original  surface. 

Compound,  1 part;  water,  1G  parts ; 8J  gallons  diluent.  Occasion- 
ally a living  insect  found  and  large  numbers  of  mites  on  the  nearly 
dead  vines. 


40 


Compound,  1 part;  water,  18  parts  ; 9J  gallons  diluent;  examined  5 
days  after.  Nearly  all  tlie insects  dead  to  14  inches  in  depth,  but  most  of 
the  eggs  looked  bright  yellow  and  no  doubt  will  hatch.  Behind  the 
thick  bark  near  the  top,  where  apparently  the  solution  did  not  penetrate, 
a number  of  young  lice  were  found  alive. 

Compound,  1 part;  water,  20  parts;  10J  gallons  diluent;  in  holes 
4 feet  in  diameter.  An  examination  5 days  later  showed  the  fluid 
had  penetrated  the  ground  on  plants  15J  or  20  inches  from  original 
surface.  All  the  insects  were  de*stroyed  13  inches  in  depth  and  but 
very  few  living  3 inches  deeper.  This  solution  seems  to  work  best  of  all. 
this  series,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  the  eggs  will  be  affected  by  it. 

Compound  No.  2. — Caustic  soda , 9 8 per  cent.,  1 pound  ; resin , 10 pounds-, 
water  to  make  12£  gallons ; compound  costing  25  cents. 

Compound,  4 pints;  water,  4 pints;  in  hole  4 feet  in  diameter;  5 
gallons  of  water  added  1 hour  later  and  the  same  quantity  next  day. 
Very  few  dead  insects  were  found  upon  this  plant,  and  none  living. 
Not  sufficient  to  show  proper  result. 

Compound,  4 pints ; water,  2 gallons;  5 gallons  of  water  added  1 hour 
after  and  5 gallons  the  following  day.  Examined  plants  7 days  later- 
result  very  satisfactory,  hardly  any  living  phylloxera  as  far  as  the  fluid 
reached.  After  examination  5 gallons  more  water  were  added  and 
again  examined  a week  later,  when  no  living  insects  could  be  found  to 
a depth  of  18  inches. 

Compound,  4 pints;  water,  10  gallons.  Destroyed  insects  to  about  8 
inches  in  depth  and  but  few  below  this. 

Holes  only  2 feet  in  diameter;  5 gallons  of  water  in  same  first,  and 
solution  1 hour  later  in  the  four  succeeding  experiments. 

Compound,  4 pints;  water,  4.J  gallons ; examined  13  days  later.  De- 
stroyed insects  and  eggs  as  well,  which  had  become  very  dark.  Occa- 
sionally a live  specimen  running  about. 

Compound,  3 pints  ; water,  4J  gallons.  Examined  13  days  later  and 
found  all  insects  dead  that  had  been  reached. 

Compound,  2J  pints  ; water,  37£  pints.  Examined  13  days  later.  A 
piece  of  root  about  10  inches  deep  one-half  inch  in  diameter  by  6 inches 
long  and  completely  covered  with  phylloxera  showed  but  one  single 
living  young,  probably  hatched  from  egg  after  application. 

Compound,  2 pints;  water,  4J  gallons  ; also  examined  at  the  end  of 
13  days.  All  insects  to  8 inches  below  ground  or  14  inches  below  orig- 
inal surface  were  destroyed,  as  well  as  a large  part  of  the  eggs.  Oc- 
casionally a living  young  was  found  wandering  about. 

Four  other  experiments  were  made  with  this  compound,  using  1,  2,  3, 
and  4 pints  in  20  of  the  solution,  the  ground  having  4 hours  previously 
been  saturated  with  5 gallons  of  water  in  each  case.  Examined  12  days 
after;  results  were  not  good  with  1 pint  but  were  progressively  better 
with  the  other  three.  Applied  4 gallons  more  water  on  plants  where  3 


41 

and  4 pints  bad  been  used,  and  found  2 days  later  that  this  additional 
water  still  increased  the  effect. 

In  addition  to  this  a number  of  plants  were  treated  with  this  compound 
to  note  the  results  next  spring.  The  holes  were  made  2 feet  in  diameter, 
and  after  the  solution  had  disappeared  the  wet  ground  from  the  outside 
was  placed  around  the  plant  and  the  hole  closed  again.  The  experi- 
ments were:  Five  pints  of  compound  in  5 gallons  of  the  solution,  four 
plants ; 4 pints  of  compound  in  5 gallons  of  the  solution,  eight  plants  ; 
3 pints  of  compound  iu  5 gallons  of  the  solution,  ten  plants ; and  2 pint3 
of  compound  in  5 gallons  of  the  solution,  ten  plants. 

Compound  No.  3. — Caustic  soda , 9 8 per  cent , 1 pound  ; resin , 8 pounds  ; 
and  water  to  make  10  gallons  of  compound , costing  22  cents. 

Compound,  4 pints ; water,  7J  gallons.  Examined  6 days  later ; result 
good. 

Compound,  4 pints  ; water,  10  gallons.  Examined  6 days  later  and 
found  result  favorable. 

Compound,  3 pints  ; water,  75  pints.  Found  only  part  of  insects  de- 
stroyed 6 days  later. 

Compouud,  3 pints  ; water,  90  pints.  There  were  not  enough  insects 
upon  this  plant  to  deduce  fair  results,  which  would  no  doubt  be  very 
poor. 

Compound  No.  4. — Sal  soda , 3 pounds;  resin , 4 pounds  ; and  ivater  to 
make  5 gallons  of  compound  ; costing  11  cents. 

Compound,  4 pints ; water,  7J  gallons.  Examined  5 days  later  and 
found  all  insects  killed  except  a few  living  on  a plant  under  thick  bark, 
where  solution  apparently  did  not  penetrate. 

Compound,  4 pints ; water,  10  gallons.  Examined  5 days  later  and 
found  insects  dead  to  12  inches  in  depth  from  original  surface,  with  only 
occasionally  a live  one  walking  about. 

Compound,  3 pints;  water,  75  pints.  On  examining,  5 days  later, 
only  the  insects  near  surface  were  found  dead. 

Compound,  4 pints ; water,  15  gallons.  This  destroyed  only  partly 
the  lice  near  the  top. 

The  following  four  experiments  were  made  with  this  compound,  the 
ground  having  been  previously  soaked  with  4 gallons  of  water: 

Compound,  3 pints;  water,  21  pints.  Examined  12  days  later.  Did 
not  show  good  results,  as  part  of  the  insects  were  found  alive.  Twice 
the  amount  of  water  with  the  same  quantity  of  compound  will  do  much 
better  work. 

Compound,  3 pints ; water,  33  pints.  Examined  12  days  later  and 
found  results  fairly  good.  Only  a few  living  ones  were  running  about. 

Compound,  2 pints;  water,  30  pints.  On  examination  numerous  live 
insects  were  found,  but  more  than  half  were  killed. 


42 

Compound,  2 pints;  water  38  pints.  Result  about  the  same  as  in 
preceding  experiment. 

These  four  experiments  were  repeated  and  the  water  added  (3  gal- 
lons) 2 hours  after  instead  of  before  application  of  emulsion.  The  re- 
sults in  this  case  were  much  more  satisfactory,  destroying  most  of  the  • 
eggs  in  the  two  first  experiments  and  nearly  all  of  the  phylloxera  in  the 
two  last  to  a depth  of  about  10  inches. 

GENERAL  NOTES. 

It  was  probably  owing  to  the  unusually  heavy  rainfall  during  last 
winter  that  insects  were  comparatively  scarce  in  the  early  part  of  the 
season.  At  least  no  complaint  was  noticed  or  heard  during  this  time. 
While  a large  number  would  undoubtedly  be  destroyed  by  weeks  of 
excessive  rains  and  floods,  yet  there  are  such  as  are  not  or  only  slightly 
affected  by  this  element.  I may  cite  here,  for  instance,  such  species  the 
eggs  of  which  are  found  upon  trees  and  shrubs  during  the  winter  months 
as  well  as  the  eggs  of  locusts  usually  deposited  on  dry  hillsides.  On  a 
visit  to  Sonoma  county  during  May,  the  larvae  of  Glisiocampa  were  ex- 
tremely abundant.  Two  species  were  found,  namely,  G.  constricta  and 
G.  tlioracica.  The  first  species  predominated  in  numbers,  and  while 
usually  feeding  upon  deciduous  oaks  was  also  found  upon  Live  Oak  and 
Quercus  agrifolia  as  well  as  various  shrubs.  In  confinement  these  larvae 
were  furnished  with  food  consisting  of  leaves  of  Plum  and  Cherry,  but 
for  three  days  they  would  not  feed  upon  these  and  readily  attacked  the 
leaves  of  Live  Oak  which  were  given  them,  and  upon  these  they  were 
raised.  C.  tlioracica , which  is  the  species  defoliating  various  fruit  trees, 
was  found  chiefly  upon  willows,  but  also  upon  oaks,  and  here  again 
usually  upon  White  Oak,  upon  which  its  eggs  were  found  in  October. 
This  species  was  bred  upon  leaves  of  Prune  and  Cherry. 

At  the  end  of  May  of  the  present  year,  I received  from  Mr.  i\  L. 
Washburn,  entomologist  of  the  experiment  station  at  Corvallis,  Ore- 
gon, a few  Glisiocampa  larvae  new  to  me.  He  said  they  were  found 
feeding  upon  a species  of  Gratwgus  and  were  sent  with  leaves  of  apple, 
upon  which  I reared  them.  On  my  visit  to  Washington  these  larvae 
were  met  with  at  Tacoma,  on  June  8,  within  webs  upon  Alder  ( Alnus 
rubra),  and  again  at  Easton,  during  July,  upon  Willow.  Near  Tacoma 
I also  found  what  I took  to  be  the  larvae  of  G.  tlioracica  very  abundant 
upon  Gratwgus , Alder,  Hazel,  and  various  other  shrubs.  Two  of  the 
larvae  were  taken  to  Easton,  and  one  pupated  and  to  my  surprise  pro- 
duced not  the  expected  G.  tlioracica , but  G.  erosa  Stretch. 

About  10  miles  along  the  railroad  in  southern  Oregon,  about  the  be- 
ginning of  June,  larvae  and  webs  of  one  of  these  moths  were  seen  in 
large  quantities  on  dry  hillsides  upon  Purshia  tridentata  DC.,  Geanothus 
sp.,  and  also  Wild  Cherry.  While  crossing  the  Columbia  River  on 
steamer,  June  8,  at  which  time  the  water  was  very  high,  large  numbers 
of  these  larvae  were  observed  floating  upon  the  swift  current  and  as 


43 


many  as  a dozen  could  be  seen  at  one  time,  but  of  all  the  hundreds  seen 
very  few  were  dead.  They  were  usually  in  a half  circle  and  completely 
dry  above  and  were  carried  off  to  be  distributed  safely  along  the  shores. 
In  both  cases  I had  no  opportunity  to  obtain  specimens  for  identifica- 
tion. 

As  to  the  parasites,  so  far  two  species  of  a small  Ohalcid  were  bred 
from  37  egg  masses  of  G.  constricta  found  within  three  hours  while  col- 
lecting Oyuipid  galls  in  Sonoma  County  during  October.  This  species 
is  preyed  upon  by  Tachina  flies,  which  are  or  have  been,  the  present 
season,  the  chief  agent  in  destroying  them.  From  about  two  hundred 
grown  larvae  collected  but  very  few  moths  were  obtained,  the  Tachina 
maggots  issuing  from  the  dying  and  spun-up  larvae  in  large  numbers. 
No  ground  for  their  reception  had  been  furnished  in  breeding  cases  and 
they  pupated  among  the  leaves  and  excrement.  At  least  80  per  cent 
of  these  larvae  were  parasitized  and  but  one  of  the  flies  has  issued  up 
to  date.  I also  obtained  one  large  cocoon  of  an  Ichneumonid  from 
larvae  in  confinement  and  others  were  still  found  in  nature  during  Sep- 
tember. 

G.  thoracica  was  also  infested  by  Tachina  larvae,  but  only  about 
30  per  cent,  were  destroyed  by  these  maggots.  Two  species  of  the  flies 
have  come  out  so  far.  G.  calif ornica  was  noticed  full  of  eggs  of  these 
flies  and  some  had  previously  been  bred.  An  Ichneumonid  was  ob- 
tained from  young  larvae  the  present  year.  Professor  Rivers,  of 
Berkeley,  informed  me  the  end  of  April  that  he  had  previously  ob- 
served one  of  these  larvae  at  Bay  View  upon  Willow,  and  accordingly 
a trip  was  made  to  that  locality  and  this  species  was  found  as  well  as 
its  tents,  not  alone  upon  Willow,  but  also  on  the  scrubby  Live  Oaks 
growing  there,  Hazel,  Wild  Currant,  Ehamnus  californica , Blackberry, 
and  other  plants,  showing  that  this  species  is  not  confined  to  Live  Oak 
alone. 

No  Tachina  has  yet  been  obtained  from  the  species  in  Santa  Cruz 
Mountains,  nor  have  I observed  any  eggs,  but  larvae  of  this  species 
placed  upou  Cherry  and  Prune  at  Alameda  were  badly  attacked.  The 
same  species  of  Ichneumonid  bred  from  larvae  of  G.  californica  has  also 
been  obtained  from  this.  This  species  was  observed  upon  Plum,  Prune, 
Willow,  Geanothus  and  Ger  cocarpus. 

Two  species  of  Ichneumonids  were  bred  from  the  new  species  of  the 
north,  one  from  larvae  found  at  Tacoma,  and  the  second  from  those 
found  at  Easton. 

I may  mention  one  Noctuid  larva  as  very  destructive  to  buds,  young 
fruit,  and  foliage  of  fruit  trees,  chiefly  Apple,  Pear,  Plum,  and  Prune. 
This  is  Tceniocampa , and  I have  full  proof  that  the  destruction  of  a 
large  share  of  the  buds  and  young  fruit,  so  universally,  yet  incorrectly, 
attributed  to  birds  on  this  coast,  is  due  to  this  larvae.  In  the  very 
early  spring,  often  in  February,  these  moths  make  their  appearance 
from  hibernated  chrysalids  and  copulate,  and  the  female  deposits  her 


44 


eggs,  from  two  to  three  hundred  or  more,  in  crevices  of  bark.  I found 
them  in  large  numbers  together,  thrust  deep  into  a place  where  one  of 
the  branches  had  broken  off.  The  .young  larvae  soon  made  their  ap- 
pearance and  in  want  of  leaves  began  to  feed  upon  buds  and  blossoms, 
and  later  on,  as  I have  repeatedly  observed  on  apple  trees,  upon  the 
young  fruit  also.  Within  about  24  days  these  larvae  become  full  grown 
and  enter  the  ground  for  pupation  to  remain  in  this  state  for  nearly  11 
months.  If  only  one  or  two  early  broods  occur  upon  a single  or- 
dinary tree,  they  will,  in  some  cases,  destroy  most  if  not  all  the  fruit 
buds  before  any  leaves  appear.  The  light  green,  white,  variegated,  and 
striped  larvae  at  rest  on  the  under  side  of  leaves  during  the  daytime 
are  not,  especially  by  an  untrained  eye,  very  readily  discovered,  and 
hence  are  overlooked  and  the  more  innocent  bird  is  made  responsible 
for  the  damage  done. 

During  April,  1888,  when  I had  a brood  of  these  larvae  in  coniine, 
ment  at  Alameda,  a common  titmouse,  Lophophanes  inornatus  Gamb., 
was  noticed  Hying  constantly  to  an  old  apple  tree  and  carrying  off 
dozens  of  these  very  larvae  to  a hollow  tree  not  far  distant,  within 
which  it  had  a nest  with  six  young.  These  birds  are  quite  plentiful 
at  this  time  of  the  year  and  are  the  only  enemy  of  this  larva  as  yet 
observed.  None  of  the  numerous  larvae  collected  the  present  year 
appear  to  be  parasitized. 

By  jarring  the  trees  in  the  early  morning  these  larvae,  especially  the 
larger,  will  fall  to  the  ground,  and  can  readily  be  collected  and  destroyed. 
If  the  tree  be  only  slightly  shaken,  all  the  mature  larvae  will  drop. 

Caloptenus  devastator , so  well  remembered  since  its  outbreak  in  1885, 
has  again  been  on  the  increase  the  present  season  and  is  quite  abun- 
dant in  Sonoma  County  as  well  as  around  Alameda,  where  Camnula  pel- 
lucida  was  equally  as  numerous.  Aside  from  complaints  in  Sonoma 
County  others  were  heard  of  in  Yolo  County.  I quote  from  the  Wood- 
land Democrat  of  September  11,  1890: 

For  the  })ast  few  weeks  our  farmers  have  been  watching  their  alfalfa  crops  very 
closely.  The  Army  Worm  and  the  Grasshopper  are  both  here,  although  not  in  such 
quantities  as  in  the  early  days.  In  some  cases  the  crops  in  young  vineyards  have 
been  entirely  destroyed  by  them.  C.  Eakle  lost  all  his  grapes  by  the  grasshoppers^ 
and  others  have  shared  a like  fate.  In  other  cases  the  alfalfa  crops  have  fared  badly 
from  the  effects  of  the  worm  and  the  hopper.  Mrs.  P.  Haunum  had  saved  some  alfalfa 
for  seed,  but  the  worm  attacked  it,  and  she  was  obliged  to  cut  it  for  hay  in  order  to 
save  any  of  it.  Mr.  Hopkins,  we  understand,  was  caught  in  the  same  predicament, 
while  the  pastures  of  those  who  have  lately  irrigated  and  where  the  clover  is  just 
beginning  to  grow  nice  and  green  are  full  of  the  hoppers,  and  the  worms  have  also 
attacked  many  others. 

As  yet  no  specimens  from  the  above  locality  can  be  obtained,  but  it 
is  more  than  likely  that  the  injury  was  caused  by  several  species  and 
the  Devastating  Locust  among  them.  One  favorable  season,  however, 
should  no  parasites  appear,  would  again  show  a marked  increase  in 
destructive  numbers,  and  local  outbreaks  may  be  expected  the  coming 


summer. 


ENTOMOLOGICAL  NOTES  FOR  THE  SEASON  OF  1800. 


By  Mary  E.  Muutfeldt. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 


Kirkwood,  St.  Louis  County,  Mo., 

October  31,  1890. 

Sir:  Inclosed  please  find  summary  of  my  notes  on  injurious  insects  for  the  present 
year,  as  observed  throughout  the  season  in  St.  Louis  County,  and  as  compiled  from  cor- 
respondence with  and  occasional  visits  to  other  sections  of  the  State.  As  in  preced- 
ing years,  many  thanks  are  due  you  for  various  determinations  and  helpful  sugges- 
tions. 

Respectfully,  yours, 

Mary  E.  Muutfeldt. 


Prof.  C.  V.  Riley, 

U.  S.  Entomologist. 


GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

The  season  of  1890  throughout  the  Mississippi  Valley  has  been  iu 
many  respects  unusual.  The  winter  months  were  characterized  by  a 
temperature  much  above  the  normal,  by  occasional  very  heavy  rains, 
and,  after  the  middle  of  January,  by  a prevalence  of  clouds  and  exces- 
sive moisture.  Many  shrubs,  for  example  Forsythia,  Cydonia,  and 
Lilac  bloomed  in  the  open  air  about  the  holidays,  while  the  buds  of  all 
fruit  trees  were  much  swollen,  and  peaches  and  apricots  opened  their 
blossoms  in  sheltered  situations  iu  February.  During  early  March  the 
mercury  for  the  first  time  iu  the  year  dropped  to  the  neighborhood  of 
zero,  and  on  the  last  day  of  the  month  occurred  a phenomenal  fall  of 
snow.  April  also  was  cold  and  damp,  and  similar  weather  prevailed 
until  the  middle  of  May,  the  soil,  except  where  drainage  was  excep- 
tionally good,  being  in  poor  condition  for  planting.  With  the  first  of 
June  excessive  heat  set  iu,  and  for  seven  consecutive  weeks  the  mercury 
was  seldom  below  90°  F.  at  midday,  and  usually  approached  or  ex- 
ceeded 100°.  This  extreme  heat  was  accompanied  by  an  equally  severe 
drought  for  the  same  length  of  time,  scarcely  mitigated  by  two  or  three 
very  slight  and  very  local  showers. 


45 


46 


That  the  effects  of  such  a season  should  be  plainly  marked  on  insect 
life  is  not  surprising.  The  following  memoranda  show  considerable 
deviation  from  the  records  of  preceding  years. 

Chinch  Bugs  were  not  reported  as  injurious  in  any  part  of  the  State, 
and  scarcely  a specimen  could  be  found  during  midsummer  and  early 
autumn. 

Canher  Worms. — Yery  few,  and  found  mostly  in  orchards  or  on  trees 
standing  somewhat  above  the  general  level.  The  male  moths  were  fly- 
ing every  month  during  winter,  and  an  occasional  female  was  also  seen 
in  January  and  February.  Probably  the  severe  cold  of  March  destroyed 
a large  proportion  of  the  very  young  larvse,  more  perhaps  by  retarding 
the  development  of  the  apple  leaves  than  by  the  direct  effects  of  the 
cold. 

Of  the  few  worms  that  were  found  later  in  the  season  taking  their 
noonday  siesta  on  the  trunks  and  larger  branches  of  the  trees,  quite  a 
number  were  seen  which  had  evidently  been  attacked  by  some  Carabid 
or  other  predaceous  species,  the  skin  having  been  punctured  and  the 
fluids  oozing  out  with  every  motion.  All  injured  worms  perished,  but 
what  the  assailant  was  I was  not  able  to  discover. 

Cutworms  ( Agrotis  and  Hadena). — Vegetable  gardens  in  the  spring 
enjoyed  an  immunity  from  these  pests  that  was  most  welcome  to  the 
gardener.  This  was  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  some  of  the  most 
destructive  species  hibernate  in  the  larva  state,  and  the  degree  of  cold 
not  being  sufficient  to  reduce  them  to  complete  dormancy  they  perished 
of  starvation  and  dampness  or  fell  victims  to  the  birds,  which  remained 
with  us  in  greater  numbers  than  is  usually  the  case.  My  memoranda 
show  that  very  few  Noctuid  moths  of  any  kind  were  taken  at  light 
previous  to  the  middle  of  August.  To  this  scarcity  of  Noctuid  pests 
there  were,  however,  two  notable  exceptions — that  of  Gortyna  nitela  and 
Heliothis  armigera , which  have  seldom  committed  so  great  injuries  to 
certain  crops  as  during  the  present  year.  About  the  middle  of  June 
many  samples  of  young  corn  and  potato  stalks  were  sent  me  that  were 
being  bored  by  the  first-named  larva,  and  it  was  then  reported  from 
some  localities — among  others  from  Kidder,  Missouri — as  having  de- 
stroyed fully  one-half  the  crop  of  potatoes.  Its  injuries  to  young  corn 
were  also  extensive,  but  I have  no  data  for  making  an  estimate.  It  was 
also  found  in  considerable  numbers,  when  very  small,  in  small  grain. 
In  this  it  could  scarcely  reach  maturity,  and  probably  migrated  to  the 
stalks  of  such  more  succulent  plants  as  were  conveniently  near.  In  the 
case  of  the  attack  on  potatoes  a treatment  with  Paris  green  and  flour 
was  recommended,  on  the  probability  that  in  passing  from  one  stalk  to 
another  the  worm  would  obtain  a sufficient  quantity  of  the  poison  to 
destroy  it.  Of  the  success  of  this  experiment,  if  tried,  1 have  not  been 
informed.  It  did  not  occur  in  any  noticeable  numbers  in  the  vicinity 
of  Kirkwood. 

Heliothis  armigera  was  very  destructive  on  both  early  and  late  corn, 


47 


especially  on  the  latter.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  State  it  injured 
the  tomato  crop  to  a considerable  extent.  Spraying  with  Paris  green 
and  with  other  arsenical  compounds  was  tried  with  considerable  success 
previous  to  the  ripening  of  the  fruit,  but  there  is  considerable  danger 
in  its  use  and  it  is  best  to  thoroughly  drench  the  plants  that  have  been 
treated  with  clear  water  a day  or  two  after  the  use  of  the  insecticide. 
Experiment  on  a limited  scale  shows  that  it  can  be  kept  from  corn  by 
the  same  remedies,  but  how  far  this  would  be  practicable  in  the  field 
has  not  yet  been  demonstrated. 

The  Striped  Flea-beetles  (Phyllotreta  vittata  and  P.  sinuata ) did  not  ap- 
pear at  all  on  early  Crucifers,  nor  have  they  been  observed  in  any  con- 
siderable numbers  iu  this  vicinity  at  any  time  during  the  growingsea- 
son.  Whether  this  notable  riddance  was  due  to  atmospheric  conditions 
or  to  the  scarcity  of  the  fostering  weeds,  Lepidium  and  Arabis , I am  not 
able  to  decide. 

The  Corn  Flea-beetle  ( Clicetocnema  pulicaria)  was  reported  to  me  from 
various  localities  as  unusually  numerous  and  injurious.  Mr.  Falcou,  of 
St.  Clair  County,  feared  that  he  should  lose  his  first  planting  from  its 
attacks,  but  from  later  accounts  the  plants  recovered  more  rapidly 
than  he  had  expected. 

The  Plum  Curculio  was  much  reduced  in  numbers  during  winter,  and 
as  there  was  in  this  section,  and  indeed  throughout  the  State,  an  almost 
entire  failure  of  stone  fruit  crops,  with  the  exception  of  the  sour  cher- 
ries, which  the  insect  rarely  attacks,  there  was  very  little  of  the  work 
of  the  latter  observed.  A small  proportion  of  the  few  early  peaches 
that  set  were  punctured,  but  that  the  midsummer  drought  prevented 
the  development  of  the  larvae  was  indicated  by  the  fact  that  such  late 
peaches  as  there  were  did  not  show  a single  one  of  the  food  punctures 
which  commonly  so  disfigure  them.  On  one  tree  which  the  previous 
year  had  suffered  so  much  in  this  way  that  the  fruit  was  absolutely 
worthless,  was  a siugle  peach  that  reached  perfection  without  one 
stroke  from  the  beak  of  a curculio ; and  similar  observations  were 
made  on  other  trees  on  which  a very  little  fruit  ripened.  Nor  was  I 
able  to  find  Conotrachelus  breeding  in  apples,  although  during  June 
and  July  I examined  nearly  six  hundred  specimens  of  fruit,  a few  of 
which  showed  punctures  that  might  have  been  made  for  food.  Should 
other  conditions  be  favorable,  I think,  so  far  as  this  insect  is  concerned, 
we  may  predict  for  1891  fine  crops  of  stone  fruits. 

Plant  lice , always  quite  abundant  in  the  spring,  amounted  this  year 
almost  to  a scourge.  Trees,  shrubs,  and  herbs  alike  suffered,  and  for 
many  plants  there  was  no  after-recovery.  The  species  causing  the  most 
appreciable  loss  was  probably  the  Grain  Aphis  ( Siphonophora  avence).  It 
occurred  throughout  the  State  on  all  small  grain,  even  on  rye,  causing, 
undoubtedly,  some  shrinkage  of  that  crop  as  well  as  of  wheat,  but  its 
most  disastrous  attacks  were  on  oats.  About  the  middle  of  May  farm- 
ers began  to  be  alarmed  for  the  safety  of  this  crop,  and  subsequent 


48 


developments  proved  tbeir  fears  to  be  well  grounded.  Letters  of 
inquiry  and  packages  of  specimens  came  to  me  from  all  directions,  and 
during  a trip  about  the  first  of  Juue,  to  Butler  County,  on  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  State,  I was  able  to  observe  for  myself  the  dwarfed 
and  sickly  appearance  of  small  grain  everywhere  along  the  railroad, 
attributable  in  all  cases  to  the  attacks  of  this  insect.  Shortly  after- 
ward the  outfields  in  St.  Louis  County  and  in  many  other  localities 
were  plowed  up  and  replanted  to  corn,  which,  owing  to  the  drought  and 
to  its  own  insect  enemies,  was,  in  its  turn,  a poor  crop.  The  unusual 
prevalence  and  unparalleled  multiplication  of  Aphididce  was  undoubtedly 
due  to  to  the  scarcity  of  their  natural  enemies,  both  parasitic  and  pre- 
daceous. It  was  not  until  the  middle  of  June  that  the  larvae  of  Syrphi. 
dee , Goccinellidce , and  Chrysopa  became  numerous,  and,  reenforced  by 
parasites  of  the  genera  Aphidius  and  Trioxys , finally  brought  relief  from 
the  pests;  too  late,  however,  to  prevent  irreparable  injury  to  many 
herbaceous  crops,  young  fruit  trees,  and  various  sorts  of  shrubbery. 

A somewhat  remarkable  development  of  the  season  was  the  appear- 
ance in  uuusual  numbers  of  many  insects  not  often  accouuted  noxious, 
and  the  reappearance  of  some  species  not  observed  in  this  locality  for 
many  years. 

Among  the  former  may  be  mentioned  the  great  abundance  and  variety 
of  u stinging”  larvrn,  principally  Limacodes.  For  the  first  time  in  my 
experience  the  beautiful  larvm  of  Parasa  Moris  were  so  abundant  on 
some  youug  apricot  trees  in  the  orchard  of  one  of  our  neighbors  as  to 
do  great  damage  to  the  foliage.  When  full  grown,  three-fourths  or 
more  of  an  inch  in  length,  thick,  oblong,  sub-cylindrical,  gaily  striped 
longitudinally  in  carmine  red,  purple,  and  bright  yellow,  the  stinging 
spines  concealed  in  the  two  rows  of  deflected  bright  yellow  plumes  that 
adorn  the  back,  gliding  with  slow,  graceful  motion  over  the  leaves,  they 
were  almost  too  ornamental  to  doom  to  destruction.  As  they  were 
very  voracious,  however,  the  latter  was  a necessity  of  the  case.  Those 
that  were  preserved  were  fed  to  maturity  on  the  leaves  of  Chickasaw 
plum,  to  which  they  were  transferred  without  difficulty. 

Euclea  querceti  H.  S.,  of  the  same  form  and  size  as  P.  Moris , but  much 
less  brilliantly  colored,  being  of  a dull,  mottled  greeu,  with  two  or  four 
dark  purple-red  spots  on  each  side  of  the  dorsum,  and  having  the  plu- 
mose spines  pale  green,  appeared  on  Plum,  Cherry,  and  Apple  in  the 
orchard,  as  well  as  on  Sycamore,  Post  Oak,  and  Wild  Cherry  in  the 
forest.  It  was  not,  however,  in  any  destructive  numbers  on  any  fruit 
tree. 

So  far  as  coloration  is  concerned  this  larva  varies  greatly.  The  crim- 
son sub-dorsal  spots,  usually  quite  large  when  there  are  but  two,  are 
in  some  examples  smaller  and  less  conspicuous  and  are  followed  pos- 
teriorly by  a second  pair.  The  longitudinal  ridges  on  which  these  are 
situated,  and  from  which  also  proceed  the  larger  urticating  spines, 
vary  in  hue  from  pale  pea  green  to  yellow  and  bright  orange.  A second 


49 


variety  was  so  distinct  as  to  be  described,  previous  to  breeding,  as 
another  species.  This  is  entirely  of  a pearly,  translucent  white  color, 
with  fine,  wavy,  purple  lines,  one  on  each  side  of  medio-dorsal  space 
and  two  others  lower  down  on  each  side  inclosing  the  second  row  of 
spines,  which,  like  the  general  surface,  are  trauslucent  white.  There  is 
a large  purple  spot  a little  back  of  the  middle  on  each  side  of  the  dor- 
sum. I have  found  this  variety  only  on  pear,  and  it  is  rather  rare. 
The  cocoon  is  spun  among  the  leaves  and  does  not  differ  in  color,  form, 
or  texture  from  those  of  other  Limacodes.  The  moth  bred  from  this 
pale  larva  does  not  differ  from  those  of  typical  querceti , being  of  a rich 
fustic  brown,  with  bright  green  and  velvety  black  ornamentation.  In 
the  size  of  the  green  and  black  spots  and  in  general  intensity  of  color 
a series  of  moths  of  this  species  also  exhibit  considerable  variation. 

The  almost  equally  beautiful  and  even  more  strikingly  marked  Saddle- 
back Caterpillar  (Empretia  stimulea)  occurred  iu  very  unusual  numbers 
on  Plum,  Pear,  Chestnut,  Maple,  and  Wisteria  vine,  doing  considerable 
damage— especially  during  the  semi-gregarious  period,  which  continues 
to  the  third  molt — to  the  foliage  of  the  fruit  trees  attacked. 

Phobetron pithecium  and  Limacodes  scaplia  were  other  species  of  this 
group  observed. 

Lagoa  crispata  was  quite  numerous  on  White  Oak  and  Chestnut,  and 
colonies  of  Saturnia  io  appeared  on  Corn  and  Sassafras  and  defoliated 
several  rose  bushes  in  our  garden  before  we  discovered  the  authors  of 
the  mischief.  Altogether  there  was  quite  an  array  of  i(  urticators,” 
and  gloves  were  very  necessary  to  preserve  the  hands  of  the  collector 
in  taking  them  and  also  in  caring  for  them  in  the  rearing  cage.  They 
seem  to  dispense  stinging  points  all  over  the  foliage  over  which  they 
crawl  and  all  about  the  cage  in  which  they  are  confined.  I have  often 
had  my  hands  smart  for  hours  after  changing  the  leaves  and  cleaning 
the  cage  in  which  these  larvae  had  been  reared,  long  after  they  were 
inclosed  in  their  cocoons. 

There  was  throughout  this  and  contiguous  States  a notable  outbreak 
of  Datana  both  D.  angusil  and  D.  ministra , but  especially  the  former. 
This  species  appeared  on  the  Walnut  in  June,  and  the  second  brood 
again  in  August,  and  from  the  excessive  and  repeated  defoliations  it  is 
probable  that  many  fine  trees  have  been  destroyed. 

During  a journey  taken  about  the  1st  of  September,  numbers  of 
trees  were  noticed  bearing  what  would  have  been  a heavy  crop  of  nuts, 
but  absolutely  leafless,  while  the  trunks  were  almost  covered  with  larval 
exuviae.  The  nuts  were,  of  course,  small  and  imperfect,  the  shrunken 
husks  clinging  to  the  seed.  Several  collections  of  the  walnut-feeding 
larvae  were  sent  me,  but  not  having  a supply  of  walnut  leaves  conven- 
ient, I was  not  able  to  rear  any  of  them,  as  they  refused  to  accept  as  a 
substitute  the  leaves  of  hickory  or  of  Rhus  glabra  or  copalina , although 
some  years  ago  I bred  them  from  the  latter. 

During  September  the  black-necked  larvae  of  what  I suppose  will 
25910— Bull.  23 4 


50 


prove  to  be  D.  ministra , Drury,  appeared  on  post  oaks  in  Kirkwood 
and  vicinity,  defoliating  portions  of  the  trees  infested.  From  their  gre- 
garious habit  and  their  susceptibility  to  poison  they  were  easily  routed. 
Even  a stream  of  water  turned  upon  them  from  the  spraying  pump 
would  dislodge  and  bring  them  to  the  ground,  where  they  were  easily 
killed. 

Orgyia  leucostigma , a species  formerly  abundant  in  this  locality,  but 
which  I had  not  observed  for  ten  or  twelve  years,  was  found  on  Sycamore 
(. Platanus ),  on  which,  strange  to  say,  it  would  not  feed  after  the  second 
molt,  and  consequently  all  caterpillars  left  on  the  tree  perished  before 
attaining  half  their  growth.  The  question  suggested  by  this  observa- 
tion was  how  the  young  larvae  came  to  be  upon  this  tree  which  so  evi- 
dently did  not  suit  them  for  food.  I could  not  find  either  cocoon  or  egg 
mass  of  the  mother  insect,  nor  were  any  of  the  larvae  discovered  in 
the  adjacent  orchard. 

Ichthyura  inclusa,  another  species  not  observed  here  for  many  years, 
appeared  on  willows  in  great  numbers  in  September,  but  coming  so  late 
in  the  season  the  defoliations  did  no  serious  damage. 

In  concluding  these  notes  I wish  to  mention  an  insect  that  will  prob- 
ably prove  most  efficient  in  ridding  the  country  of  the  pest  of  the  Web 
Worm  (Hyphantria  cunea).  This  is  the  larva  of  a small  and  inconspicu- 
ous Carabid  of  the  genus  Plochionus , bearing  the  appropriate  specific 
name  timidus.  I had  observed  during  the  month  of  June  that  the 
greater  number  of  the  webs  of  the  caterpillar  were  unusually  small  and 
incomplete  and  seemed  to  have  been  deserted  much  sooner  than  usual. 

Before  I had  time  to  investigate  the  matter,  I received  from  Mr.  J.  0. 
Duffey,  horticulturist  at  the  Shaw  Botanical  Garden,  a colony  of  the 
worms,  interspersed  among  which  were  numerous  small  active  Carabid 
larvae,  which  Mr.  Dufiey  informed  me  were  preying  upon  the  former. 
The  collection  was  placed  in  a cage  and  arranged  for  convenient  obser- 
vation, and  I very  shortly  had  ocular  demonstration  of  the  correctness 
of  Mr.  Duffey’s  assertion.  Many  interesting  observations  were  made 
upon  these  small  but  ferocious  larvae  before  they  changed  to  pupae,  and 
the  appearance  of  the  perfect  insect  was  awaited  with  much  interest. 
The  first  beetle  developed  about  the  middle  of  July  and  proved  to  be 
the  species  named. 

Comparatively  few  webs  of  the  second  brood  of  Hyphantria  were  seen 
in  and  around  Kirkwood  in  August,  and  extensive  examination  revealed 
the  fact  that  fully  three-fourths  of  these  also  contained  larvae  of  Plo- 
chionus, which  were  busily  engaged  in  reducing  the  numbers  of  the 
rightful  inhabitants.  Kor  is  the  beetle  confined  in  its  diet  to  the  web 
worm.  I found  the  larvae  repeatedly  during  the  present  autumn  in  the 
masses  of  leaves  webbed  together  by  the  somewhat  gregarious  larvae 
of  a Tortrix  ( Gaccecia  fervidana)  and  between  the  two  leaves  webbed  by 
various  Tineids,  especially  Cryptolechia  nubeculosa  and  G.  schlegerella . 
(I  doubt  not  I may  have  occasion  to  deprecate  its  work  in  the  future 


51 


in  these  groups.)  That  this  Plochionus  had  not  appeared  this  season 
much  to  the  east  of  St.  Louis  was  evinced  by  the  much  webbed  and  de- 
foliated orchard  and  forest  trees  noticed  in  Illinois  and  Indiana  in  Au- 
gust and  September. 

As  Mr.  Duffey  proposes  soon  to  publish  a history  of  the  insect,  with 
detailed  descriptions  of  its  various  stages,  I defer  offering  my  own  notes 
upon  its  habits  and  forms  until  after  the  appearance  of  his  paper. 

A FEW  MORE  INJURIOUS  MICROS  ON  APPLE. 

A very  considerable  number  of  Microlepidoptera,  including  Pyralidce , 
Phycitidce , Tortricidce , and  Tineidte , have  already  been  characterized 
and  catalogued  among  the  more  or  less  injurious  insects  of  the  orchard 
and  garden ; but  the  observations  of  almost  every  year  add  to  this  list, 
and  I propose  here  to  briefly  describe  a few  which  have  not  as  yet  been 
placed  on  the  roll,  but  which  in  this  locality  are  annually  so  numerous 
as  to  commit  appreciable  injury. 

Penthina  chionosema,  Zell. — The  larvae  of  this  beautiful  species 
were,  last  year,  uncommonly  abundant  during  the  month  of  May  on  the 
leaves  of  apple,  particularly  in  young  orchards.  They  fold  the  leaves 
at  the  midrib,  or  sometimes  one  edge  over  to  the  midrib,  fastening  the 
edges  all  around  firmly  and  feeding  upon  the  inclosed  upper  surface. 

Larva. — The  larva  is  not  especially  characteristic,  being  of  a pale  opaque  green 
color,  without  maculation,  except  the  rather  inconspicuous  glassy  piliferous  plates. 
Head  pale  yellow,  tinged  with  green,  legs  similarly  colored ; length  from  16  to  17mm; 
diameter,  3mm.  Form  subcylindrical,  tapering  but  slightly  either  way  from  middle. 

When  full  grown  it  incloses  itself  under  a rolled  edge  of  the  leaf, 
lining  and  strengthening  the  tube  thus  formed  with  a white  silken  web. 
The  moth  appears  early  in  June,  and  I have  no  record  of  a later  brood, 
although  there  may  be  one. 

The  original  description,  by  Professor  Zeller,  is  not  accessible  to  me 
at  present,  but  it  will  suffice  to  note  the  following  characters  : 

Palpi  and  tuft  of  the  head  rich  ferruginous,  antennse  scarcely  half  the  length  of 
the  wing,  fine,  gray  brown.  Thoracic  tuft  dark  brown.  Wing  expanse  from  15  to 
16  mm — rather  more  than  a half-inch.  Ground  color  of  primaries  somewhat  mottled 
dark  brown,  with  a slight  suffusion  of  olive,  diversified  by  three  broad,  indistinct, 
irregular,  obliquely  transverse  bands  of  purplish  gray,  having  a somewhat  metallic 
reflection;  these  transverse  bands  broaden  toward  the  inner  margin, where  they 
almost  coalesce.  On  the  costal  edge  is  a large,  milk-white,  rounded  triangular  or 
nearly  semicircular  patch,  extending  along  the  costa  from  the  middle  third,  in- 
clusive, almost  to  the  apex,  constituting  a most  distinguishing  and  ornamental 
character.  Cilia  purplish  gray.  Secondaries,  silky,  pale  brown  with  lighter  fringes. 
Abdomen  and  legs  pale  brown.  Under  side  of  wings  pale,  rosy  brown,  the  largo 
costal  spots  on  this  side  inclining  to  orange. 

Proteopteryx  spoliana  Clem. — The  larva  folds  and  webs  into 
clusters  the  young  leaves  of  apple  during  the  month  of  May,  appear- 
ing, preferably,  on  the  shoots  of  small  trees. 


52 


Larva. — When  full  grown  it  measures  10mm  in  length  by  2£mm  in  diameter,  the 
form  being  rather  thick  cylindrical ; color  translucent  white,  tinged  with  yellowish 
green ; surface  velvety ; piliferous  plates  small,  glassy,  giving  rise  to  short,  fine, 
light  hairs.  Head  and  cervical  collar  same  color  as  general  surface  or  a little  deeper 
in  shade,  inclining  to  amber.  The  head  is  broad  and  flat,  with  red-brown  trophi, 
and  a very  large  dark  brown  spot  on  each  side.  Legs  and  prolegs  same  color  as  gen- 
eral surface. 

When  full  grown  it  forms  a tough,  oval  cocoon,  thickly  covered  with 
particles  of  soil,  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  occasionally  just  beneath 
it.  It  is  but  single-brooded,  and  is  very  difficult  to  rear  in  confinement, 
as  it  must  be  kept  through  the  heat  of  summer  and  the  cold  of  winter, 
and  if  a little  too  damp  it  molds,  while  if  moisture  is  withheld  it  dries 
up.  From  almost  innumerable  larvrn  collected  during  several  years  I 
have  only  been  successful  in  rearing  two  or  three  specimens,  enough, 
however,  to  determine  the  species,  and,  as  the  moths  are  always  abun- 
dant early  in  the  spring  on  the  trunks  of  orchard  and  forest  trees,  there 
need  be  no  scarcity  of  specimens  for  the  cabinet. 

Adult. — The  moth  expands  15mm,  wings  rather  narrow.  In  color  it  closely  simulates 
the  hark  of  the  trees  on  which  it  naturally  rests.  The  vestiture  of  the  head  is  brown 
interspersed  with  gray ; palpi  and  antennse  cinereous ; thorax  and  abdomen  pale 
brown.  Primaries  brown,  with  a series  of  oblique  double  silvery  streaks  all  along 
the  costal  edge,  extending  about  one-fourth  across  the  wing;  a large  silvery  spot  of 
irregular  outline,  inclosing  a patch  of  dark  brown,  is  situated  near  the  outer  edge  of 
the  wing,  and  a less  distinct  patch  of  silvery  scales  occurs  on  the  inner  edge  near  the 
middle,  while  a shading  of  the  same  color  modifies  the  brown  tint  on  other  portions 
of  the  wing.  Cilia  pale  brown  and  cinereous  intermixed.  Secondaries  cinereous, 
shading  on  costal  edge  to  pale  brown;  cilia  dingy  white.  There  is  some  variation 
in  distinctness  of  the  markings  and  depth  of  coloring. 

Steganoptycha  pyricolana  Riley  MS. — This  is  somewhat  similar 
to  the  above  in  coloring,  but  smaller  and  proportionally  broader  winged. 
This  bores  the  shoots  of  the  second  growth  of  apple  in  August  and  Sep- 
tember, occasionally  on  recently  planted  trees,  inflicting  serious  damage. 
The  larva  spins  scarcely  any  web,  but  bores  downward  through  the  ter- 
minal bud,  entering  the  stem  for  from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch,  sometimes 
blackening  all  the  growing  points  of  a young  tree. 

Larva. — When  full  grown  it  is  8mm  long  by  l£ram  in  diameter,  slender,  subcylindri- 
cal,  tapering  slightly  in  both  directions  from  middle  segments ; surface  smooth ; 
incisions  deep  ; color,  pale  cream  yellow,  somewhat  translucent ; the  dorsal  surface 
beautifully  mottled  with  rose  red.  Piliferous  warts  and  hairs  only  discernible  with 
a lens.  Ventral  surface  pale,  slightly  concave,  and  much  wrinkled.  Head  elongate, 
cordate,  pale  brown,  shading  to  dark  brown  on  the  middle  of  each  lobe;  trophi  prom- 
inent, dark  brown,  with  two  or  three  long  light  hairs  on  each  side.  Supra-anal 
plate  oblong,  large,  dark,  smoky  brown.  Legs  and  prolegs  rather  unusually  de- 
veloped. 

I failed  to  rear  the  first  specimens  collected,  most  of  them  wandering 
around  in  the  jar  until  they  died.  Subsequently,  by  supplying  them 
with  bits  of  pith  or  bark  in  which  to  bore,  I succeeded  in  getting  three 
or  four  imagos  between  the  last  of  September  and  the  first  of  October. 


53 


The  motli  expands  10mm.  The  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen  are  densely  covered 
with  long  hair-like  scales,  of  a dull  gray-brown  color  with  bluish  reflections.  Basal 
half  of  primaries  of  similar  color,  but  with  more  intermingling  of  blue  and  brown 
scales.  About  the  middle  the  wing  is  crossed  by  a broad,  irregularly  outlined  band 
of  rich  brown,  sparsely  intermingled  with  silvery  scales,  and  the  terminal  third  is 
quite  evenly  mottled  in  brown  and  leaden  gray,  the  costal  edge  of  this  portion  being 
ornamented  with  alternate  oblique  light  and  dark  streaks  extending  about  one- 
fourth  across  the  wing  ; cilia  bluish  gray  ; secondaries  lustrous  pale  brown,  shading 
to  cinereous  on  costal  edge  ; cilia  dingy  white. 

Professor  Fernald,  to  whom  a specimen  was  shown,  considers  it  iden- 
tical with  Clemens’s  S.  salicicolana , which  I believe  breeds  in  willow  galls, 
but  Dr.  Riley  pronounces  it  distinct,  and  he  has  types  of  Clemens’s 
species. 

Gelechia  intermediella  ? Chambers. — This  pretty  Tineid  appears 
in  its  larval  form  on  the  tender  leaves  of  apple  early  in  May  and  again 
in  September.  It  gnaws  the  parenchyma  from  the  upper  surface,  giv- 
ing the  leaves  a burned  and  eroded  appearance. 

Larva. — 8mm  in  leugtli  when  mature,  slender,  cylindrical,  tapering  slightly  in  both 
directions  from  middle  ; incisions  deep,  giving  it  a submoniliform  appearance.  Gen- 
eral color  bluish  green,  acquiring  a purple  hue  at  maturity,  with  faint  longitudinal 
stripes  of  cream  white.  Head  pale  brown  with  a tinge  of  green,  ornamented  with 
cream-colored  markings  on  each  side  and  a row  of  graduated  cream-colored  dots  down 
the  middle  of  the  face.  First  segment  narrow,  without  perceptible  shield.  Thoracic 
legs  long,  whitish,  proceeding  from  papillated  projections  on  the  ventral  surface. 

This  larva  covers  the  leaves  with  fine  web,  in  which  it  moves  with 
great  agility,  and  in  which  it  rests  suspended,  without  touching  the 
surface  of  the  leaf,  except  when  feeding.  It  is  semigregarious  and  very 
irregular  in  its  development,  some  clust^ps  of  the  leaves  showing  very 
recently  hatched  young,  while  on  other  clusters  they  will  be  full  grown. 
It  pupates  on  surface  of  the  leaf  under  a little  round  cover  of  dense  web, 
similar  to  those  under  which  some  spiders  protect  their  eggs.  The 
moths  emerge  in  about  3 weeks  after  pupation  and  hibernate  in  the  per- 
fect state. 

Adult.. — A beautiful  species,  expanding  12  or  13mm.  Head  and  thorax  dark  gray, 
more  or  less  suffused  with  crimson  ; palpi  dark  gray,  annulated  with  rosy  white  or 
pale  pink.  Ground  color  of  primaries  leaden  gray  and  rosy  white ; scales  about 
evenly  intermixed.  Three  very  irregular  and  variable,  often  interrupted,  bands  of 
rich  olive  brown  cross  the  wing,  intermingled  with  some  light  golden  brown  or 
ochreous  scales ; near  the  base  and  center  of  the  wing  these  form  quite  distinct 
patches.  The  apical  third  of  the  wing  is  margined  with  alternate  dark  brown  and 
rosy  patches ; cilia  gray.  Secondaries  cinereous,  with  paler  cilia.  This  species  is 
closely  allied  to  both  roseosuffusella  Clem.,  and  rubensella  Cham.,  resembling  in  colora- 
tion the  latter  and  in  size  the  former.  Mr.  Chambers  says  of  it : “ Intermediate  be- 
tween roseosuffusella  Clem.,  and  rubensella  Cham.,  with  one  or  the  other  of  which  it 
has  hitherto  been  confounded.  The  third  joint  of  the  palpi  is  longer  and  more 
acute  than  in  rubensella,  more  like  that  of  roseosuffusella,  but  the  fore  wings  are  much 
less  roseate  than  in  either  of  the  two  other  species,  frequently  showing  no  tinge  of 
the  roseate  hue.  * * * As  in  rubensella  (and  sometimes  in  roseosuffusella),  the  lirst 

dark  band  does  not  cover  the  base  of  the  wing.  The  second  band  is  like  that  of 
roseosuffusella,  but  the  third  extends  across  the  wing,  the  dorsal  portion  being,  how- 
ever, paler  than  the  costal,  and  the  costo-apical  part  of  the  wing  is  ochreo-fuscous. 


54 


This  description,  or  rather  these  distinctions,  of  Mr.  Chambers  apply 
to  some  examples,  while  to  others  they  do  not.  Many  specimens  are 
very  roseate  and  richly  colored,  while  a few  appear  almost  plain  black 
and  dull  white.  The  three  species  are  best  distinguished  in  the  larva 
state,  in  which  there  are  very  decided  differences.  G.  roseosuffusella 
feeds  on  Clover,  G.  rubensella  on  Oak,  while  the  species  under  con- 
sideration, so  far  as  my  observations  show,  is  confined  to  Apple.  The 
larval  characters  are  also  very  diverse  in  the  three  species. 

EXPERIMENTS  WITH  INSECTICIDES. 

During  the  great  prevalence  of  Apliididce  in  the  spring  I made  much 
use  of  pyrethrum  and  of  the  X.  O.  dust.  Of  the  value  of  the  former  as 
a remedy  for  these  pests,  except  in  the  case  of  one  or  two  species,  I 
have  no  occasion  to  change  the  favorable  opinions  already  repeatedly 
published.  The  X.  O.  dust  was  thoroughly  tested  on  the  following 
Aphids:  Aphis  mail  and  Schizoneura ; lanigera  on  Apple;  Aphis prunifolii 
on  Plum ; Siphonophora  rosea  on  Rose ; Myzus  per  sicca  on  Peach ; Aphis 
brassicca  on  Cabbage;  Aphis  sp.?  on  Cucumbers  and  Squash;  Siphono- 
phora sp.?  on  Lettuce;  S.  cratcagi  on  Thorns;  S.  rudbechica  on  Solidago; 
Aphis  ambrosice  on  Ambrosia  trijida , and  Aphis  chrysanthemif  on  Chrys- 
anthemum. With  its  effects  on  all  of  these  I was  well  satisfied,  although 
in  some  cases  it  took  several  dustings  to  thoroughly  clear  a plant. 
When  applied  with  a powder  bellows  it  causes  the  insects  to  drop  to  the 
ground  at  once,  where  they  may  be  pressed  into  the  soil  with  the  foot  or 
patted  down  with  a trowel.  The  more  delicate  species  succumb  to  a 
single  thorough  dusting  and  uever  recover  from  the  effects  of  contact 
with  the  powder.  This  preparation  will  also  destroy  Siphonophora 
avenca , but  whether  it  could  in  any  way  be  applied  to  a field  of  infested 
grain  has  not  been  demonstrated. 

The  Black  Chrysanthemum  Aphis  is  one  of  the  greatest  pests  of  the 
flower  garden  and  gives  much  trouble  to  both  amateurs  and  profes- 
sional florists.  It  hibernates  on  the  plant  and  attacks  the  stolons  as 
soon  as  they  appear  in  the  spring,  and  unless  great  care  is  taken  to 
eradicate  it,  it  is  more  or  less  numerous  on  the  plants  throughout  the 
summer,  dwarfing  and  deforming  them  by  its  punctures  and  by  the  loss 
of  sap  which  it  appropriates.  As  soon  as  the  buds  are  formed  it  seems 
to  develop  with  four-fold  fecundity  and  requires  assiduous  attention  to 
keep  in  check.  The  Buhach  or  pyrethrum  powder  is  utterly  useless 
against  this  species,  probably  because  the  plant  from  which  it  is  made 
is  so  close  an  ally  of  the  Chrysanthemum.  The  X.  O.  dust,  composed 
of  creosote  and  tobacco,  is  the  best  remedy  within  my  knowledge,  killing 
the  Aphis  without  the  slightest  injury  to  the  plant.  I have  found  it 
best  to  apply  during  the  middle  of  the  day  when  the  dew  is  off.  A few 
minutes  after  dusting  the  plants,  I pass  along  the  rows  or  among  the 
pots,  and  give  each  branch  a smart  shake  or  a blast  of  air  from  the 
empty  puff,  and  every  Aphis  that  has  not  previously  dropped  is  dis- 


55 


lodged,  and  “ to  make  assurance  doubly  sure,’7  it  is  stamped  into  tlie 
earth.  On  most  of  the  insect  foes  of  the  plant  lice  the  dust  produced 
no  disastrous  effect,  but  the  larvae  of  Syrphidae  would,  in  some  cases,  not 
recover  from  the  pungent  coating. 

Arsenites  of  ammonia. — This  new  preparation,  for  which  F.  J.  Andres, 
25  Pearl  street,  New  York,  is  the  agent,  was  sent  to  me  for  experiment, 
in  accordance  with  directions  from  the  entomologist  of  the  Department 
of  Agriculture.  It  did  not  reach  me  until  about  the  1st  of  June,  too 
late  for  use  on  a number  of  insects.  It  is  a clear  solution  of  arsenic  in 
aqua  ammonia,  and  apparently  does  not  differ  much  from  a preparation 
of  my  own  devising,  as  reported  on  two  years  ago,  and  with  the  effects 
of  which  on  vegetation  I was  not  entirely  satisfied.  The  directions  ac- 
companying each  of  the  gallon  bottles,  in  which  it  is  put  up,  are  to  use 
one  tablespoonful  of  the  liquid  to  a gallon  of  water. 

June  7. — W eather  clear  and  hot.  Prepar  ed  a quantity  of  the  fluid  as  di- 
rected and  had  it  applied  to  the  following  plants : To  potatoes,  on  which 
were  a few  Doryphora  larvae;  to  rose  bushes,  on  which  still  lingered  a? 
few  larvae  of  S elandria  rosce , Characlea  angulata , and  Amphipyra pyrami- 
doides ; to  cabbage,  covered  with  full-grown  and  young  larvae  of  Pieris 
rapoe ; to  cucumbers  and  squash  infested  with  Diabrotica.  It  was  too 
late  in  the  season  to  test  it  thoroughly  on  apple  for  the  Codling  Moth, 
and  as  there  were  scarcely  any  peaches  or  plums  or  curculios.  its  effect 
on  the  latter  insect  can  not  be  reported  upon.  Portions  of  the  trees  as 
well  as  of  cherry  were  sprayed  to  discover  its  effect  upon  the  foliage. 

June  9. — Made  the  rounds  of  all  plants  sprayed  and  noted  results  as 
follows : 

Potato  plants  slightly  scorched,  edges  of  the  leaves  curled,  larv®  of 
Doryphora  mostly  on  the  ground  dead,  beetles  sickly. 

Rose  bushes  uninjured,  or  very  slightly  burned  where  the  leaves  were 
very  tender ; all  larvse  killed. 

Cabbage  uninjured;  all  Pieris  and  other  larvae  killed.  Cucumbers 
much  injured,  squash  less  so ; striped  beetles  killed  or  vanished. 

Peach  and  cherry  foliage  badly  scorched,  turned  yellow.  Plum  and 
apple  only  slightly  injured.  Other  experiments  later  in  the  season 
made  with  one  tablespoonful  of  the  poison  to  one  and  one-half  gallons 
of  water  were  not  injurious  to  any  except  the  most  delicate  foliage, 
while  in  most  cases  it  sufficed  to  kill  Sphinx  quinquemaeulata  and  Helio- 
tliis  armigera  on  tomato,  Darapsa  myron , Gidaria  diver silineata , Psycho- 
morpha  epimenis , and  De  mia  maculalis  on  grape,  with  but  slight  damage 
to  the  foliage.  The  fruit  being  “ bagged”  was  not  touched  by  it. 
Empretia  stimulea  on  plum  and  pear  and  JDatana  ministra  on  oak  also 
speedily  died  from  eating  leaves  that  had  been  dampened  with  it. 

I do  not  consider  these  experiments  conclusive,  as  with  the  heat  and 
drought,  vegetation  was  not  by  any  means  in  a vigorous  condition,  and 
therefore  more  liable  to  injury  from  poisonous  applications.  It  is  a 
most  convenient  preparation  and  leaves  no  sediment  to  disfigure  the 


56 


foliage,  and  will,  I trust,  be  found,  by  more  thorough  experiment, 
efficient  as  an  insecticide  when  used  of  a strength  that  will  preclude 
injury  to  foliage. 

Late  in  the  summer  a preparation  of  petroleum  sludge  with  soap 
was  sent  me  from  the  New  York  Chemical  Works  for  trial,  but  there 
were  very  few  insects  at  that  time  on  which  to  test  it,  while  its  almost 
intolerable  and  persistent  odor  is  really  a serious  objection  to  its  use, 
especially  in  small  gardens. 

In  making  my  experiments,  I have  used  the  Lewis  Combination 
Force  Pump  and  Syringe,  and  consider  them  well  adapted  for  use  in 
small  orchards  and  vineyards,  and  especially  adapted  for  purposes  of 
experimentation,  where  the  larger  and  heavier  appliances  are  not 
necessary. 


REPORT  ON  WORK  OF  THE  SEASON. 


By  Herbert  Osborn. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 


Ames,  Iowa,  October,  1890. 

Sir:  I transmit  herewith  a report  upon  the  work  of  the  season,  including  mention 
of  certain  insects  that  have  been  observed  during  the  season  and  notes  regarding 
certain  others,  observations  on  which  are  in  progress,  with  the  expectation  of  giving 
more  detailed  accounts  of  their  life  histories  and  habits. 

There  is  much  yet  to  he  done  on  the  insects  affecting  grass  before  anything  like  a 
full  report  can  he  made  upon  them,  hut  I shall  hope  to  bring  the  work  of  the  present 
season  into  shape  for  submission  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

The  work  on  the  parasites  of  domestic  animals  has  been  continued  and  a part  is 
already  submitted  for  printing,  while  a considerable  amount  of  other  matter  is  in 
form  to  be  presented  at  an  early  date. 

Very  respectfully, 


Herbert  Osborn. 


Prof.  C.  Y.  Riley, 

U.  S.  Entomologist. 


During  the  past  summer  there  has  been  no  great  depredation  by  any 
single  insect  pest  in  the  State,  but  a number  of  the  common  species  of 
insects  have  been  working  with  their  accustomed  energy,  and  the  losses 
from  this  source  in  the  State  have  probably  been  up  to  the  average  of 
ordinary  seasons. 

The  observations  on  insects  affecting  grass  crops  have  been  continued, 
and  I am  only  the  more  strongly  impressed  with  the  importance  of  the 
insects  affecting  these  crops  in  this  State,  and  believe  that  the  estimates 
given  in  my  last  year’s  report  as  to  the  probable  loss  from  this  source 
to  have  been  by  no  means  overstated. 

Judging  by  the  reports  of  the  correspondents  of  the  Iowa  Weather 
and  Crop  Service,  who  represent  every  section  of  the  State,  the  insects 
that  have  caused  most  extensive  injury  are  those  infesting  meadows 
and  pastures  and  sod  land  planted  to  corn.  Not  only  are  there  numer- 
ous reports  of  injury  by  insects  to  timothy,  to  pastures,  and  to  corn 
planted  on  land  previously  in  grass,  but  numerous  mention  of  poor 
condition  in  meadows  and  pastures,  shortage  in  grass  and  hay  crop, 

57 


58 


etc.,  which,  to  any  one  familiar  with  the  great  number  of  insects  now 
infesting  grass  land  in  this  region,  tell  a certain  story  as  to  at  least  one 
of  the  great  sources  of  loss. 

Frequent  mention  is  made  of  the  Cutworms,  Grubworms,  Wire- 
worms,  etc.,  and  it  is  evident  that  a very  great  variety  of  species  are 
included  in  this  list;  but  while  I am  certain  that  many  species  of  Cut- 
worms belonging  to  the  common  species  of  Noctuidae  are  included  in 
this  list,  I believe  that  much  of  this  injury  is  due  to  the  species  of 
Crambus  treated  in  detail  in  my  report  for  1887,  the  Dried  Crambus 
( Crambus  exsiccatus ),  or  as  called  in  the  larval  stage,  the  Sodworm  or 
Turf  Webworm.  This  has  been  very  plentiful  here  in  the  adult  form 
the  present  season,  though  by  no  means  so  abundant  as  in  1887,  and  I 
have  no  doubt  that  it  has  been  as  abundant  in  other  parts  of  the  State. 
The  work  of  this  species  in  meadows,  however,  would  not  be  readily 
distinguished  from  that  of  Cutworms  by  those  unfamiliar  with  the 
habits  of  insects,  and  even  in  corn  the  effect  on  the  plants  is  not  easily 
to  be  distinguished  from  the  effects  of  Cutworms,  Wireworms,  or  other 
forms  of  insects  attacking  the  stalks  at  or  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground. 

LEAF  HOPPERS  IN  GRASS. 

In  my  report  of  last  season  I mentioned  a number  of  species  of  leaf 
hoppers  ( Jassidw ) that  are  destructive  in  grass  land.  Further  observa- 
tion and  collection  in  this  same  line  has  served  to  strengthen  my  opin- 
ion as  to  the  great  amount  of  injury  to  be  attributed  to  these  minute 
insects.  A number  of  species  particularly  of  the  genus  Deltocephalus 
occur  in  immense  numbers  in  grass  land,  and  among  the  most  common 
of  those  observed  here  are  the  Deltocephalus  ( Jassus ) inimicus  Say, 
treated  of  in  last  year’s  report,  but  associated  with  these  are  D.  debilis 
Uhler.,  _D.  Sayi  Fitch,  1).  Melsheimeri  Fitch,  and  a number  of  species 
apparently  as  yet  undescribed.  A fuller  report  upon  these  I hope  to 
make  a little  later  when  material  on  hand  can  be  more  fully  examined 
and  a more  complete  statement  of  results  given,  but  it  may  be  in  place 
to  mention  as  one  of  the  results  of  this  study  that  I have  been  con- 
vinced that  these  insects  are  a very  important  factor  in  the  production 
of“  silver-top  ” in  grass,  this  being  one  of  the  effects  produced  by  their 
suction  of  the  juices  of  the  plant  and  resulting  when  they  penetrate  the 
succulent  portion  of  the  stem  at  the  base  of  the  terminal  node.  That 
other  insects  may  and  do  cause  this  same  form  of  withering  and  injury 
to  grass  I do  not  deny,  but  in  a great  number  of  examinations  of  injured 
stems  I have  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  found  no  insect  within  the 
sheath  of  the  injured  part,  and  feel  positive  that  for  these  the  injury 
could  not  have  been  produced  by  Thrips  or  Meromyza  or  any  insect 
working  within  the  stem  while  the  presence  of  immense  numbers  of  the 
leaf  hopper  on  the  affected  plants  and  the  presence  of  punctures  show 
clearly  the  possibility  of  the  injury  being  due  to  them. 


59 


This  question  has  been  more  fully  discussed  in  a paper  read  with 
your  consent  before  the  Association  for  the  Promotion  of  Agricultural 
Science  at  the  Indianapolis  meeting.  In  that  paper  I have  referred  to 
different  explanations  for  the  silver-topped  condition  of  grass  and  pre- 
sented the  grounds  for  my  own  opinion  that  for  this  locality  and  in 
blue  grass  the  injury  must  be  referred  mainly  to  these  Jassidae.  From 
the  fact  that  these  Jassidae  are  exposed  to  the  application  of  remedies 
that  would  not  affect  insects  protected  in  the  sheath  it  is  evident  that 
the  adoption  of  measures  to  destroy  these,  as  suggested  in  my  last 
year’s  report,  should  result  in  a decrease  of  the  u silver- top.” 

GRASSHOPPERS  AND  CRICKETS  IN  GRASS. 

The  common  species  of  grasshoppers  or  locusts  have  been  as  usual 
very  plentiful,  Melanoplus  feynur-rubrum  probably  heading  the  list  for 
abundance,  but  several  other  species,  as  M.  differ eyitialis , Dissosteira 
Carolina,  Tomonotus  sulphureus , and  Arphia  sordida  form  a very  con- 
spicuous part  of  the  grass-eating  species.  For  the  present  season  also 
there  has  been  a very  great  abundance  of  the  little  field  cricket,  Nemo- 
bias  vittatus . This  was  noticed  as  especially  abundant  on  sunny  hill- 
sides in  pastures  and  in  many  places  aggregated  in  such  numbers 
as  to  completely  cover  the  surface  of  the  ground.  While  this  species 
has  been  rather  frequently  mentioned  among  the  species  common 
throughout  the  country  and  its  herbivorous  habits  accepted,  so  far  as 
•I  know  by  all,  there  has  been  apparently  little  attention  to  it  as  a de- 
* structive  species  or  one  worthy  of  particular  attention  on  account  of 
the  injury  it  may  cause  in  pastures. 

It  is  quite  evident,  however,  that  when  occurring  in  anything  like  the 
abundance  in  which  it  has  been  observed  here  this  season  it  must  be 
the  cause  of  no  little  loss,  and  it  may  very  well  be  associated  with  the 
more  frequently  mentioned  locusts  in  the  category  of  destructive 
meadow  insects. 

MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES. 

The  Apple  Leaf  Skeletonizer  ( Pempelia  hammondii)  has  been  sent  me 
this  season  from  near  Des  Moines,  where  it  was  reported  as  doing  con- 
siderable damage.  This  insect  has  been  comparatively  rare  in  the  State 
for  a number  of  years,  but  from  the  account  received  of  its  appearance 
this  year  it  must  have  been  in  such  numbers  as  to  cause  no  little  dam- 
age, and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  prompt  measures  will  be  adopted  by  the 
fruit-growers  of  that  locality  to  prevent  its  spread. 

The  Turnus  Butterfly  ( Papilio  turnus)  has  been  noticed  as  more  than 
ordinarily  abundant,  the  larvae  occurring  in  considerable  numbers  on 
various  trees,  especially  on  plum  trees  in  this  vicinity.  While  the  species 
has  seldom  assumed  an  economic  importance,  in  this  State  at  least,  it 
may  be  that  it  will  require  occasional  attention,  and  it  will  of  course 
readily  succumb  to  the  treatment  by  spraying,  so  efficacious  for  leaf- 
eating larvae. 


GO 


The  Cherry  Slug  ( Selandria  cerasi)  has  also  been  quite  plentiful  and 
damaging  cherry  and  plum  trees.  It  would  appear  that  this  insect  has 
been  rather  more  than  usually  common  in  a considerable  territory  the 
present  season,  as  I have  heard  of  it  from  various  localities.  It  is  gen- 
erally the  case,  however,  that  it  does  little  damage  for  more  than  one 
or  two  seasons  in  succession,  so  that  it  seems  hardly  necessary  to  take 
any  great  amount  of  trouble  in  dealing  with  it  unless  it  is  working 
destructively  upon  particular  trees,  when  the  usual  poisonous  sprays 
suffice  to  rid  the  trees  of  its  presence. 

The  Handmaid  Moth  [Datana  ministra ) has  been  on  the  increase 
apparently  for  a number  of  years  past  and  for  the  last  two  years  has  suc- 
ceeded in  defoliating  quite  a number  of  trees  in  the  vicinity,  especially 
hickories  and  black  walnuts.  As  mentioned  in  another  place,  the 
arsenite  of  ammonia  was  used  in  treating  it  this  fall  and  proved  very 
efficient  in  destroying  the  insects.  Previously,  we  have  used  London 
purple  for  this  purpose,  and  there  is  apparently  little  choice,  unless 
there  be  sufficient  difference  in  price  to  render  one  cheaper  than  the 
other.  It  is  important  in  using  any  of  the  poisonous  solutions  for  this 
species  to  spray  the  whole  tree  or  as  much  of  it  as  possible,  since  when 
only  the  part  where  the  worms  may  be  working  at  any  particular  time 
is  sprayed,  they  are  very  likely  in  their  next  move  to  occupy  some  part 
where  there  is  no  poison  to  affect  them,  and  they  may  in  this  way  escape 
until  they  have  caused  considerable  damage  to  the  tree. 

Abbot’s  White  Pine  Worm  ( Lophyrus  abbotii)  has  appeared  in  the 
State,  and  so  far  as  I am  aware  it  is  the  first  time  that  this  destructive 
insect  has  been  brought  to  notice  in  Iowa.  It  was  sent  to  me  from 
Farley  and  with  the  report  that  the  evergreen  trees  were  suffering 
severely  from  its  attacks. 

The  Corn  Boot  Worm  ( Diabrotica  longicornis)  is  evidently  on  the  in- 
crease and  gradually  extending  throughout  such  localities  as  it  has  not 
hitherto  occupied.  Here,  it  appears  very  abundantly  in  the  adult  stage, 
and  in  fall,  collecting  in  great  numbers  on  flowers.  So  far  as  I know 
there  has  not  as  yet  been  any  very  great  injury  to  the  corn  in  the  vicinity, 
but  probably  the  worms  occur  inconsiderable  numbers  scattered  through 
the  various  fields,  and  it  is  probable  that  in  a short  time  they  will  mul- 
tiply to  such  an  extent  that  in  fields  kept  long  in  corn  they  will  cause 
serious  loss. 

The  species  of  Diabrotica  infesting  squashes,  melons,  etc.,  D.  vittata 
and  12 -punctata,  have  been  very  abundant  the  past  season,  though  per- 
haps not  more  so  than  is  common  for  them,  but  the  crops  they  infest  have 
required  attention  in  order  to  prevent  serious  loss. 

The  Potato  Stalk  Weevil  ( Trichobaris  trinotatus)  was  observed  this 
season  for  the  first  time  and  occurred  in  such  numbers  as  to  cause  con- 
siderable damage.  It  was  first  noticed  by  Mr.  F.  A.  Sirrine,  a special 
student  in  entomology,  at  present  assisting  in  the  botanical  work  in  the 
Experiment  Station.  It  is  quite  likely  that  the  insect  has  been  present 


61 


in  previous  seasons  in  small  numbers,  but  it  has  not  been  taken  even  in 
the  adult  form,  in  this  locality  till  this  summer,  so  that  it  seems  more 
likely  that  it  has  been  introduced  in  some  way  quite  recently. 

TESTS  OF  ARSENITE  OF  AMMONIA. 

During  the  month  of  May  I received  instructions  from  Mr.  Howard 
to  make  tests  of  an  insecticide  put  on  the  market  by  Fr.  Jac.  Andres, 
of  25  Pearl  street,  New  York,  under  the  name  of  arsenite  of  ammonia, 
as  agent  for  the  Caspar  Schneider  Chemical  Works.  In  due  time  the 
samples  came  from  the  New  York  firm  and  I proceeded  to  make  such 
tests  as  were  possible  to  determine  botli  the  effects  upon  various  kinds 
of  plants  and  its  effectiveness  in  killing  insects. 

On  the  morning  of  May  30,  1890,  between  9 and  10  o’clock  of  a hot, 
sunny  day,  I sprayed  the  following  plants  with  a view  to  giving  a 
thorough  test  of  the  effect  on  foliage : 

Squash  vines  infested  with  Diabrotica  vittata . 

Cucumber  vines  infested  with  Diabrotica  vittata . 

Potato  vines  infested  with  Epitrix  cucumeris. 

Plum,  Cherry,  Box-elder,  Willow,  Elseagnus,  Elm,  Mountain  Ash, 
Birch,  Apple,  Kaspberry,  beans,  grass,  and  clover. 

The  results  were  watched  closely  for  a number  of  days  but  the  record 
of  June  2 gives  the  results  for  the  entire  set.  On  that  day  a careful 
examination  was  made  of  all  the  plants  that  had  been  treated  and  it 
was  found  that  in  no  case  could  there  be  found  any  injury  to  the  foliage, 
except  possibly  a slight  injury  to  the  elm  and  the  beans,  but  the  injury 
was  so  slight,  if  any,  in  these  cases  that  it  could  hardly  be  charged  with 
certainty  against  the  arsenite.  The  solution  in  this  case  was  as  given 
in  the  directions,  a tablespoonful  to  an  ordinary  jjailful  of  water,  and 
the  conclusion  was  that  with  this  strength  it  could  be  applied  without 
danger  to  any  of  the  above-named  plants. 

On  the  squash  vines  and  cucumber  vines  the  beetles  seemed  much 
less  abundant,  but  I was  unable  to  find  any  dead  insects  around  the 
vines.  The  hills  treated,  however,  remained  quite  free  from  further 
trouble  from  these  insects,  while  others  in  the  vicinity  were  seriously 
affected.  The  failure  to  find  dead  beetles  under  the  treated  plants 
might  easily  result  from  the  insects  flying  away  after  eating  the  poison 
to  places  of  shelter  and  dying  there.  The  same  was  true  of  the  flea- 
beetle  affecting  potatoes.  The  beetles  seemed  much  less  abundant,  but 
no  dead  ones  could  be  found  under  the  treated  vines. 

While  it  was  so  late  in  the  season  that  it  was  not  expected  that  this 
test  would  give  any  definite  results  as  to  the  effect  on  the  codling  moth, 
it  is  worthy  of  mention  that  the  branches  of  the  apple  tree  sprayed 
with  the  arsenite  were  loaded  with  apples,  while  the  other  portions  of 
the  tree  were  much  less  fully  loaded. 

The  apples  also  of  this  portion  were  quite  free  from  worms,  though 
in  the  late  tall  they  were  of  course  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  second 


62 


brood  and  a portion  of  the  fruit  was  found  infested.  While  this  is  not 
given  as  a good  example  of  the  effect  of  spraying,  it  seems  strong  enough 
certainly  to  warrant  the  conclusion  that  the  arsenite  of  ammonia  will 
prove  as  effectual  as  any  other  form  of  the  poison  against  this  pest. 

There  were  none  of  the  Colorado  Potato  Beetles  to  be  found  in  the 
vicinity,  so  the  poison  could  not  be  tested  with  them,  a test  that  would 
have  been  of  course  more  satisfactory,  especially  with  the  larvae,  because 
of  the  fact  that  the  dead  insects  can  afterward  be  found  readily  around 
the  treated  vines. 

I was  able,  however,  to  give  a thorough  trial  of  the  insecticide  prop- 
erties of  the  substance  later  in.the  season  on  the  common  Handmaid 
Moth  (Datana  ministra),  which  was  very  plentiful  on  some  of  the  hickory 
and  black  walnut  trees  in  the  vicinity.  A single  application  of  the 
poison  was  found  to  kill  the  caterpillars  in  large  numbers,  evidently  af- 
fecting all  that  fed  upon  the  leaves  that  had  been  reached  by  the  poison. 
Dead  caterpillars  began  to  be  found  in  24  hours  from  time  of  application, 
and  for  two  or  three  days  afterward  the  caterpillars  were  dying  off’  rap- 
idly. The  application  was  in  this  case  made  a little  stronger  than  in  the 
first  trials,  and  in  a few  days  the  trees  showed  some  injury  from  the  ef- 
fects of  the  arsenite,  so  it  seems  quite  evident  that  the  strength  for  these 
trees  must  be  kept  within  the  limits  indicated  by  the  directions.  The 
liquid  is  very  convenient  to  mix  with  water,  and  forms  probably  a very 
uniform  mixture,  so  that  it  seems  to  possess  some  points  of  superiority 
ver  the  arseuites  in  solid  form. 


REPORT  ON  SOME  OF  THE  INSECTS  AFFECTING  CEREAL 

CROPS. 


By  F.  M.  Webster. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 

La  Fayette,  Ind.,  October  22 , 1890. 

Sir:  I herewith  submit  my  annual  report  of  observations  on  some  of  the  insects 
affecting  cereal  grains.  For  assistance  in  carrying  on  the  experiments  connected 
with  the  studies  of  the  Hessian  Fly,  I am  greatly  indebted  to  the  following  gentlemen : 
Hon.  Samuel  Hargrave,  Princeton;  Mr.  W.  S.  Ratliff,  Richmond;  Mr.  Miles  Martin, 
Marshall;  Hon.  W.  Banks,  La  Porte,  and  Hon.  J.  N.  Lakta,  Hawpatch;  to  Purdue 
University,  and  later  the  experiment  station.  I am  also  under  obligations  for  use 
of  land,  seed,  and  labor  in  carrying  out  my  own  experiments  here  at  La  Fayette. 

To  yourself  especially,  and  others  of  the  division,  I am  under  many  obligations  for 
the  determination  of  specimens  and  other  numberless  favors. 

Respectfully  submitted. 

F.  M.  Webster. 

Dr.  C.  Y.  Riley, 

JJ.  S.  Entomologist. 


THE  HESSIAN  FLY. 

Number  and  Development  of  Broods. 

My  experiments,  notes,  and  observations  upon  this  insect  extend 
over  a period  of  a little  over  six  years,  and  while  it  received  little  more 
attention  than  was  given  other  wheat-destroying  species,  a considerable 
number  of  facts  have  accumulated  which,  while  not  by  any  means 
clearing  up  all  of  the  mysteries  of  the  pest,  will  nevertheless  serve  to 
throw  some  light  on  several  obscure  points.  Unless  otherwise  stated, 
all  of  my  observations  and  experiments  herein  recorded  relate  to  the 
State  of  Indiana,  extending  from  latitude  37°  50'  to  about  41°  45'  N. 
The  exact  latitude  of  many  places  of  observation  is  given,  not  so  much 
for  the  American  reader  or  investigator  as  for  those  of  other  countries, 
notably  England  and  Russia. 

My  experiments  and  observations  have  been  carried  on  almost  exclu- 
sively out  of  doors  and  very  largely  in  the  fields,  as  I consider  indoor 
and  breeding-cage  observations  on  this  species,  except  for  the  purpose 

63 


64 


of  securing  specimens  and  parasites,  of  very  doubtful  value  from  an 
economic  standpoint  or  as  indicating  its  normal  habits.  The  observa- 
tions have  many  of  them  been  once  and  often  twice  substantiated. 

In  ordinary  seasons  and  throughout  the  area  above  indicated  the 
statement  made  long  ago  by  Dr.  Fitch  that  the  Hessian  Fly  is  double 
brooded  is  true.  While  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  State  the  fall 
brood  of  adults  seem  to  appear  some  weeks  later  than  in  the  northern 
part,  nevertheless  I have  found  but  two  destructive  broods.  Between 
these  two  broods,  however,  is  a considerable  mass  of  fluctuating  indi- 
viduals, the  true  position  of  which  is  rather  anomalous.* 

At  LaFayette,  Ind.,  latitude  40°  27',  wheat  plants  were  transferred 
from  the  fields  to  the  breeding  cages  April  5,  1890,  and  kept  out  of 
doors.  The  seed  producing  these  plants  had  been  sown  the  preceding 
September  3.  On  April  17  a female  emerged,  and  a male  appearing 
soon  after,  these,  on  April  22,  were  both  placed  together  on  young 
growing  wheat  planted  in  a breeding  cage,  out  of  doors.  From  these 
adults  were  secured  June  8.  The  attempt  was  made  to  follow  the  off- 
spring of  these,  but  failed  on  account  of  the  wheat  being  killed  by  rust. 
On  June  7,  and  also  on  the  14th,  1888,  in  the  same  locality,  adults  were 
observed  ovipositing,  the  eggs  being  placed  on  the  youngest  and  most 
tender  shoots,  and  there  was  every  evidence  that  these  eggs  developed 
through  the  larval  to  the  flaxseed  stage  by  early  July.  Besides,  I have 
observed  in  the  same  locality  late-growiug  shoots  literally  overrun 
with  very  young  larvae  on  the  26th  of  June,  and  found  larvse  as  late  as 
the  10th  of  July. 

On  October  16,  1887,  Mr.  W.  S.  Ratliff,  who  made  a great  number  of 
experiments  for  me,  near  Richmond,  Ind.  (latitude  30°  51'),  secured 
adults  from  a small  plot  of  wheat  plants  which  appeared  above  the 
ground  September  4.  From  a plant  from  this  same  plat  that  had  been 
transplanted  indoors,  he  secured  an  adult  female  11  days  earlier.  In 
either  of  these  cases  with  favorable  weather  the  female  could  have 
sent  her  offspring  into  the  winter  in  the  flaxseed  state.  Mr.  Ratliff  also 
observed  adults  on  July  10,  1887.  At  La  Fayette,  Ind.,  the  same  au- 
tumn, I saw  females  ovipositing  on  November  3,  in  a temperature  of  64° 
F.,  among  the  plants.  From  a plat  sown  August  13,  and  which  came  up 
on  the  17th,  I obtained  adults  of  both  sexes  on  October  1,  44  days  after 
the  plants  appeared  and  48  days  after  sowing.  That  larvse,  even 
though  quite  immature  when  winter  begins,  may  survive  till  spring  has 
been  demonstrated  again  and  again,  and  was  especially  true  of  the 
exceedingly  mild  winter  of  1889-’90.  In  fact,  by  a series  of  sowings  all 

* Dr.  Fitch  states  that  the  eggs  of  the  fall  brood  are  deposited  in  the  State  of  New 
York  early  in  September,  and  also  that  “the  deposit  is  doubtless  made  later  to  the 
south  of  us  than  it  is  here  in  New  York.  ” ( Seventh  Report.)  Mr.  Edward  Tilghman 
observed  oviposition  in  Queen  Anne’s  County,  Maryland,  about  latitude  39°  to  39° 
30',  during  the  second  week  in  October,  and  mentions  it  as  of  usual  occurrence.  ( The 
Cultivator , May,  1S41.) 


65 


stages  of  the  insect  can  be  produced  continually  from  April  to  October, 
and  by  keepiug  a cage  indoors  I have  produced  adults  in  abundance  in 
January. 

As  Dr.  Lindeman  has  well  stated,  the  puparia  are  greatly  influenced 
by  environment,  temperature,  etc.,  and  this  is  probably  true  of  the  other 
stages,  larvae  of  different  ages  being,  for  all  we  know,  influenced  to  a 
different  degree.  To  these  facts  must  be  added  another  of  considerable 
moment,  viz,  while  nominally  two  brooded,  flaxseeds  collected  by  me  in 
the  spring  of  one  year  have  lived  over  to  the  spring  of  the  following  year. 
This  is  also  true  of  at  least  one  of  the  parasites  of  the  species.  How  far 
the  number  of  these  interlopers  is  augmented  by  a retarded  develop- 
ment of  greater  or  less  extent  it  is  impossible  to  say,  but  that  there  is  an 
accession  through  this  means  there  can  be  no  doubt.  In  fact,  it  would 
appear  as  though  nature  had  in  this  way  provided  against  the  extinc- 
tion of  the  species. 

Now,  is  it  proper  for  us,  from  these  scattering  individuals,  to  attempt 
to  construct  distinct  broods  ? It  seems  to  me  not.  I have  several  times 
sown  wheat  at  La  Fayette  early  in  July  and  never  had  it  seriously  in- 
fested by  Hessian  fly  until  late  in  August  or  early  in  September.  Very 
young  larvie  were  exceedingly  abundant  early  in  October  of  this  year 
in  a field  of  early- sown  wheat  near  La  Fayette. 

It  is  true  that  observations  during  a single  season,  in  a single  locality, 
might  produce  apparently  good  evidence  of  a third  brood,  but  a con- 
tinued close  study  of  the  species  in  such  locality  will  probably  show  it 
unfounded.  That  these  aberrant  individuals  may,  under  favorable  con- 
ditions, collect  or  “ bunch  v together  in  certain  fields  is  probably  true, 
but  my  own  experience  has  been  that  the  following  year  this  irregu- 
larity will  have  disappeared  or  have  been  reduced  to  a minimum  by  the 
effect  of  the  weather  during  midsummer  and  winter.  On  June  24, 1887, 
near  Princeton,  Indiana,  latitude  38°  23'  N.,  I found  a field  of  wheat, 
sown  about  the  first  of  the  preceding  November,  literally  alive  with 
larvse  from  one-fourth  to  nearly  or  quite  full  grown.  There  were  no 
pupse  to  speak  of  in  this  field  at  the  time,  but  in  other  fields  in  the 
vicinity  these  were  abundant,  but  here  there  was  no  larvse  to  be  found. 
At  this  date  wheat  harvest  was  at  its  height.  The  late-sown  field  had 
evidently  attracted  the  late- appearing  adults  of  the  fall  before,  and 
their  progeny,  living  over  in  this  field,  as  delayed  larvse,  emerged  cor- 
respondingly late  in  the  spring,  giving  rise  to  the  generation  of  larvse 
observed  by  me.  My  reason  for  taking  this  view  is  that  I have  several 
times  tried  to  draw  off  the  spring  brood  of  flies  by  offering  them  young 
plants  on  which  to  oviposit,  but  have  always  failed,  as  they  seemed  to 
prefer  tender  shoots  of  older  plants  to  the  young  plants  themselves.  In 
the  fall  this  characteristic  seems  to  be  somewhat  the  reverse,  although 
even  then,  if  attacked  after  tillering,  the  tillers  will  be  chosen  instead 
of  the  main  stem.  The  fall  brood  of  adults  is  probably  the  migratory 
brood,  and  their  power  of  detecting  wheat  plants  is  almost  phenomenal. 

25910— Bull.  23 5 


66 


I have  drawn  them  to  a small  plat  of  wheat  sown  in  a secluded  corner 
of  my  garden,  in  the  midst  of  town,  fully  half  a mile  from  any  wheat 
fields.  But,  be  this  as  it  may,  a second  brood  of  larvae  in  June  would 
be  rather  difficult  to  sustain,  as  the  puparia  of  the  earlier  part  of  the 
month  are  known  to  remain  in  that  stage  until  September.  Neither 
have  I been  able  to  secure  any  better  evidence  of  a brood  originating  in 
volunteer  wheat  during  July  aud  August.  Puparia  are  to  be  found 
every  year  from  one  end  of  the  State  to  the  other  in  this  volunteer 
wheat,  but  here  in  Indiana  I have  never  found  these  sufficiently  numer- 
ous to  imply  a distinct  brood.  Professor  Forbes  and  his  assistants, 
working  in  Illinois,  appear  to  have  a greater  confidence  in  this  extra 
brood  than  myself,  although,  as  will  appear  farther  on,  our  experiments 
were  carried  on  the  one  perfectly  independent  of  the  other,  though  only 
a few  miles  apart. 

My  attention  has  been  called  to  the  condition  of  this  field  near  Prince- 
ton, by  Honorable  Samuel  Hargrove,  member  of  the  board  of  trustees  of 
Purdue  University,  and  also  a member  of  the  State  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture, who  willingly  agreed  to  further  aid  in  the  investigations  by  sow- 
ing for  me  plats  of  wheat  at  intervals  of  about  2 weeks,  beginning  as 
soon  as  possible  after  harvest.  Being  detained  in  Louisiana  myself 
until  nearly  the  1st  of  August,  and  the  weather  being  exceedingly  dry, 
no  plats  were  sown  until  August  4, 1887,  followed  by  another  on  August 
22,  and  a third  September  5.  These  were  sown  on  one  of  Mr.  Hargrove’s 
farms,  about  10  miles  northeast  of  Princeton. 

The  first  two  sowings,  owing  to  the  drought,  came  up  sparingly  and 
about  the  same  time.  The  third  was  also  affected  by  drought,  and  did 
not  come  up  until  about  the  1st  of  October.  These  plats  were  sown 
along  the  lower  edge  of  a high,  rolling  stubble  field,  which  had  been 
too  dry  to  plow,  and  in  which  I had  found  an  abundance  of  flaxseeds 
the  preceding  June. 

These  plats  were  examined  by  me  on  October  8.  The  two  earlier- 
sown  plats  had  thrown  up  a good  growth  of  plants,  which  had  tillered 
finely,  being  along  a low  ravine.  On  these  plats  I found  a number  of 
larvae,  which  were  nearly  or  quite  grown,  and  a less  number  of  flaxseeds, 
one  of  which  was  empty.  Besides  these,  the  plants  were  literally  alive 
with  very  young  larvae,  so  young,  in  fact,  that  they  had  not  yet  lost 
their  reddish  tint.  The  third  plat  had  sent  up  the  normal  number  of 
plants,  which  were  now  in  the  second  leaf.  These  plants  had  not  ap- 
peared in  time  for  the  earlier  deposited  eggs,  but  were  even  more  seriously 
infested  by  young  larvae  than  the  plants  of  the  two  earlier  plats.  One 
of  the  plants  from  the  last  plat  is  before  me,  and  contains  twenty-six 
young  larvae,  all  of  which  must  have  hatched  from  the  eggs  only  a few 
days  prior  to  my  observations.  Now,  from  whence  did  the  progenitors 
of  these  young  larvae  originate  ? Most  assuredly  not  from  volunteer 
wheat,  because  there  was  none.  Not  from  my  earlier-sown  plats,  else 
these  would  have  shown  the  effect.  There  are,  it  seems  to  me,  but  two 


67 


other  sources  from  which  they  could  have  come,  viz,  the  stubble,  which 
I know  to  have  been  infested,  and  grasses,  which  we  have  no  knowledge 
of  the  species  affecting. 

These  plats  were  plowed  up  soon  after  examination,  as  I was  afraid 
to  allow  them  to  stand  thus,  a menace  to  the  adjoining  fields  the  follow- 
ing spring,  though  the  plants  would  have  probably  been  destroyed 
before  even  a small  portion  of  the  larvm  matured. 

From  all  the  information  that  I am  able  to  gather,  the  usual  time  of 
appearance  of  the  fall  brood  of  adult  flies  in  southerly  Iudiana  is  the 
last  portion  of  September,  or  some  years  the  first  days  of  October. 
This  is,  I believe,  the  opinion  of  the  most  observing  farmers,  including 
Hon.  J.  Q.  A.  Seig,  of  Corydon,  Harrison  County,  who  is  as  familiar 
with  the  earlier  stages  of  the  pest  and  its  effect  upon  fall  wheat  as  I 
am  myself.  Mr.  J.  P.  Londen,  of  Sharp’s  Mills,  same  county,  stated 
that  wheat  sown  on  October  1,  1886,  was  damaged  50  per  cent.,  while 
that  sown  on  the  6th  was  injured  only  15  per  cent.  Mr.  J.  A.  Burton, 
writing  from  Mitchell,  Lawrence  County,  November  24,  1887,  gave  the 
results  of  his  examination  of  wheatfields  as  follows:  Fields  sown  Sep- 
tember 8,  about  one  plant  in  8 infested ; sown  September  15,  about 
one  plant  in  12;  sown  September  22,  about  one  plant  in  50,  and 
sown  October  1,  seemingly  free  from  injury.  The  observations  of  these 
gentlemen  also  coincide  with  my  own,  made  in  November,  1888,  in  Har- 
rison and  Posey  Counties.  Therefore,  from  all  the  information  which 
I have  been  able  to  gain,  the  best  season  for  wheat  sowing,  to  avoid  the 
attacks  of  the  Hessian  fly  in  extreme  southern  Indiana,  is  soon  after 
the  1st  of  October.  Exactly  how  far  northward  this  advice  will  apply 
I am  unable  to  say,  but  am  inclined  to  think  it  would  cover  territory 
laying  between  latitude  38°  and  39°,  and  possibly  39°  30',  although 
near  the  northern  limit  it  would  probably  be  safe  during  ordinary  years 
to  sow  soon  after  September  25. 

During  the  years  1887  and  188S  Mr.  W.  S.  Ratliff  made  a large  num- 
ber of  very  careful  observations,  and  sowed  a series  of  plats  of  wheat 
on  different  dates  near  Richmond,  Ind.  In  1887  plats  were  sown  August 
5 and  29,  September  12  and  26.  All  of  these  plats  were  attacked  and 
more  or  less  injured  except  the  last,  which  as  late  as  December  19 
showed  not  the  least  injury  by  the  Hessian  fly.  Up  to  May  31,  1888, 
there  was  very  little  injury  to  this  plat,  and  even  on  the  above  date 
there  were  very  few  larvm  as  compared  with  the  number  on  the  others. 
From  this  date  on  till  July  11  the  plats  were  all  injured  by  black  and 
red  rusts,  Chinch  bugs,  and  the  Wheat  Stem  maggot,  the  greater  injury 
appearing  to  fall  upon  this,  so  that  at  harvest,  July  11,  the  last  was 
the  poorest  of  all  in  yield,  that  sown  August  15  being  the  best.  The 
sowings  of  1888  were  as  follows  : September  6,  20  ; October  4,  22 ; No- 
vember 1.  On  November  14  the  first  plat  was  found  to  be  infested  by 
larvrn  of  the  Hessian  fly.  During  June,  1889,  Chinch  bugs  again  at- 
tacked the  plants  growing  on  these  plats,  and  the  grain  aphis  seriously 


68 


injured  the  later  sown  plats,  so  that  at  harvest,  July  5,  these  latter 
were  the  poorest  of  all,  the  other  three  averaging  about  alike.  All  of 
these  plats  during  both  years  had  been  sown  in  narrow  strips  among 
corn  along  one  side,  the  remainder  of  the  field  being  corn,  and  later 
also  sown  to  wheat,  thus  bringing  the  latest-sown  plats  between  those 
sown  earliest  and  the  entire  field  itself,  as  appeared  to  me,  the  severest 
test  to  which  I could  subject  the  several  plats.  The  results,  while  not 
conclusive  or  even  entirely  satisfactory,  indicate  that  in  that  latitude 
about  September  25  is,  generally  speaking,  a good  time  to  sow  wheat 
to  escape  fall  attacks  of  the  fly  and  winter  killing.  A series  of  plats 
sown  for  me  by  Mr.  Miles  Martin,  of  Marshall,  Parke  County,  Ind.,  in 
very  near  the  same  latitude  as  Kichmond,  but  nearer  the  western  border 
of  the  State,  gave  rather  more  conclusive  results,  the  sowings  of  Sep- 
tember 22  being  almost  entirely  exempt  from  the  attack  of  the  Hessian 
fly,  while  earlier  plats  were  infested. 

In  regard  to  my  own  experiments  here  on  the  Experiment  Station 
grounds  at  Lafayette,  1 may  state  that  I have  never  been  able  to  pro- 
voke a disastrous  attack  of  the  pest,  though  there  has  been  nothing  left 
undone  which  could  possibly  induce  the  adult  flies  to  oviposit  at  any 
time  between  March  and  December ; and  there  is  probably  not  a month 
between  these  dates  during  which  the  insect  could  not  have  been  found 
in  all  of  its  stages.  The  two  destructive  broods,  however,  invariably 
appear  in  May  and  September ; in  the  latter  case  usually  before  the 
20th. 

My  own  experimental  showings  were  rather  more  elaborate  and  ex- 
tensive than  those  of  any  of  my  correspondents,  comprising  a number 
of  varieties  and  extending  over  several  months.  Without  going  into 
details,  the  experiments  and  results  may  be  summarized  as  follows : 
1887,  plats  comprising  the  varieties  Michigan  Amber,  Clawson  and 
Velvet  Chaff,  each  one  width  of  a grain  drill  twenty  rods  in  length,  were 
sown  on  the  following  dates:  August  13,  27;  September  10,  24;  Octo- 
ber 8,  27 ; November  5,  19.  The  autumn  was  very  dry,  and  the  plants 
of  the  first  six  plats  went  into  winter  in  poor  condition,  being  very 
small,  while  the  last  two  sowings  did  not  come  up  until  the  following 
spring.  The  severe  winter  destroyed  the  plants  so  generally,  that  only 
the  first  three  produced  sufficient  grain  to  pay  for  harvesting.  These 
were  also  the  only  ones  to  suffer  from  the  fall  attack  of  the  fly,  the  first 
producing  adults  October  1.  Plat  8 was  attacked  on  the  following  June, 
and  on  the  26th  was  badly  infested  with  young  larvae,  full-grown  larvae 
and  puparia,  the  latter,  the  most  numerous,  were  found  on  the  16th  of 
July.  The  plats  harvested  produced  a poor  crop,  but  the  Michigan 
Amber  ranked  first,  Velvet  Chaff  second,  and  Clawson  the  poorest  of  all. 


69 


The  condition  of  the  Hessian  fly  in  these  three  plats,  at  the  time  of 
harvest,  July  10,  1888,  may  be  inferred  from  the  result  of  examinations 


made  on  this  date. 

Empty  flaxseeds 15 

Containing  healthy  pupie  or  parasites 69 

Larvae 16 


Total v~  100 

August  3,  the  state  of  the  insect  in  these  same  plats  was  as  follows  : 

Empty  flaxseeds 53 

Containing  healthy  pupae  and  parasites 47 


Total 100 

The  condition  of  the  insect  on  September  1,  as  shown  by  examination 
of  the  stubble,  is  indicated  below : 

Empty  flaxseeds 55 

Healthy  flaxseeds s. 28 

Parasitized  flaxseeds 17 


Total 100 

Notwithstanding  the  percent  of  healthy  puparia  passing  the  summer 
was  small,  there  is  little  probability  that  many  adult  flies  emerged. 
A plat  of  the  same  dimensions  was  sown  July  16,  along  one  side  of  the 
first  three  sown  the  previous  fall,  the  plants  of  this  last  sowing  coming 
up  ten  days  later.  This  plat  was  closely  watched.  After  July  17  only 
an  occasional  larva  was  found.  By  August  4 plants  had  been  de- 
stroyed by  the  combined  influences  of  chinch  bugs  and  dry  weather, 
but  a second  plat  has  been  sown  adjoining,  and  the  plants  of  this  ap- 
peared above  ground  on  August  6.  On  September  4,  200  plants  were 
examined  and  but  two  larvae  were  found  thereon.  A second  examina- 
tion of  the  same  number  of  plants  from  this  plat,  on  September  15,  re- 
vealed a small  number  of  young  larvae.  A third  examination  of  this 
plat  on  October  6 showed  about  1 per  cent  of  the  plants  to  be  infested. 
Stubble  from  the  three  original  plats,  kept  in  breeding  cages,  out  of  doors, 
did  not  give  adults  until  the  17th  of  September,  although  it  is  quite 
probable  that  some  few  were  abroad  before  that  date.  It  will  be  seen, 
however,  that  no  great  number  could  have  emerged  from  the  stubble, 
and  the  increase  in  the  number  of  empty  flaxseeds  between  July  10  and 
September  1 is  doubtless  to  be  attributed  to  parasites.  This  appears  all 
the  more  probable,  as  I have  repeatedly  observed  these  parasites 
during  July  and  August  emerge  in  breeding  cages,  and  at  once  begin 
to  oviposit  in  flaxseed  in  the  stubble  from  which  they  had  themselves 
emerged.  The  percentage  of  healthy  puparia  reaching  September  in 
safety,  however,  was  probably  unusally  small,  as  experiments  on  the 
same  ground  the  following  year  did  not  suffer  near  so  much  from  either 
fall  or  spring  attacks.  Another  feature  of  these  experiments  is,  that 
it  strongly  indicates  that  the  larger  per  cent  of  the  parasites  emerge 
prior  to  the  1st  of  August.  Indeed,  stubble  from  the  entire  length  of 


70 


the  State,  collected  in  June  and  placed  in  breeding  out  of  doors  here 
at  La  Fayette,  lias  indicated  the  truth  of  this. 

The  sowings  of  1888  were  made  on  August  30,  September  18,  October 
3,  6.  Of  these,  only  the  first  sown  were  attacked  in  the  fall,  that  sown 
on  September  18  being  in  the  best  condition  the  following  July.  Dur- 
ing May,  1889,  the  plants  of  these  plats  were  found  to  be  much  less 
infested  than  some  fields  a considerable  distance  away,  although  such 
fields  had  been  sown  on  oats  stubble,  while  the  ground  on  which  my 
experiments  were  located  was  the  same  that  had  been  used  for  this 
purpose  the  previous  year. 

The  sowings  of  1889  were  continued  on  the  same  grounds,  the  plats 
being  sown  September  3-20,  October  4-18,  November  4.  The  autumn 
attack  was  the  most  severe  on  the  first  plat,  but  the  extremely  mild  fall 
and  winter  was  so  favorable  to  the  development  of  the  flies  that  the 
spring  attack  was  unusually  severe,  and  appeared  to  fall  upon  the 
three  earlier  sown  plats  with  about  equal  force.  The  later  sown  plats, 
though  the  plants  were  much  the  younger,  did  not  suffer  so  much,  but 
these  were  very  seriously  affected  by  the  weather  during  early  spring. 

These  experiments  appeared  to  indicate  that,  in  this  latitude,  while 
wheat  sown  as  early  as  the  last  of  August  may  under  favorable  con- 
ditions and  during  particular  seasons  produce  as  good  or  even  a bet- 
ter crop  than  when  sown  at  a later  date,  yet  such  cases  are  the  ex- 
ception and  not  the  rule ; but  that  wheat  sown  as  soon  as  possible 
after  the  20th  of  September  stands  the  best  chance  of  evading  the  at- 
tacks of  the  fly  and  withstanding  the  unfavorable  weather,  the  regular 
operations  of  the  University  farm  during  the  last  seven  years  certainly 
substantiate.  It  is  the  custom  with  the  experiment  farm,  each  year, 
to  sow  the  regular  field  crop  at  this  time,  and  in  no  case  has  severe 
injury  been  sustained  from  attacks  of  the  Hessian  fly.  Fields  on  ad- 
joining farms  sown  at  earlier  dates  have  frequently  been  seriously  in- 
jured, although  this  has  not  invariably  followed. 

Another  series  of  experimental  sowings  was  carried  on  for  me  by  Hon. 
W.  A.  Banks,  near  La  Porte,  Ind.,  about  latitude  41°  35'.  The  first 
series  of  these  sowings  was  begun  in  August  of  1887.  The  sowings  of 
1888  were  not  carried  on  under  Mr.  Banks’s  immediate  supervision,  and 
were  of  little  value.  No  experiments  were  made  in  1889,  but  a well 
planned  and  carefully  executed  series  were  sown  in  the  fall  of  1890, 
The  series  of  1887,  each  of  which  comprised  two  widths  of  a grain  drill, 
extended  along  one  side  of  the  field  about  60  rods  in  length,  the  first 
of  which  was  sown  on  August  13,  the  plants  appearing  above  ground 
within  a few  days.  The  second  sowing  was  on  August  23,  a third  on 
September  2,  the  fourth  September  12,  the  fifth  September  22,  the 
sixth  and  last  on  October  7.  These  plats  were  visited  by  me  on  Octo- 
ber 14,  and  their  condition  found  to  be  as  follows:  The  first  was  found 
to  be  infested  by  great  numbers  of  larvae  and  puparia,  some  of  the 
shells  of  the  latter  being  empty,  and  the  plants  were  seriously  dam- 


71 


aged.  The  second  plat  was  even  worse  injured  than  the  first,  and  the 
third  much  worse  than  either  of  the  others.  The  fourth  appeared  to  be 
almost  as  badly  infested  as  the  third,  but  it  had  only  partly  tillered, 
and  hence  there  was  a better  prospect  for  it  to  throw  up  unaffected 
shoots.  The  fifth  had  not  tillered,  and  was  only  very  slightly  infested, 
with  very  young  larvrn,  while  the  sixth  was  not  yet  up. 

On  April  12, 1888,  the  plats  were  visited  again.  About  25  per  cent 
of  the  plants  on  the  first  three  plats  appeared  to  have  survived.  The 
fourth  was  apparently  50  per  cent  better,  the  fifth  was  in  almost 
as  good  shape  as  the  fourth,  while  the  sixth  was  backward,  the  plants 
being  small  and  thin  on  the  ground. 

The  estimate  yield,  made  by  Mr.  Banks  at  time  of  harvest,  on 
the  basis  of  20  bushels  per  acre  as  an  average  yield,  was  as  follows : 
First  plat,  50  per  cent;  second,  50  per  cent ; third,  65  per  cent ; fourth, 
90  per  cent;  fifth,  70  percent.  The  remainder  of  the  field  was  sown 
on  September  2,  and  shared  in  the  destruction  in  common  with  plat 
3.  Another  field  at  some  distance  from  this  was  sown  about  Septem- 
ber 20  and  sustained  no  material  injury. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  first  three  plats  were  sown  almost  at  the 
same  time  as  the  first  three  at  La  Fayette,  yet  stubble  from  the  first 
three  plats  at  La  Porte,  collected  on  September  2 and  placed  in  a breed- 
ing cage  beside  another  containing  stubble  from  the  first  three  at  La 
Fayette,  gave  adult  flies  nearly  a week  earlier.  In  other  words,  the 
majority  of  the  adults  from  Mr.  Banks’s  plats  emerged  prior  to  Septem- 
ber 15,  while  those  from  my  own  did  not  reach  their  maximum  num- 
bers until  after  the  15th,  and  from  then  on  till  the  25th.  In  both 
cases,  however,  a few  stragglers  emerged  occasionally  until  early  in 
October.  As  previously  stated,  the  plats  of  1888  were  not  properly 
sown,  Mr.  Banks  not  being  able  to  attend  to  them  himself;  but  a visit 
to  the  locality  on  November  8 revealed  but  very  little  injury  to  wheat 
which  had  been  sown  after  the  middle  of  September. 

The  experiment  plats  of  1890  were  sown  September  1,  10,  "20,  30. 
These  were  examined  late  in  October  and  fully  substantiated  the  ex- 
periments of  previous  years.  The  sowing  of  September  1 was  consid- 
erably injured,  while  that  of  the  10th  was  very  seriously  affected,  as 
was  also  a large  field  adjoining  sown  but  a day  or  two  later.  The  sow- 
ing of  September  20  was  comparatively  free  from  attack,  while  that 
sown  September  30  appeared  to  have  almost  entirely  escaped  injury. 

The  sixth  and  last  series  of  experiments  were  made  for  me  by  Hon. 
J.  N.  Latta,  at  Haw  Patch,  Lagrange  County,  in  about  the  same  lati- 
tude as  La  Porte.  The  sowings  were  made  in  1887,  the  first  being 
drilled  on  July  28,  but  owing  to  drought  the  plants  did  not  appear 
above  ground  until  about  the  28th  of  August.  The  second  plat  was 
sown  on  August  15,  but  came  up  the  same  time  as  the  first ; the  third, 
sown  September  1,  came  up  September  6;  the  fourth,  sown  September 
12,  came  up  September  21 ; the  fifth,  sown  September  24,  came  up  the 


72 


28;  while  tlie  sixth  and  last  was  sown  October  12,  and.  did  not  come 
up  until  about  the  20th.  These  plats  were  examined  by  me  on  Octo- 
ber 17 ; the  first  three  and  the  last  sown  were  very  poor,  the  fourth 
and  fifth  promising  a fair  yield.  A field  adjoining,  sown  on  the  same 
day  as  plat  5,  did  not  suffer  from  the  fly  and  produced  nearly  an  aver- 
age yield  of  20  bushels  per  acre. 

The  results  of  these  meager  experiments  have,  as  a rule,  proven 
correct  in  the  fields  of  the  farmers.  I have  not  only  observed  this 
myself,  but  it  has  become  well  known  in  the  locality  that  wheat  sown 
before  September  15  and  after  the  30th  of  the  same  month  seldom  pro- 
duces a good  crop,  while  that  sown  between  the  15th  and  the  25th  is 
the  most  likely  to  escape  the  attack  of  the  Hessian  fly,  and,  as  a general 
thing  winters,  as  well  as  that  sown  earlier. 

In  summing  up  the  results  of  this  entire  system  of  experiments,  it 
seems  that  while  no  exact  date  can  be  laid  down  for  the  appearing  of 
the  fall  brood  of  fly  in  any  precise  locality,  there  is,  notwithstanding, 
a gradual  delay  in  its  appearance  as  we  go  from  the  north  southward. 
In  other- words,  there  is  here  a characteristic  element  in  the  life  history 
of  the  species  which  may  be  utilized  by  the  farmer  to  his  advantage. 
Fruit-growers,  I believe,  estimate  that  in  spring  the  season  advances 
northward  at  the  rate  of  about  12  miles  per  day.  This  would  be  a 
trifle  less  than  6 days  per  degree  of  latitude.  If  farmers  in  extreme 
northern  Indiana  and  southern  Michigan  can  sow  their  wheat  with 
safety  about  the  12th  to  the  15th  of  September  (and  we  have  demon- 
strated that  the  fall  brood  emerges  largely  prior  to  the  15th),  and 
farmers  in  extreme  southern  Indiana  must  delay  sowing  until  after  the 
first  days  of  October,  there  must  be  a general  system  of  retardation, 
which,  if  understood,  may  be  used  to  advantage  throughout  the  inter- 
vening territory. 

Starting  in  southern  Michigan  on  the  12th  to  15th  and  passing  4 
degrees  south  to  the  vicinity  of  Evansville,  Ind.,  we  should  expect 
about  the  same  condition  of  the  Hessian  fly  during  the  first  week  of 
October.  That  is,  if  we  pass  the  danger  line  about  the  second  week 
of  September  in  southern  Michigan,  we  should  expect  to  encounter  it 
again  in  southern  Indiana  in  the  first  or  second  week  of  October.  A 
considerable  correspondence  and  my  own  experiments  indicate  that 
this  is  usually  true.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed,  however,  that  it  is 
possible  for  me  to  give  precise  dates  for  given  localities,  as  there  is 
another  element  which  is  likely  to  figure  in  these  calculations,  viz,  ele- 
vation. It  has  been  stated  upon  reliable  authority  that  “ an  elevation 
of  350  feet  is  equal  to  1 degree  of  cold  in  the  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture, or  GO  miles  on  the  surface  northward.”  * While  we  can  hardly 
expect  this  to  influence  comparatively  level  countries  like  the  State  of 
Indiana  at  least  to  any  marked  degree,  extensive  areas  of  high  table- 

* Draper’s  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,  Harper  Bros.,  New  York,  revised 
edition,  vol.  1,  p.  29. 


73 


lands  would  be  apt  to  show  its  effect  more  distinctly.  There  may  also 
be  some  obscure  influence  peculiar  to  the  natures  of  the  different  soils. 

It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  the  experiments  have  fallen  far  short 
of  settling*  the  whole  problem,  yet  it  seems  to  me  that  they  have  been 
carried  as  far  as  profitable,  and  the  matter  is  now  in  p roper  state  to  be 
taken  up  by  the  intelligent  farmer,  whose  experimental  plats  are  his 
fields.  And  it  may  be  added  that  this  is  done  with  a feeling  on  my  part 
that  whatever  of  truth  there  may  be  iu  the  matter  will  stand  as  a nu- 
cleus about  which  others  may  build,  while  whatever  there  may  be  of 
error  will  as  surely  disappear. 

THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  LARVAE  ON  THE  PLANTS. 

The  effect  of  the  larvae,  especially  on  the  young  plants,  does  not  ap- 
pear to  be  generally  understood,  and  I have  myself  been  able  to  verify 
either  the  figures  or  descriptions  of  Fitch  and  Packard  only  in  excep- 
tional cases.  The  swollen  bulb  just  above  the  roots  in  Fitch’s  figures 
gives  but  a vague  idea  of  the  true  appearance,  while  Packard’s  figure 
represents  plants  which  have  very  evidently  sprung  from  seeds  only 
slightly  covered  by  the  soil.  Besides,  the  former  figure  only  represents 
the  condition  of  the  plants  long  after  the  larvae  have  done  their  work, 
and  the  latter,  aside  from  the  shoot  being  shorter,  gives  no  idea  of  the 
appearance  of  an  infested  stem,  as  found  in  nature,  growing  in  the  fields. 
The  yellow  color  of  the  foliage — there  is  usually  more  brown  than  yellow 
about  it — appears  later,  after  the  larvae  are  full-fed,  and  then  it  is  largely, 
at  least,  confined  to  the  younger  leaves,  the  older  ones,  under  whose 
sheaths  the  larvae  occur,  are  killed  by  the  freezing  weather  of  winter.  In 
Circular  No.  2 of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of  Purdue  Uni- 
versity I have  given  a representation  of  an  infested  plant  fresh  from  the 
field  drawn  from  nature.  The  plant  had  been  attacked  soon  after  its  ap- 
pearance above  ground  and  had  not  tillered.  The  leaves  under  these 
conditions  are  broader,  darker  green,  more  vertical  and  bunchy.  The 
youngest  leaf  on  a healthy  plant  as  it  unfolds  and  pushes  upward  is  of 
a tubular  form  and  spindle-shaped,  somewhat  as  represented  in  Pack- 
ard’s figure  of  a healthy  plant.  In  the  case  of  an  affected  plant,  the 
stem  having  been  destroyed  below  ground,  the  spindle-shaped  central 
leaf  is  always  absent.  The  difference  between  a healthy  and  infested 
plant  is  shown  by  a comparison  of  figures.  If  a plant  has  already  till- 
ered, each  of  the  identical  laterals,  as  they  are  attacked,  will  begin  to 
take  on  the  form  and  color  above  described.  It  is,  therefore,  not  only 
possible  to  detect  an  infected  plant  without  removing  it  from  the 
ground,  but  also  to  determine  the  individual  tiller  infested.  Now,  while 
this  feature  of  infested  plants  is  so  very  clearly  marked,  at  least  after 
the  larvae  are  one-third  grown,  and  from  an  economic  standpoint  of  so 
much  importance  that  it  is  surprising  that  it  should  have  been  over- 
looked, yet  I can  fiot  myself  lay  claim  to  the  fact  by  right  of  discovery, 
as  it  was  pointed  out  to  me  by  a farmer  in  the  autumn  of  1881,  and  was 


-74 


tlie  outcome  of  circular  No.  1,  issued  in  October,  1884,  from  Purdue 
University.  It  was  only  after  testing  the  stability  of  this  feature  in 
various  fields,  under  widely  different  conditions,  that  I placed  full 
reliance  upon  its  permanency.  An  illustrated  circular  of  inquiry,  No.  2, 
issued  by  myself  from  Purdue  University  during  the  fall  of  1887, 
brought  also  a great  number  of  replies,  from  among  which  I have 
selected  the  two  following,  because  of  their  widely  separated  localities 
and  the  well-known  ability  of  the  writers: 


Clyde,  N.  Y.,  December  9,  1887. 

Dear  Sir:  In  regard  to  the  appearance  of  wheat  plants  infested  with  Hessian  fly, 
and  as  illustrated  and  explained  by  Fig.  3 of  circular,  I believe  that  it  is  correct  in  the 
main,  especially  the  darker  color  possessed  by  infected  plants  over  healthy  plants, 
and  this  is,  as  you  say,  quite  different  from  the  information  given  by  Fitch  and  Pack- 
ard ; and  you  have  published  this  quite  constant  and  true  form  and  condition  for  the 
first  time,  I believe.  I had  noticed  this  somewhat  a year  ago,  and  in  bringing  up  the 
destruction  done  by  the  Hessian  fly  in  a Grange  meeting,  I found  that  a number  of 
farmers  reported  this  very  condition,  viz:  when  fields  or  parts  of  fields  looked  extra 
dark  colored  and  healthy,  damage  from  the  fly  was  to  be  apprehended  there.  Still, 
the  yellow  color  came  after  a while,  especially  with  early-sown  winter  wheat  in  a 
long  autumn  or  the  following  spring.  I think  the  spring  brood  are  apt  to  select 
tillers. 

Truly, 

W.  L.  Devereaux. 


Prof.  F.  M.  Webster, 

La  Fayette , Ind. 


University  of  California,  College  of  Agriculture, 

Berkeley,  December  15,  1887. 

Dear  Sir:  Your  favor  of  November  28,  with  circular  relating  to  appearance  of 
grain  infested  with  Hessian  fly,  received.  The  appearances  you  describe  are  quite 
characteristic  of  fly-infested  grain  here,  but  it  is  not  seen  in  the  fall,  for  we  do  not  have 
any  grain  above  ground  at  that  time.  The  districts  in  which  the  fly  is  found  in  this 
State  are  of  narrow  area  comparatively  near  the  coast.  In  these  parts  it  is  not  usual 
to  sow  grain  until  after  the  winter  rains  have  wet  the  ground  enough  for  plowing, 
and  sowing  can  some  years  be  made  as  late  as  the  last  of  February,  and  still  do  well. 
It  is  better,  however,  both  for  the  growth  of  the  grain  and  baffling  of  the  fly,  to  sow 
in  January  if  the  soil  is  in  proper  condition.  For  these  reasons  we  do  not  find  the 
flaxseeds  until  about  the  first  of  March,  and  then  it  is  that  the  grain  assumes  the  fea- 
ture you  describe.  It  is  a very  bunchy  growth,  with  very  few  yellow  leaves  and  ex- 
ceedingly few  seed  stems  thrown  out.  On  some  of  our  plats  there  will  not  be  a single 
stem,  but  the  grain  will  remain  bunchy  and  low  for  weeks,  and  then  will  turn  yellow 
and  die  as  the  dry  season  comes  on.  On  other  plats  there  will  be  a seed  stem  thrown 
out  here  and  there,  and  a few  heads  will  ripen. 

Such  is  my  recollection  of  the  appearance  of  past  crops.  We  do  not  intend  to  sow 
wheat  and  barley  this  year  on  our  fly-infested  ground,  but  the  pest  may  follow  our 
sowing  on  another  part  of  the  grounds,  and  if  it  will  be  of  interest  to  you,  I will 
watch  the  plants  and  send  you  specimens. 

Yours  very  truly, 


Prof.  F.  M.  Webster. 


E.  J.  Wickson. 


75 


If  the  soil  is  rich  and  the  plants  are  attacked  before  they  have  til- 
lered, these  last  will  be  thrown  ont  from  the  roots  which  are  not 
injured.  These,  if  the  fall  be  very  favorable,  and  the  winter  does  not 
commence  too  early,  will  often  winter  through  and  produce  stem  bear- 
ing heads  the  following  harvest.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  autumn  be 
dry,  or  the  ground  be  frozen  early  in  the  season,  the  crop  will  probably 
prove  a failure.  This  is  the  reason  why  some  fields  will  present  a much 
better  appearance  the  following  June,  and  give  a much  better  yield 
than  could  have  been  anticipated  from  appearances  during  the  fall.  The 
practical  value  of  knowing  how  to  detect  the  infested  plants  readily 
is  in  that  the  destruction  may  be  observed  and  the  damage  estimated 
long  before  the  foliage  turns  brown  or  yellow,  and  the  fields  be  plowed 
up  and  resown  or  allowed  to  remain,  as  the  owner  judges  best.  If  re- 
sown, it  would  seem  best  to  replow  also.  Mr.  W.  A.  Oliphant,  of  Pike 
County,  southern  Indiana,  writing  me  in  the  fall  of  1884,  in  reply  to 
circular  No.  1,  stated  that  of  300  acres  he  had  resown  200  acres  after  re- 
plowing, and  100  acres  without  plowing.  The  first  yielded  him  27 J and 
the  last  11  bushels  per  acre. 

The  popular  notion  in  regard  to  the  effect  of  larvae  on  the  straw  is, 
so  far  as  I know,  usually  correct.  This  year,  however,  has  been  an  ex- 
ception, at  least  so  far  as  southern  and  central  Indiana  is  concerned. 
As  far  north  at  least  as  La  Fayette  the  larvae  of  the  spring  brood  were 
located  just  above  the  roots,  and  the  straw  did  not  break  at  the  lower 
joints,  as  is  usually  the  case,  but  either  fell  or  was  blown  over  from  the 
roots,  the  culm  usually  being  uninjured  elsewhere.  I observed  this  to 
a very  limited  extent  at  Oxford,  Indiana,  in  1881.  In  fields  about  La 
Porte,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State,  none  of  this  lower  attack  of 
the  plant  was  noticed,  the  larvae  and  later  the  puparia  being  invariably 
found  just  above  some  of  the  lower  joints.  Mr.  James  Fletcher,  Do- 
minion entomologist  of  Canada,  reported  at  the  meeting  of  the  En- 
tomological Club  of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement 
of  Science  at  Indianapolis  that  the  wheat  about  Ottawa,  Canada,  had 
this  year  suffered  from  the  attacks  of  larvae  of  the  spring  brood  in  pre- 
cisely the  same  manner  as  I had  observed  at  La  Fayette  and  south- 
ward. Quite  a percentage  of  the  pupae  in  the  fields  about  La  Porte 
were  located  so  high  up  the  stem  as  to  render  it  probable  that  they 
would  be  carried  away  with  the  straw.  As  yet  I have  not  found  a good 
reason  for  this  difference,  but  have  a vague  idea  that  the  killing  down 
of  the  plants  during  the  preceding  March  might  have  had  something 
to  do  with  it,  as  this  was  less  severe  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State. 

THE  EFEECT  OF  THE  WEATHER  ON  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  FALL  BROOD. 

It  is  quite  probable  that  some  autumns  are  more  favorable  for  the  development  of 
the  insect  than  others,  but  just  what  the  favorable  influences  are  is  not  well  under- 
stood. Mr.  Ratliff,  at  Richmond,  saw  an  adult  emerge  from  the  pupa  on  October  L6; 
the  wheat  which  it  infested  appeared  above  ground  on  September  4.  Between  these 


76 


two  dates,  Mr.  Ratliff’s  notes  give  tlie  following  record  of  minimum  temperatures 
through  which  the  insect  must  have  necessarily  passed. 


September  23  (frost) 26° 

October  6 (light  frost)  26° 

October  11  (light  frost) 34° 

October  12  (light  frost) 26° 

October  14  (heavy  frost) 24° 

October  15  (frost) 26° 

October  16  (light  frost) 29° 


Rains  on  September  11,  26,  October  10.  Total  precipitation  during  September  and 
October,  2.50  inches. 

At  La  Fayette,  the  same  year,  I found  adults  ovipositing  on  November  3,  but  of  the 
origin  of  these  flies  of  course  nothing  was  known.  The  temperature  through  which 
these  must  have  passed,  supposing  the  eggs  from  which  they  evolved  were  deposited 
after  September  1,  was  as  follows  : 

Min.  temp. 


September  23  39° 

September 24  (first  frost) 29° 

October  11 39° 

October  12  (frost) 29° 

October  14  (frost) „ 33° 

October  15  (frost) 31° 

October  16 38° 

October  19  (frost)  31° 

October  20  (light  snow) 37° 

October  21 29° 

October  22  21° 

October  25  (frost) 19° 

October  26  (frost) 21° 

October  27  (frost) 21o 

October  28  (frost) - 28° 

October  29 „ 33° 

October  30  (frost) 19° 

October  31 28° 

November  1 (frost) 28° 

November  2 (frost) 36° 

November  3 (frost) 32° 


Rains  on  September  7,  13,  14,  22,  27,  28,  29,  30,  October  3,  9,  10,  12, 
23.  Total  rainfall,  4.G4  inches. 

From  this  it  will  be  observed  that  the  adult  flies  may  emerge  and 
oviposit  under  what  we  suppose  to  be  very  adverse  circumstances.  To 
what  extent  the  eggs  and  young  larvrn  are  able  to  withstand  such 
weather  I have  no  facilities  at  present  for  demonstrating.  The  major 
portion  of  the  small  brood  of  flies,  however,  emerge  during  a more 
favorable  period,  and  for  meteorological  aid  against  these  we  can  only 
look  to  the  dry,  hot  weather  of  July  and  August,  though  to  the  south 
a portion  of  September  might  be  included.  But  the  straggling  indi- 
viduals, which,  as  I have  proved,  may  originate  from  stubble,  volunteer, 
or  even  early  sown  grain,  and  which  I myself  can  find  no  satisfactory 
reason  for  not  considering  either  the  retarded  or  accelerated  individuals 
of  either  one  or  the  other  or  both  broods,  have  it  in  their  power  to  repro- 
duce a considerable  progeny,  which,  though  of  themselves  not  a serious 


77 


menace  to  the  crop,  yet,  added  to  that  of  the  remainder  of  the  brood, 
greatly  increase  the  probabilities  of  serious  damage.  For  these  a long, 
mild  autumn,  extending  into  December,  would  appear  to  be  exceedingly 
favorable,  as  it  would  enable  their  progeny  to  enter  winter  in  a com- 
paratively hardy  state,  and  probably  produce  late  appearing  larvm 
the  following  year  simultaneously  with  or  but  little  in  advance  of  the 
progeny  of  the  earlier  appearing  adults  of  spring.  In  other  words,  the 
one  winters  as  advanced  puparia  or  unemerged  adults,  the  other  as  ad- 
vanced larvae  or  newly  formed  puparia.  It  thus  appears  that  while  the 
autumn  usually  has  little  effect  on  the  major  portion  of  the  fall  brood, 
a mild  October  and  November  may  emphasize  the  destructiveness  of 
the  pest.  So  far  as  observed  by  me,  a damp  spring,  even  though  a 
cold  one,  is  also  favorable  to  the  development  of  the  insect,  while  dry, 
hot  summers  are  as  unfavorable,  and  cause  serious  mortality  to  the 
earlier  stages  of  the  fall  brood  of  adults. 

PREVENTIVE  MEASURES. 

These  may  be  noticed  as  follows:  Sowing  at  the  proper  time ; burn- 
ing the  stubble  5 rotation  of  crops ; sowing  long,  narrow  plats  in  late 
summer  as  baits;  applying  quick-acting  fertilizers  to  seriously  infested 
fields  in  the  fall  in  order  to  encourage  attacked  plants  to  throw  up  fresh 
tillers,  and  to  increase  the  vigor  of  these  that  they  may  make  sufficient 
growth  to  withstand  the  winter. 

None  of  the  measures  are  original  with  me,  and  in  fact  the  most  of 
them  are  as  old  as  the  history  of  the  species  itself.  There  is  certainly 
much  to  be  gained  by  the  farmer  in  timing  his  sowing  so  as  to  avoid 
the  larger  part  of  the  fall  injury,  and  if  all  farmers  of  a neighborhood 
would  sow  about  the  same  time  even  a serious  outbreak  would  be  so 
diffused  as  to  lessen  its  injury. 

The  burning  of  the  stubble  after  harvest,  when  it  is  practical  to  do 
so,  is  usually  recommended  by  the  majority  of  writers.  The  plan  is 
criticised  by  some  authors  on  the  plea  that  the  parasites  are  also  de- 
stroyed, which,  if  allowed  to  continue,  would  themselves  overcome  the 
fly.  This  idea  has  always  appeared  to  me  to  be  both  theoretically  and 
practically  wrong.  If  only  the  normal  number  of  wheat  plants  allowed 
by  nature  to  spring  up  under  a perfectly  natural  environment  were  pro- 
duced, then  the  theory  would  be  correct,  because  nature  would  then  be 
working  out  her  plans  from  the  beginning.  As  the  facts  exist  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  plants  are  produced  where  nature  intended  but  one. 
Her  domain  is  invaded  and  her  law  defied  at  the  beginning.  The  Hes- 
sian Fly  is  itself  a parasite,  the  wheat  plant  being  its  host,  and  what  we 
term  its  parasites  are  practically  only  secondaries.  In  the  Hessian  Fly 
nature  has  an  efficient  servant  in  controlling  the  wheat  plant,  and  the 
parasites  of  the  former  seem  to  be  on  guard  to  see  that  the  duty  is  not 
overdone.  Now  we  outrage  nature  and  expect  that  she  will  uphold  us 
by  destroying  these  servants  and  permitting  the  indignity  to  go  on. 


78 


With  this  state  of  affairs  the  American  farmer  has  found  that  the  Hes- 
sian Fly  will  be  overcome  by  its  parasites  only  temporarily,  and  then  at 
the  expense  of  a larger  per  cent  of  at  least  one  crop.  By  burning  the 
stubble  we  destroy  all  of  the  pest  and  also  numerous  other  enemies 
which  are  to  be  found  in  the  fields  at  the  time.  The  present  season, 
however,  many  of  the  flaxseeds  were  so  situated  that  it  is  doubtful  if 
enough  heat  would  have  reached  them  to  have  destroyed  them. 

In  a rotation  of  crop  the  adults  are  obliged  to  travel  about  in  search 
of  the  fields,  and  there  is  a greater  chance  of  their  being  destroyed  while 
thus  engaged.  This,  however,  has  its  exceptions,  as  we  observed  at  New 
Castle,  about  30  miles  northwest  of  Richmond,  Indiana,  on  November  17, 
1888.  The  whole  field  had  been  sown  in  standing  corn,  a portion  of  it 
about  the  5th  of  September  and  the  remainder  considerably  later.  The 
early  sown  portion  had  been  seriously  attacked  and  at  least  85  per  cent 
destroyed;  the  later  sown  portion  was  only  slightly  injured,  as  was  late 
sown  wheat  generally  in  the  community.  Here  at  the  Indiana  Experi- 
ment Station  the  plan  of  rotation  is  as  follows  : Corn  one  year,  followed 
by  oats  one  year,  wheat  one  year,  clover  and  grass  two  years.  The 
wheat  fields  are  never  seriously  affected  by  the  ravages  of  the  Hessian 
Ely. 

Sowing  narrow  strips  about  the  fields,  early  in  the  fall,  as  decoys,  was 
long  ago  strongly  advocated  by  Dr.  Fitch,  but  the  advice  has  been,  so 
far  as  I have  observed,  totally  ignored  by  the  farmer.  While  it  is 
hardly  possible  to  thus  entrap  the  major  part  of  the  fall  brood  of  larvae, 
it  is  certainly  possible  to  entice  to  these  plats  the  stragglers  and  inter- 
lopers, which  we  have  shown  to  be  capable  of  considerable  injury.  In 
this  way  the  farmer  can,  in  a measure,  continue  the  influences  of  sum- 
mer and  winter  in  sharply  separating  and  defining  the  two  broods.  In 
other  words,  while  he  can  not  eradicate  the  pest  in  this  way,  he  can 
weaken  its  power  to  commit  serious  injury.  It  is  very  doubtful  if  the 
volunteer  wheat,  springing  up  after  the  wheat  has  been  plowed,  can  be 
used  as  decoys,  and  if  allowed  to  stand  until  the  date  of  sowing  the 
fields,  these  volunteer  plants  should,  by  all  means,  be  plowed  under 
as  deeply  as  practicable,  or  grazed  off*  by  pasturing.  Simply  killing 
the  plants  will  not  do,  as  has  been  illustrated  by  the  experience  of  Mr. 
Oliphant,  previously  cited,  and  by  the  observations  of  Professor  Forbes 
in  Illinois.*  If  volunteer  wheat  is  allowed  to  stand  at  all,  it  should  not 
be  for  over  a fortnight.  The  proper  time  for  sowing  these  decoys  will 
probably  vary  with  the  latitude.  For  northern  Indiana  they  should  be 
sown  during  the  latter  part  of  August,  and  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
State  not  later  than  the  first  week  in  September.  To  the  north  and 
south  of  this  I have,  as  previously  stated,  no  definite  information  as 
to  the  date  of  appearance  of  the  fall  brood  of  flies,  and  hence  can  not 
undertake  to  settle  the  date  of  sowing.  These  decoys  should  not  be 
permitted  to  stand  over  four  weeks  at  the  farthest,  and  should  b eploiced 

* Bulletin  3,  State  Ent.,  111.,  p.  48,  1887. 


79 


very  soon  after  the  crop  is  sown,  turning  the  infested  plants  under  and 
thoroughly  covering  them.  Simple  cultivation,  whereby  the  plants 
are  only  killed,  would  probably  only  destroy  a portion  of  the  insects, 
the  full  grown  larva)  very  likely  going  through  the  remainder  of  their 
transformations. 

The  application  of  fertilizers  is,  I believe,  here  in  this  State  confined 
to  the  poorer  soils,  and  there  more  for  its  general  effect  on  the  crops 
than  as  against  the  effects  of  insects.  The  idea  in  late  sowing  is  to 
retard  the  plants  so  that  they  do  not  appear  until  after  the  greater  part 
of  the  fall  brood  of  flies  have  appeared  and  died,  then  to  overcome 
the  effect  of  this  delay  by  aiding  the  plants  to  make  the  greatest  possi- 
ble growth  before  winter  closes  in,  which  will  the  better  enable  them  to 
withstand  its  rigors.  In  this  direction,  it  would  seem  that  the  applica- 
tion of  proper  commercial  fertilizers  would  pay  by  the  effect  upon  the 
growing  plants,  even  though  the  land  itself  was  not  in  actual  want  of 
such  treatment.  The  application  to  a field  which  has  previously  been 
seriously  damaged,  with  a view  of  encouraging  the  throwing  out  of 
fresh  tillers,  is  for  practically  the  same  purpose;  and  if  there  is  a tend- 
ency to  throw  out  the  later  shoots  freely,  if  not  too  late  in  the  season, 
many  may  be  enabled  to  secure  sufficient  vigor  to  sustain  them  until 
spring.  Whether  it  would  be  more  profitable  to  plow  and  resow  than 
to  try  to  secure  a crop  from  the  infested  field  by  the  aid  of  fertilizers 
is,  of  course,  a question  which  each  farmer  must  decide  for  himself  in 
accordance  with  the  time  of  year  and  extent  of  injury  already  done. 

These  measures  are  all  of  them  practical  and  entail  little  if  any 
unusual  expense.  In  fact,  good  farming  presupposes  that  the  most  of 
them  will  be  carried  out  as  among  the  essential  elements  of  the  business. 
Where  clover  is  to  follow  wheat  it  of  course  precludes  the  burning  of 
stubble  or  the  destruction  of  volunteer  plants,  but  it  necessitates  the 
rotation  of  crop,  and  decoys  can  be  sown  and  the  seeding  delayed.  It 
is  hardly  possible  for  a farmer  to  become  so  situated  that  he  can  not 
carry  out  some  of  these  measures,  and  if  this  were  done  generally,  and 
every  year,  the  Hessian  fly  would,  in  all  probability,  become  of  so  little 
importance  that  it  would  cease  to  enter  seriously  into  the  problem  of 
successful  wheat  growing. 


INDEX 


Abbot’s  white  pine  worm,  CO. 

Acer  saccharin  urn,  10. 

Agallia  siceifolia  on  beet,  16. 

Agrotis,  46. 

spp.  injuring  beets,  14. 

Alfalfa  crops  injured  by  grasshoppers  and  army 
worm,  44. 

AUygns  sp.,  on  beet,  17. 

Ain  us,  42. 

Aloes  as  remedy  for  scale  insects,  36. 

Amarantns,  16, 17. 

Ambrosia,  14. 

trifida,  54. 

Ampbipyra  pyamidoides,  55. 

Anisota  rubicunda,  9. 

Aonidia  aurantii,  20. 

Aphides  found  on  beet,  17. 

Aphididae,  prevalence  of,  in  Missouri,  48. 
Aphidius,  48. 

Aphis  ambrosise,  54. 
atriplicis,  17. 
brasBicae,  54. 
chrysanthemi  ?,  54. 
cucumeris,  17. 
mali,  54. 
prunifolii,  54. 

Apion  sp.  on  beet,  16. 

Apple  leaf  skeletonizer,  59. 

Microlepidoptera  injurious  to,  51. 

Arabia,  47. 

Army  worm  damaging  beets,  14. 

attacking  alfalfa  crops,  44. 

Arphia  sordida,  59. 

Arsenites  of  ammonia,  experiments  with,  55,  61. 
Aspidiotus  aurantii,  19, 26,  29. 
citrinus,  29, 36. 
perniciosus,  26,  27,  28. 

Athysanus  (?  sp.)  on  beet,  17. 

Atriplex,  13, 15. 

Australian  lady-bird,  19. 

Beetles  injuring  beet  leaves,  list  of,  14. 

beet  roots,  list  of,  17. 

Beet  insects,  list  of,  13. 

remedies  against,  18. 

Black  chrysanthemum  aphis,  54. 
scab,  26,  28. 

Blissus  leucopterus  on  beet,  16. 

Blister  beetles  on  beets,  15. 

Botis  pesticata,  14. 

Brown  scale,  26. 

Bruner,  Lawrence,  report  by,  9. 

25910-Bull.  23 6 


Bugs  on  beet,  16. 

Caccecia  fervidana,  50. 

Caecilius  aurantiacus,  27. 

California  insects,  notes  on,  19,  37. 

Caloptenus  devastator,  44. 

Camnula  pellucida,  44. 

Canker  worms,  46. 

Cantharis  nuttalli  destructive  to  beets,  15. 
Ceanothus,  42,  43. 

Centrinus  penicillus  on  beet,  16. 

perscitus  on  beet,  16. 

Cercocarpus,  43. 

Cereal  crops,  report  on  insects  affecting,  63. 
Chaetocnema  denticulata,  15. 

pulicaria,  47. 

Chalcid  parasites  of  Clisiocampa,  43. 

Charaelea  angulata,  55. 

Chenopodium,  14, 15, 16, 17. 

Cherry  slug,  60. 

Chinch  bug,  16, 46. 

Chrysanthemum  Aphis,  54. 

Chrysopa,  48. 

Cidaria  diversilineata,  55. 

Citrus  trees  destroyed  by  red  scale,  19. 
Clisiocampa  californica,  43. 

constricta,  42, 43. 
erosa,  42. 
thoracica,  42. 
parasites  of,  43. 

Codling  moth,  9. 

Colaspis  brunnea  on  beets,  15. 

Coleoptera  attacking  beet  leaves,  14. 

beet  roots,  17. 

Colorado  potato-beetle  on  beet,  16. 

Conotrachelus,  47. 

Copidryas  gloveri,  14. 

Coquillett,  D.  W.,  report  by,  19. 

Com  ear-worm,  9. 
flea-beetle,  47. 
root- worm,  9,  60. 

Corrosive  sublimate  as  remedy  for  scale  insects,  34. 
Cottony  cushion  scale,  19. 

Crambus  exsiccatus,  58. 

| Crataegus,  42. 

I Cryptolechia  nubeculosa,  50. 

schlegerella,  50. 

Cut-worms  destructive  to  beets,  14. 

Cydonia,  45. 

Darapsa  myron,  55. 

Datana  angusii,  49. 

ministra,  49,  50,  55,  60,  62. 


81 


82 


Deilephila  linoata  feeding  on  beet  leaves,  14. 
Deltocephalus  debilis,  58. 

inimicns,  58. 
sayi,  58. 

melsheimeri,  58. 

Desmia  maculalis,  55. 

Devastating  locust,  44. 

Devereaux,  W.  L.,  letter,  74. 

Diabrotica,  55. 

longicornis,  9,  60. 

12-punetata,  14,  60. 
vittatu,  60. 

Disonycha  cervicaiis,  15. 

crenicollis,  15. 
triangularis,  14. 
xanthomelsena,  15. 

Dissosteira  Carolina,  14,  59. 

Dorypbora  10-lineata,  16, 55. 

Dried  Crambus,  58. 

Echinocystis  lobata,  16. 

Emblethis  arenarius,  16. 

Empretia  stimulea,  49,  55. 

Epicaerus  imbricatus  attacking  beet,  15. 

Epicauta  cinerea,  15. 

cinerea  var.  marginata,  15. 
maculata,  15. 
pennsylvanica,  15. 

Epitrix  cucumeris,  15. 

Eragrostis  major,  16. 

Erytbroneura  sp.  on  beet,  17. 

Euclea  querceti,  48, 49. 

Eurycreon  rantalis  destructive  to  beets,  14. 
Euthoctha  galeator  on  beet,  16. 

Experiments  for  scale  insects,  32. 

False  chincb  bug  on  beet,  16. 

Flea  beetles,  15, 47. 

Fluted  scale  insect,  19. 

Forsythia,  45. 

Fumigation  for  red  scale,  20. 

Garden  web-worm  injuring  beets,  14. 

Gas  treatment  for  red  scale,  20. 

Gelechia  intermediella?  description  of  larva  and  1 
imago,  53. 

roseosuffusella,  54. 
rubensella,  54. 

Geocoris  bullatus  on  beet,  16. 

Glue  as  remedy  for  scale  insects,  35. 

Gortyna  nitela,  46. 

Grain  Apbis,  47. 

Grasshoppers,  10,  44. 

Green-striped  maple  worm,  10. 

Hadena,  46. 

Handmaid  moth,  60,  62. 

Helianthus,  14. 

Heliothis  armigera,  9,  46,  55. 

Hemiptera  attacking  beet,  16, 17. 

Hessian  fly,  n umber  and  development  of  broods,  63. 
effect  of  larvae  on  plants,  73. 
effect  of  weather  on  development  of 
fall  brood,  76. 

preventive  measures  against,  77. 
Heteroptera  attacking  beet,  16. 

Hibiscus  militaris,  15. 

Homoptera  attacking  beet,  16. 

Hydrocyanic  acid  gas  as  remedy  for  red  scale,  19,20. 
Hyphantria  cunea,  50. 


Icerya  purchasi,  19. 

Ichneumonid  parasites  on  Clisiocampa,  43. 
Ichthyura  inclusa  on  willows,  50. 

Indiana,  report  of  insects  of,  63. 

Insecticides,  experiments  with,  54. 

Insects  injurious  in  California,  19,  37. 

Indiana,  63. 

Iowa,  57. 

Missouri,  45. 

Nebraska,  9. 
to  beets,  list  of,  13. 

Iowa,  injurious  insects  of,  57. 

J assidae  in  grass,  58. 

Jassus  inimicus,  58. 

J une  bugs  attacking  beets,  17. 

Koebele,  Albert,  report  by,  37. 

Lachnosterna  fusca  attacking  beet  roots,  17. 
Lagoa  crispata,  49. 

Leaf-hoppers  attacking  beet,  16, 17, 
in  grass,  58. 

Lecanium  besperidum,  26. 

oleae,  26,  28,  29,  31. 

Lepidium,  47. 

Lepidoptera  injurious  to  apple,  51. 

beet,  13. 

Leucania  unipuncta  damaging  beets,  14. 

Liburnia  intertexta  on  beet,  17. 

Ligyrus  gibbosus  destructive  to  sugar  beet,  17. 
Limacodes  larvae,  48. 

scapha,  49. 

Lime  wash  for  scale  insects,  32. 

Locusts,  10. 

Lophophanes  inornatus,  44. 

Lophyrus  abbotii,  60. 

Lygus  pratensis  on  beet,  16. 

Mamestra  picta  attacking  beets,  13. 

trifolii,  attacking  beets,  14. 

Maple,  soft,  9. 

worm,  10. 

Melanoplus  atlanis,  14. 

bivittatus,  14. 
different ialis,  14,  59. 
femur-rubrum,  14,  59. 
spretus,  14. 

Mercuric  chloride  as  remedy  for  scale  insects,  34. 
Microlepidoptera  injurious  to  apple,  51. 

Missouri,  injurious  insects  of,  45. 

Montilia,  17. 

Murtfeldt,  Mary  E.,  report  by,  45. 

Myzus  persicae,  54. 

Nicholson,  H.  H.,  letter,  12. 

Nebraska,  injurious  insects  of,  9. 

Nemobius  vittatus,  59. 

Nysius  angustatus  on  beet,  16, 

Opuntia  engelmanni,  21. 

Orgyia  leucostigma  on  sycamore,  50. 

Orthoptera  injurious  to  beets,  list  of,  14. 

Osborn,  Herbert,  report  by,  57. 

Papilis  turnus,  59. 

Parasa  chloris,  48. 

Pempelia  hammondii,  59. 

Penthina  chionosema,  description  of  larva  and 
imago,  51. 

Pezotettix  olivaceus,  14. 

Pieris  rapae,  55. 

Piesma  cinerea  on  beet,  16. 


83 


Pine  worm,  60. 

Phobetron  pithecium,  49. 

Phyllotreta  sinuata,  47. 

vittata,  47. 

Phylloxera,  experiments  with  resin  compounds 
on,  37. 

Plant  lice,  47. 

Plochionus  timidus,  50. 

Plum  curculio,  47. 

Plusia  brassicae  attacking  beets,  14. 

Potato  stalk  weevil,  60. 

Proteopteryx  spoliana,  description  of  larva  and 
adult,  52. 

Psychomorpha  epimenis,  55. 

Psylliodes  convexior  on  leaves  of  beets,  15. 
Purshia  tridentata,  42. 

Purslane  bug,  16. 

Quercus  agrifolia,  42. 

Eed  scale  destructive  to  citrus  trees,  19. 

gas  treatment  for,  20. 

Eed  spider,  26. 

Eemedies  against  beet  insects,  18. 

Eesin  compounds  on  phylloxera,  37. 

wash  for  San  Jos6  scale,  27. 

Ehamnus  californica,  43. 

Ehus  copalina,  49. 
glabra,  49. 

Saddle-back  caterpillar,  49. 

San  Jos6  scale,  26. 

resin  wash  for,  27. 

Salt  and  lime  wash,  32. 
and  sulphur  wash,  32. 
wash  for  scale  insects,  31. 

Saturnia  io,  49. 

Scale  insects,  methods  for  destroying,  19. 
Schizoneura  lan  ig  era,  26,  54. 

Selandria  cerasi,  60. 
rosae,  55. 

Silpha  opaca,  occurrence  in  beet  fields,  17. 
Silver-top  in  grass,  58. 

Siphonophora  avenae,  47,  54. 

crataegi,  54. 


Siphonophora  pisi,  17. 

rosae,  56. 
rudbeckiao,  54. 

Snout-beetles  attacking  beet,  15, 16. 

Sodworm,  58. 

Solanum  nigrum,  15. 

Spharagemon  aequale  feeding  on  sugar-beet,  14. 
Sphinx  quinque-maculata,  55. 

Spilosoma  isabella  injuring  beet  leaves,  13. 

* virginica  injuring  beet  leaves,  13. 
Steganoptycha  sp.,  description  of  larva,  52. 

description  of  imago,  53. 
salicicolana,  53. 

Stinging  larvae,  48. 

Striped  flea-beetles,  47. 

Sugar  beet  culture,  suggestions  in  regard  to,  11. 
insects,  11. 

Sulphur  wash  for  scale  insects,  32. 

Systena  frontalis,  15. 

taeniata  var.  blanda,  15. 

Tachina  flies  parasitic  on  clisiocampa,  43. 
Taeniocampa,  43. 

Tetranychus  telarius,  26. 

Tomonotus  sulphurous,  59. 

Trapezonotus  nebulosus,  16. 

Trichobaris  trinotatus,  60. 

Trimerotropis  latifasciata,  14. 

Trioxys,  48. 

Turf  web- worm,  58. 

Turnus  butterfly '59. 

Yedalia  cardinalis,  19. 

Washes  for  scale  insects,  27,  30,  31,  34. 

experiments  with,  31. 

Webster,  F.  M.,  report  by,  63. 

White  grubs  attacking  beet  roots,  17. 

pine  worm,  60. 

Wickson,  E.  J.,  letter,  75. 

Wire-worms  on  beets,  17. 

Wisteria,  49. 

Woolly  Aphis,  26. 

X.  O.  dust,  experiments  with,  54. 

Yellow  scale,  29. 


o 


J 


x 

\ 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

DIVISION  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Bulletin  No.  24. 


THE 

BOLL  WORM  OF  COTTON. 


A 

REPORT  OF  PROGRESS 

IN  A 


SUPPLEMENTARY  INVESTIGATION  OF  THIS  INSECT. 


MADE  UNDER  THE  DIRECTION  OF  THE  ENTOMOLOGIST 
BY 

F.  W.  MALLY. 


(PUBLISHED  BY  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE.) 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 

I89I. 


' \ 


U.S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

DIVISION  OP  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Bulletin  No.  24. 


THE 

BOLL  WORM  OF  COLTON. 


A 

REPORT  OF  PROGRESS 


IN  A 

SUPPLEMENTARY  INVESTIGATION  OF  THIS  INSECT. 


MADE  UNDER  THE  DIRECTION  OF  THE  ENTOMOLOGIST 
BY 


F.  W.  MALTY. 


(PUBLISHED  BY  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE.) 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 

189I. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Letter  of  submittal 3 

Introduction 5 

Letter  of  transmittal 7 

The  boll  worm  of  cotton 9 

Destructiveness 9 

Food  plants  other  than  cotton 12 

Characters  and  transformation  14 

The  egg 14 

The  larva 14 

The  pupa 20 

The  imago 22 

Number  of  broods  and  hibernation  25 

Natural  eneihies 27 

Vertebrates:  Butcher  Bird  ; Crows;  Quails. 

Invertebrates:  Podisas  spinosus ; Leptoierna  ; Erax  lateralis;  Ants 
Trichogramma  pretiosa  ; Hexaplasta  zigzag  ; Tacliina;  Euplectrus 
corns  tockii. 

Insect  ravages  easily  mistaken  for  those  of  the  boll  worm 28 

Euphoria  melancholica 29 

Platynota  senlana 29 

Caccccia  rosaceana 30 

Prodenia  lineatella 30 

Noctuid  (undetermined) 30 

Plant  lice  ( Aphis  gossgpii  and  Aplds  sp.) 30 

Thripids© 30 

Remedies 31 

Topping  of  cotton  and  rotation  of  crops 31 

Fall  plowing 31 

Corn  as  protection  to  cotton  32 

Lights  for  attracting  the  moths 33 

Poisoned  sweets 38 

Pyrethrum 39 

Experiments  with  dry  powder 39 

Decoctions  of  Pyrethrum 42 

Other  vegetable  insecticides 44 

Meteorological  considerations 45 

Insect  diseases 48 

o 


1 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Division  of  Entomology, 
Washington , D.  C7.,  February  27,  1891. 

Sir  : I have  the  honor  to  submit  for  publication  Bulletin  No.  24  of 
this  Division.  It  consists  of  a preliminary  report  upon  the  special  in- 
vestigation of  the  Cotton  Boll  worm  ( Reliotliis  armigera  Hfibn.)  which 
was  authorized  by  Congress  in  the  bill  making  appropriations  for  the  use 
of  the  Department  for  the  fiscal  year  1890-’91. 

Respectfully, 

C.  V.  Riley. 

Entomologist . 


Hon.  J.  M.  Rusk, 

(Secretary  of  Agriculture. 


3 


it 

i 

/ 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  present  bulletin  consists  of  a report  made  by  Mr.  F.  W.  Mally 
upon  the  progress  of  the  special  investigation  of  the  Cotton  Boll-worm 
which  has  been  carried  on  under  the  Division  since  the  appropriation 
became  available,  July  1, 1890.  Mr.  Mally  has  had  charge  of  the  minor 
details  of  the  investigation,  and  has  been  constantly  in  the  field  since 
last  July.  He  also  summarizes  the  results  obtained  by  Messrs.  Mc- 
Neill and  Booth.  The  Boll  Worm  was  treated  at  some  length  in  the 
Fourth  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Entomological  Commission,  and  the  chief 
object  of  the  present  investigation  was  to  conduct  further  experiments 
with  remedies,  as  well  as  to  verify  the  value  of  those  already  employed. 
A thorough  series  of  experiments  has  been  planned  with  the  diseases 
of  Heliotliis  and  allied  insects,  in  the  hope  of  being  able  to  practically 
utilize  them.  Incidentally  I have  desired  to  ascertain  new  facts,  if 
possible,  and  to  verify  or  disprove  what  has  been  previously  written  in 
connection  with  the  life  history  and  habits  of  the  species. 

The  observers  have  all  been  hampered  in  their  work  by  the  unexpected 
lack  of  material.  The  funds  were  not  available  until  the  season  w’as 
three-fourths  spent.  The  observations  so  far  made  will,  therefore,  have 
to  be  supplemented  the  coining  spring  and  summer.  It  transpires  that 
the  ravages  of  the  Boll  Worm  have  been  overestimated,  and  that  while 
from  20  to  30  per  cent  of  the  bolls  are  damaged  in  an  average  season  in 
Mississippi,  onlv  about  one  third  of  this  damage  is  done  by  this  insect. 
Several  other  species  which  do  work  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the 
Boll  Worm  are  treated  in  this  report.  Some  new  food-plants  have  been 
found,  and  a careful  study  has  been  made  of  the  habits  and  life  history 
which  are  here  treated  with  more  care  and  detail  than  has  heretofore 
been  given  to  the  subject.  Two  new  parasites  have  been  discovered,  and 
observations  have  been  made  which  show  that  the  egg  parasite  ( Trich 
ogramma  pretiosa  Riley)  is  an  extremely  important  factor  in  the  economy 
of  this  insect,  as  it  is,  also,  in  that  of  the  Cotton  Worm  ( Aletia  xylina 
Say),  and  the  Grass  Worm  or  Fall  Army  Worm  (Laphygma  frugiperda 
Smith  & Abbott).  A careful  count  shows  that  84  per  cent,  of  the  eggs 
were  destroyed  by  this  useful  parasite.  All  of  the  old  remedies  have 
been  once  more  tested,  and  the  use  of  corn  as  a trap  crop  is  again  shown 
to  be  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  means  of  protecting  the  cotton  crop. 
The  old  subjects  of  attracting  the  moths  to  lights  and  poisoned  sweety' 
have  once  more  been  carefully  considered,  and  my  former  conclusions 
have  been  confirmed,  that  there  is  little  to  be  hoped  for  from  either  of 
these  methods.  The  pyrethrum  experiments,  from  which  I had  much 


hope,  have  not  proved  very  favorable,  while  experiments  with  a large 
series  of  other  vegetable  insecticides  have  given  no  practical  results 
as  yet. 

The  experiments  with  contagious  diseases  can  not  be  reported  upon 
in  any  detail  at  the  present  time;  but  a large  number  of  cultures  of 
several  diseases  of  the  Imported  Cabbage  Worm,  the  Bronzy  Cutworm 
and  of  two  other  Noctnids  have  been  secured  and  carried  through  the 
winter.  What  may  prove  to  be  a specific  disease  of  the  Boll  Worm 
has  also  been  discovered,  and  cultures  have  been  obtained.  It  results 
from  the  few  experiments  made  that  the  Boll  Worm  is  probably  sus- 
ceptible to  the  Cabbage  Worm  disease,  but  positive  statements  can 
not  be  made  until  these  experiments  are  confirmed  by  those  of  another 
season.  A bacteriological  laboratory  has  been  established  at  Shreve- 
port, Louisiana,  and  has  been  well  fitted  out  with  the  necessary 
apparatus,  so  that  work  in  this  direction  the  coming  season  will  not 
be  hampered,  except  in  the  case  of  an  unexpected  paucity  of  Boll 
Worms. 


C.  V.  B. 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


Shreveport,  Louisiana,  February  19, 1891. 

Sir:  In  compliance  wit li  your  request  I have  made  out  a report  of 
progress  of  an  investigation  of  the  History  and  Habits  of  the  Boll  Worm 
(Reliothis  armigera  Hiibner),  carried  on  under  your  instructions  since 
July,  1890,  and  submit  the  same  herewith.  The  treatment  of  the  various 
subjects  is  not  at  all  in  detail  and  has  only  been  made  complete  enough 
to  give  an  adequate  conception  of  what  has  been  done,  the  present 
status  of  the  investigation,  and  what  remains  to  be  accomplished  in 
the  future. 

Very  respectfully  yours, 

F.  W.  Mally, 
Assistant  Entomologist. 

Dr.  C.  V.  Riley, 

United  States  Entomologist. 


THE  BOLL  WORM  OF  COTTON. 

DESTRUCTIVENESS. 

The  damage  to  corn  by  the  Boll  Worm  is  difficult  to  estimate,  owing 
to  the  nature  of  the  attack.  Its  ravages  in  the  “bud”  of  the  young 
plants  and  later  in  the  ends  of  the  ears  taken  collectively  no  doubt  are 
considerable,  though  no  definite  per  cent  can  be  given.  Tomatoes, 
cucumbers,  and  melons  also  suffer  more  or  less  seriously  from  its  rav- 
ages. It  is  the  attack  upon  cotton  which  is  considered  most  serious 
aud  supposed  to  be  of  great  proportions.  To  determine  the  amount  of 
damage  to  cotton  in  the  regions  visited  the  past  season  the  following 
studies  were  made.  The  first  was  made  August  14,  in  a large  tield  of 
upland  cotton  surrounded  by  woods.  Two  rows  were  taken  at  random 
in  the  field  ; the  first  was  rank  high  cotton,  the  second  a smaller  growth. 
About  10  feet  of  each  row  were  marked  off  and  all  the  bolls  on  the 
plants  in  each  counted.  (See  Table  I.) 


Table  I. 


Row. 

Good  bolls. 

Loss  by 
Boll  Worm. 

Loss 
by  other 
causes. 

Total. 

1 

290 

270 

2 

1 

95 

43 

389 

314 

The  next  study  was  made  September  16,  in  a small  field  of  rank 
bottom  land  cotton.  The  first  five  plants  were  taken  at  random,  the 
next  fifteen  successively  in  one  row.  (See  Table  II). 


Table  II. 


riant. 

Good  bolls. 

Loss  by 
Boll  Worm. 

Loss 
by  other 
causes. 

Total. 

1 

40 

7 

5 

52 

o 

21 

2 

13 

30 

3 

4 

2 

0 

0 

4 

30 

3 

20 

53 

5 . . 

34 

10 

34 

78 

G 

19 

11 

20 

50 

7 

18 

2 

0 

20 

8 

25 

9 

15 

59 

9 

17 

9 

12 

38 

10 

70 

6 

fl 

85 

11 

33 

7 

1 

41 

12 

42 

4 

9 

55 

13  

49 

0 

4 

53 

14... 

3 

0 

0 

3 

15 

10 

0 

0 

10 

16 

33 

2 

2 

37 

17 

25 

2 

11 

38 

18 

72 

2 

24 

98 

19 

17 

0 

3 

20 

20 

7 

0 

0 

7 

1 Total  . . . 

579 

78 

182 

839 

9 


10 


September  17,  a similar  study  of  twenty-one  successive  plants  was 
made  in  another  portion  of  the  same  field.  (See  Table  III). 

Table  III. 


Plants. 

Worms. 

Good  bolls. 

Loss  by 
Boll  Worm. 

Loss  by 
other 
causes. 

Total. 

1 

1 

33 

4 

13 

50 

2 

1 

23 

1 

1 

25 

3 

2 

GO 

’ 3 

2 

65 

4 

0 

30 

3 

1 

34 

5 

2 

41 

3 

8 

52 

G 

0 

65 

3 

0 

G8 

7 

1 

11 

1 

4 

1G 

8 

0 

29 

1 

1 

31 

9 

0 

53 

3 

1 

57 

10 

2 

53 

5 

1 

59 

11  

1 

24 

5 

14 

43 

12 

0 

G3 

G 

25 

94 

13  

0 

24 

0 

5 

29 

14 

0 

19 

8 

3 

30 

15 

0 

23 

9 

12 

44 

16  

3 

88 

13 

30 

131 

17 

0 

22 

4 

5 

31 

18 

0 

3G 

0 

2 

38 

19 

0 

14 

0 

0 

14 

20 

0 

20 

0 

11 

31 

21 

0 

49 

G 

39 

94 

Total. 

13 

780 

78 

178 

1,036 

Table  I should  not  be  included  in  the  table  of  percentages,  since  its 
data  were  obtained  early  in  the  season,  before  the  Boll  Worm  had  really 
become  well  established  in  cotton.  Omitting  table  I we  have  the  fol- 
lowing table  : 

Table  IV. 

Percentages  from  Tables  11  and  III. 


Table. 

Good  bolls. 

Loss  by 
Boll  Worm. 

Loss 
by  other 
causes. 

Total 

loss. 

II 

Per  cent. 
.690 
.753 

Per  cent. 
.092 
. 075 

Per  cent. 
.218 
.172 

Percent,  i 
.310  I 
.247 

Ill 

Average . 

.7215 

.0835 

. 195 

.2785 

The  four  preceding  studies  were  made  by  a count  of  what  was  actu- 
ally found  on  the  plants  at  the  time  of  observation.  September  IS  only 
bolls  and  forms  which  had  fallen  were  collected  and  examined.  The 


result  is  given  below  : 

Number  bored  by  Boll  Worm 167 

Number  shed  from  other  causes 362 

Total 529 


Taking  the  average  of  the  total  loss  found  in  the  same  field  on  the 
two  preceding  days,  and  tabulated  as  Tables  II  and  III,  and  again  in 
Table  IV,  these  529  bolls  maybe  considered  as  equivalent  to  the  count- 


11 


ing  of  1,900  bolls  by  the  method  of  Tables  IT  and  III.  This  study  may 
therefore  be  given  as  below  : 


Table  V. 


Number. 

Per  cent. 

Good  bolls 

1,371 

.722 

Loss  by  Boll  Worm 

167 

.088 

Loss  by  other  causes 

362 

. 190 

■ 

1,900 

1.000 

Averaging  this  result  with  that  of  Table  IV  we  have  the  table  given 
below  as  the  result : 

Table  VI. 


Data. 

Good  bolls. 

Loss  by 
Boll  Worm. 

j Loss 
by  other 
causes. 

Total 

loss. 

Tablo  V 

Study  V 

Per  cent. 
.7215 
.722 

Per  cent. 
.0835 
.088 

1 Per  cent. 

. 195 
. 190 

Per  cent. 
.2785 
. 2780 

Average. . . 

I 

. 72175 

. 08575 

. 1925 

. 27825 

The  above  calculations  certainly  give  the  Boll  Worm  as  much  credit 
as  it  deserves,  and  for  the  following  reasons : The  observations  were 
made  after  the  cotton  had  been  “laid  by  ” late  in  July,  therefore  the 
fallen  bolls  collected  from  the  ground  in  September  covered  what  had 
fallen  during  August  and  September.  This  is  the  period  of  greatest 
damage  to  the  cotton.  No  cornfields  near  by  to  lessen  and  detract  from 
the  egg  deposition  on  cotton.  This  in  addition  to  the  consideration  of 
the  injured  fruit  actually  on  the  plants  but  which  was  likely  to  shed, 
certainly  does  not  make  the  results  arrived  at  much  below  the  entire 
damage  done  during  that  period. 

From  the  results  given  above  and  from  subsequent  observation  it  is 
evident  that  bottom-land  cotton  is  worse  infested  than  the  “hill-coun- 
try ” cotton.  Further,  even  in  the  same  field,  as  is  shown  by  the  record 
of  plants  5 and  10  of  Table  II  and  plants  12,  1G,  and  21  of  Table  III 
large,  rauk,  leafy  cotton  plants,  bearing  a great  number  of  forms  and 
bolls,  are  subject  to  much  more  serious  attack. 

The  number  of  forms  and  bolls  which  one  worm  may  destroy  during 
its  period  of  existence  can  only  be  approximated.  From  the  rate  of 
feeding  during  favorable  conditions  and  when  the  larval  state  is  about 
15  days  the  number  eaten  into  may  range  from  ten  to  twenty.  During 
the  longer  periods  of  larval  existence  caused  by  unfavorable  conditions, 
the  worms  are  inclined  to  move  about  more  and  perhaps  injure  more  in- 
dividual fruits,  though  the  absolute  amount  eaten  is  not  much  greater. 

What  the  extent  of  injury  due  to  Boll  Worm  over  the  entire  State  of 
Mississippi,  was  the  past  year  will  be  seen  from  the  closing  weather 
and  crop  report  of  Prof.  R.  B.  Fulton,  observer,  U.  S.  Signal  Service, 


12 


University,  Mississippi,  from  which  is  quoted  the  following:  “In  the 
southern  part  of  the  State  reports  show  that  oil  account  of  injury  by 
Boll  Worms  and  shedding,  due  to  wet  weather,  the  cotton  crop  will 
be  short  from  30  to  40  per  cent,  of  last  year’s  yield.  * * * In  the 
northern  section  the  Boll  Worm  did  no  material  damage.”  It  may  fur- 
ther be  added  that  upon  application  to  Mr.  George  E.  Hunt,  chief  sig- 
nal officer  U.  S.  Signal  Service,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana,  for  weather 
crop  bulletins  and  the  names  of  observers  who  had  reported  much 
damage  to  cotton  by  Boll  Worm  last  season,  he  replied  that  no  material 


Fig.  1.  Heliothis  armigera-,  full-grown  larva  eating  into  a to- 
mato— nat.  size  (after  Riley). 


damage  was  done  from  that  source  and  none  had  been  reported  by  any 
of  the  volunteer  or  other  observers.  From  this  information  as  also  the 
facts  shown  by  the  preceding  tables  it  is  quite  evident  that  the  depre- 
dations upon  cotton  by  Boll  Worms  have  been  greatly  overestimated. 
If  the  statements  of  planters  living  in  the  regions  where  observations 
were  made  are  accepted,  the  Boll  Worm  was  fully  as  numerous  if  not 
more  so  than  in  previous  years.  Nearly  all  agreed  that  the  damage  was 
fully  up  to  the  average,  others  thought  it  above  the  normal,  but  none 
estimated  it  as  being  lower  than  usual.  These  statements  together 
with  the  almost  daily  reports  obtained  from  interviews  that  “ one-fourth 
or  one- third  of  the  crop  was  being  ruined”  (?)  led  to  above  careful  stud- 
ies. The  results  simply  show  that  on  the  whole  the  planters  fail  to  dis- 
tinguish the  Boll  Worm  ravages  from  those  of  other  insects,  from  phys- 
iological phenomena  of  the  cotton  plant,  and  lastly,  from  some  of  the 
fungoid  diseases.  In  order  to  assist  the  planters  in  this  matter  a few 
observations  have  been  added  at  the  close  on  “ Other  insect  ravages 
easily  confused  with  those  of  the  Boll  Worm.” 

FOOD  PLANTS  OTHER  THAN  COTTON. 

Corn. — The  habits  of  the  Boll  Worm  when  feeding  on  corn  have  been 
so  fully  presented  in  the  Fourth  lteport  U.  S.  Entomological  Commis- 
sion, pp.  359-3G1,  that  only  such  observations  will  be  given  as  verify 


13 


important  points  or  add  to  our  knowledge  of  the  species.  The  manner 
of  attacking  the  ears  of  corn  and  the  semi-solid  excrement  of  the  worm 
which  is  left  behind  along  its  path  into  the  ear,  paves  the  way  and  pro- 
vides a fertile  soil  for  the  germination  and  subsequent  growth  of  all 
kinds  of  molds.  The  additional  decay  resulting  in  this  way,  aided  by 
the  ravages  of  Dipterous  and  other  larva?  which  revel  in  such  matter, 
perhaps  fully  equals  the  actual  damage  done  directly  by  the  worm.  In 
large  fields  of  corn  not  often  more  than  one  large  worm  is  found  in  a sin- 
gle ear,  but  when  the  fields  are  small,  and  especially  when  surrounded 
by  cotton  fields,  there  are  often  three  or  four  nearly  grown  worms  in  a 
single  ear,  and  perhaps  as  many  more  newly  hatched  ones.  This  is  a 
direct  result  of  the  preference  of  the  moth  for  the  corn  when  the  lat- 
ter is  in  close  proximity  to  cotton  fields  and  of  suitable  age.  When  the 
field  is  small  the  female  often  passes  through  it  several  times  during  a 
single  night,  depositing  eggs  as  she  does  so.  In  this  way  I have  often 
observed  the  same  female  deposit  eggs  three  times  on  the  silks  of 
an  ear  of  corn  during  a single  visit.  This  of  course  is  not  the  normal 
method  of  deposition,  and  occurs  only  under  the  circumstances  men- 
tioned. If  it  were  so  the  numbers  of  worms  would  be  greatly  reduced 
through  the  agency  of  their  cannibalistic  habits,  to  be  discussed  here- 
after in  considering  the  history  of  the  worms.  Other  females  visiting 
the  field  may  also  deposit  on  the  same  ears  of  corn,  and  so  on.  As  a 
result  of  this  as  high  as  fifteen  to  twenty-five  eggs  have  been  found  on 
the  silk  of  a single  ear  of  corn,  and  in  addition  as  many  more  on  the 
husks  and  leaves. 

In  regions  where  corn  is  cultivated  extensively  a second  crop  is 
planted  late  in  July  to  produce  a fodder  crop  by  the  end  of  the  season. 
These  fields  are  invariably  badly  infested.  When  these  are  near  cot- 
ton fields  they  afford  a great  protection  to  that  crop. 

Except  on  cotton,  hereafter  considered,  no  observations  of  special  in- 
terest were  made  on  any  of  the  other  well-known  food  plants,  though  it 
was  noted  that  the  tomato  crop  suffered  severely  from  Boll  Worm  dep- 
redations. 

Other  Plants. — As  additional  food  plants  of  economic  importance 
which  are  attacked  by  Boll  Worm  are  to  be  mentioned  the  muskmelon, 
watermelon,  and  cucumber.  The  cucumber  is  attacked  usually  by  eat- 
ing a hole  near  the  base  from  below  up  into  the  center  and  then  tunnel- 
ing the  length  of  it  to  the  anterior  end.  The  melons  are  usually  bored 
from  the  under  side  near  the  base,  but  occasionally  at  almost  any  other 
point.  The  female  was  seen  depositing  on  the  following  weeds : Helen - 
ium  tenuifolium.  Amarantus  retroflexus , A.  spinosus , probably  Erigeron 
canadense , and  one  undetermined  species  of  Panicum. 

It  was  evident,  however,  that  the  young  worms  did  not  relish  any  of 
the  above  weeds  as  food  plants  and  left  soon  after  hatching.  This  was 
further  verified  by  taking  some  branches  of  the  plants  just  named  to 
the  laboratory  and  placing  newly  hatched  worms  upon  them.  They 


14 


fed  sparingly  upon  the  small  flowers  and  tender  stems,  but  soon  left 
the  branches  and  could  not  be  induced  to  remain  long.  The  female 
shows  no  inclination  whatever  to  deposit  her  eggs  upon  the  last-named 
host-plants  except  as  they  may  be  found  in  corn  fields  or  near  by 
From  here  the  young  worms  can  easily  migrate  to  the  corn  plants  near 
at  hand,  and  from  observations  already  cited  it  is  quite  probable  that 
they  do  so.  These  last  observations  have,  furthermore,  led  me  to  sus- 
pect that  the  female  may  occasionally  deposit  upon  all  weeds  or  other 
plants  indiscriminately  growing  in  a corn  field  and  suitable  for  this 
purpose. 


CHARACTERS  AND  TRANSFORMATIONS. 

THE  EGG. 

The  egg  is  oval,  the  greatest  diameter  being  very  near  the  base.  It 
tapers  but  little  from  the  point  of  greatest  diameter  to  the  base,  but 
slants  much  more  towards  the  apex.  The  vertical  diameter  averages 
0.375  millimetres,  the  horizontal  and  greatest  diameter  0.5  millimetres. 
The  sculpture  of  the  eggs  consists  of  polar  ribs  with  cross  bars,  giving 
them  a checkered-appearing  surface.  When  first  deposited  the  egg 
appears  nearly  a pure  white,  but  soon  turns  yellowish  as  the  growth  of 
the  embryo  begins,  and  deepens  as  the  latter  develops.  After  about 
25  or  30  hours  that  part  of  the  embryo  at  the  apex  of  the  egg  is  notice- 
ably darker,  and  between  it  and  the  center  of  the  egg  a reddish  or  brown- 
ish baud  is  formed.  The  latter  so  far  as  can  be  seen  extends  only  part 
way  round  the  egg. 

This  band  is  later  absorbed  into  the  body  of  the  worm  and  the 
darker  spot  at  the  apex  is  found  to  be  the  head  of  the  developing  larva. 
At  this  stage  the  body  of  the  worm  can  be  quite  definitely  seen  through 
the  eggshell. 

The  duration  of  the  egg  state  varies  somewhat,  as  will  be  seen  hereafter, 
with  the  meteorological  conditions  prevailing  at  and  immediately  fol- 
lowing the  time  of  deposition.  One  lot  of  eggs  deposited  in  confine- 
ment at  night  and  followed  by  two  very  hot  days  began  hatching  within 
45  hours.  But  of  a number  of  lots  of  eggs  deposited  in  confinement 
from  time  to  time,  the  duration  of  the  egg  state  was  usually  from  2J  to 
3 or  3 J days.  This  may  be  considered  about  the  normal  duration  of  the 
egg  state.  Several  lots,  however,  which  had  been  deposited  during  un- 
favorable weather  did  not  hatch  until  after  4 days;  in  a few  instances 
a few  hours  over  5 days. 


THE  LARVA. 

The  newly  hatched  larvae,  before  they  have  taken  any  food,  average  1.54 
millimetres  in  length,  are  slightly  larger  anteriorly,  tapering  gradually, 
as  is  shown  by  measurements  of  the  diameters  of  a number  of  worms  at 
the  first,  middle,  and  last  segments,  whose  averages  were  0.23, 0.20,  and 


15 


0.14  millimetres,  respectively.  The  general  color  of  the  body  is  white, 
with  a yellowish  tinge;  head,  black ; a black  or  brownish  shield-shaped 
spot  on  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  first  segment. 

Soon  after  they  begin  feeding  the  larvre  turn  darker  and  before  the 
first  molt  are  usually  of  a deep  rose  or  brownish  color.  The  piliferous 
tubercles  are  not  yet  very  prominent.  The  true  legs  at  first  are  slightly 


Fia.  2.—Heliothis  armigcra : a,  egg  from  side  ; b,  do.  from 
top — enlarged  ; c,  full-grown  larva  ; d,  earthen  cell  with  con- 
tained pupa;  e,  moth  with  wings  spread;  /,  do.  at  rest — nat- 
ural size  (after  Riley). 

dusky,  but  soon  turn  much  darker,  are  hairy  and  provided  with  a small 
bifid  claw.  At  first  the  first  pair  of  prolegs  seem  to  be  a little  less 
robust  than  the  others,  and  hence  may  be  slightly  weaker.  Obscure 
dark  lateral  patches  are  found  on  the  prolegs,  which  at  this  stage  are 
further  provided  with  fine  small  hooks. 

By  the  time  of  the  first  molt  the  worm  has  attained  a length  of  5.62 
millimetres  and  is  slightly  larger  in  the  middle. 

After  the  first  molt  the  larva  is  at  first  of  a yellowish  color,  but  again 
turns  darker  rapidly  when  it  begins  feeding.  The  true  prolegs  become 
much  darker,  aud  at  their  insertion  next  the  body  a small  dusky  spot, 
both  anteriorly  and  posteriorly,  is  found.  The  dark  lateral  patches  on 
the  prolegs  are  also  more  distinct,  each  proleg  being  now  provided  with 
nine  small  hooks. 

By  the  time  of  the  second  molt  the  larva  measures  7.75  millimetres 
in  length  and  is  still  a little  wider  in  the  middle. 

Soon  after  the  second  molt  the  worm  measures  8.75  millimetres  in 
length.  The  most  noticeable  changes  are,  that  the  piliferous  tubercles 
are  now  much  more  prominent;  that  the  very  small  tubercles  found 
thickly  scattered  all  over  the  body  first  become  quite  discernable  to 
the  naked  eye. 


16 


With  the  three  subsequent  molts  there  are  no  marked  changes  except 
in  size  and  the  distinctness  in  definition  of  the  various  colorings  and 
markings  of  the  body  of  the  larva. 

The  mature  worm  varies  in  length  from  31  to  3G  millimetres,  with 
diameters  of  about  4,  5,  and  4 millimetres  at  anterior,  middle,  and  pos- 
terior regions,  respectively.  The  head  of  the  mature  Boll  Worm  is  never 
darker  than  a light  brown,  or,  in  the  darker  colored  worms,  mahogany, 
but  n ay  be  paler  according  as  the  specimen  is  a lighter  colored  one. 
The  true  legs  are  dusky  or  blackish,  as  also  the  spots  on  the  prolegs. 
The  latter  are  now  each  provided  with  fifteen  small  hooks. 

The  color  of  the  body  of  the  mature  worms  varies  from  all  gradations 
of  the  darker  or  rose-colored  specimens  to  those  which  are  light-greenish 
with  a faint  rose  tint  or  entirely  light-greenish.  The  darker  colored 
ones  greatly  predominate  from  about  August  on  through  the  remainder 
of  the  season.  The  markings  of  the  worms  which  are  most  frequently 
met  with  at  this  time  are  as  follows  : 

Along  the  median  line  of  the  dorsal  region  is  a brownish  or  black- 
ish stripe  containing  in  its  center  an  interrupted  white  line.  Next,  the 
subdorsal  stripe,  which  is  lighter  colored,  and  along  which  is  found  the 
first  subdorsal  row  of  piliferous  tubercles.  Below  this  is  a subdorso- 
lateral  stripe,  which  is  usually  about  the  same  color  as  the  dorsal  one. 
The  subdorso  lateral  stripe  is  slightly  wider  at  the  center  of  each  seg- 
ment, and  within  its  borders  are  found  two  more  rows  of  piliferous  tuber- 
cles. Next  comes  the  lateral  or  stigmata  stripe,  which  is  usually  pure 
white.  Along  this  stripe  are  found  the  spiracles  and  one  row  of  pilif- 
erous tubercles.  Between  the  lateral  stripe  and  the  prolegs  is  a stripe, 
which  is  usually  of  the  same  color  as  the  ventral  surface,  which  latter 
is  a uniform  whitish.  This  sublateral  stripe  contains  two  rows  of 
smaller  tubercles.  In  many  of  the  darker  rose  tinted  specimens  this 
stripe  is  often  nearly  a pure  rose  color,  in  which  case  the  stigmatal 
stripe  is  also  more  or  less  tinted.  Throughout  all  the  stripes  except 
the  lateral  and  sublateral  ones,  and  in  these  where  they  are  colored 
other  than  white, are  found  numerous  interrupted,  irregular,  white  lines 
and  spots.  The  stripes  are  all  of  a uniform  width  throughout,  with  the 
single  exception  mentioned.  In  the  lighter  colored  specimens  nonebut 
the  dorsal  and  subdorso-lateral  stripes  can  be  distinguished  at  all,  and 
often  only  the  dorsal  one. 

The  first  segment  is  provided  dorsally  with  a denser,  calloused  pare 
irregularly  shield-shaped  and  which  is  pale  brown  or  black,  according 
as  that  is  the  general  color  of  the  worm.  In  the  newly  hatched  worm, 
however,  it  nearly  always  appears  as  a very  distinct  black  patch.  This 
calloused  portion  has  a distinct  median  groove  dividing  it  into  two 
symmetrical  halves,  each  of  which  bear  similar  markings  as  follows  : 

Four  small  pits  in  the  form  of  a trapezoid,  the  posterior  pair  being 
nearest  together;  from  each  of  these  pits  extends  a fine  short  hair.  In 
the  center  and  extending  each  side  of  the  median  line  are  two  deep 


17 


trausverse  parallel  grooves.  At  the  curved  lateral  regions  of  the  shield 
are  found  slight  depressions,  and  again  one  at  the  posterior  end  of  the 
median  line.  The  shield  is  further  traversed  by  irregular  lines  or 
wrinkles,  and  in  addition  contains  short  white  interrupted  lines  and 
spots  much  the  same  as  those  found  in  the  stripes  of  the  body.  Dor- 
sally  the  second  and  third  segments  each  have  a transverse  row  of  four 
piliferous  tubercles.  The  fourth  to  tenth  segments,  inclusive,  have  each 
four  piliferous  tubercles,  slightly  larger  than  those  of  the  second  and 
third,  and  are  arranged  in  the  form  of  a trapezoid,  the  anterior  pair  be- 
ing nearest  together.  On  the  eleventh  segment  the  four  tubercles  are 
arranged  in  the  form  of  a square ; on  the  twelfth  the  trapezoid  is  re- 
versed, the  posterior  pair  of  tubercles  being  nearest  together. 

Laterally,  the  first  segment  is  provided  with  a spiracle  about  which 
are  two  piliferous  tubercles.  Below  there  are  two  smaller  tubercles 
which  are  usually  contiguous  and  appear  much  like  one  tubercle  from 
which  two  bristles  project.  The  second  and  third  segments  each  have 
two  large  piliferous  tubercles,  two  slightly  smaller  ones  and  two  still 
smaller.  The  fourth  to  eleventh  segments  inclusive  each  bear  three 
tubercles  arranged  in  triangular  form  about  the  spiracles  with  a fourth 
smaller  one  below  them.  The  twelfth  segment  usually  has  two  placed 
contiguously,  or  nearly  so.  Ventrally  the  tubercles  are  all  small.  The 
fourth  segment  bears  six  small  tubercles  arranged  so  as  to  form  the  arc 
of  a circle.  The  fifth  segment  has  two  trausverse  rows  of  tubercles, 
four  in  each,  the  ones  in  the  anterior  row  being  wider  apart  than  those 
in  the  posterior.  The  tenth,  eleventh,  and  twelfth  segments  each  bear 
a transverse  row  of  four  tubercles.  All  the  tubercles  throughout  have 
projecting  from  them  a short,  stout  hair,  or  bristle. 

The  growth  of  the  larvae  is  somewhat  slower  during  their  earlier 
stages  than  when  half  grown  and  approaching  maturity. 

When  nearing  maturity  the  molts  occur  at  shorter  intervals.  The 
intervals  between  molts  become  longer  later  in  the  season  or  with  cold 
and  unfavorable  weather.  Thus  in  August  the  first  molt  occurred  on 
the  fifth  day  after  hatching,  the  second  on  the  tenth,  the  third  on  the 
fourteenth,  and  the  fourth  on  pupation,  seven  days  later.  September 
25  some  eggs  began  hatching ; the  first  molts  occurred  on  the  seventh 
and  eighth  days  thereafter,  the  second  on  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
days  ; at  this  time  the  particular  worms  under  observation  made  their 
escape  and  the  interval  of  subsequent  molts  could  not  be  recorded. 

The  length  of  the  larval  state  is  longer  later  in  the  season.  Thus  at 
Shreveport,  Louisiana,  Dr.  A.  11.  Booth  reports  that  during  August  a 
worm  matured  and  was  preparing  to  pupate  after  having  fed  15  days; 
another  after  18  days.  At  Holly  Springs,  Mississippi,  for  the  same 
mouth  worms  matured  within  18  to  20  days  after  hatching.  For  Sep- 
tember worms  hatched  about  the  first  of  the  month,  matured  in  from 
2 L to  26  days,  while  larvae  hatched  September  25  escaped  after  18  days 
days  and  had  only  just  molted  the  second  time. 

23024— Ko.  24 2 


18 


The  first  food  of  the  worm  is  the  eggshell  from  which  it  has  just 
issued.  ISo  sooner  is  the  young  larva  fully  out  of  its  shell  than  it  crawls 
away  once  or  twice  its  length,  turns  around,  and  eats  the  shell  either 
entirely  or  but  a portion  of  it.  This  done  it  crawls  about  a short  time 
until  it  finds  a spot  suited  to  its  taste,  usually  first  spreading  a few 
threads  of  a frail  web.  Under  this  the  worm  feeds  on  the  epidermis  of 
whatever  surface  it  may  have  selected.  Often  they  crawl  but  a short 
distance,  drop  themselves  down  by  a slender  thread  until  another  sur- 
face is  struck,  when  they  crawl  away  as  before  and  begin  feeding. 

Before  the  first  molt  the  larvae  feed  principally  outside  of  the  young 
forms  and  squares  on  whatever  surface  they  may  be  when  hatched. 
At  about  the  time  of  the  first  molts,  or  soon  thereafter,  they  begin  seek- 
ing out  the  forms,  blossoms,  and  squares  and  begin  their  destructive 
work  of  boring  into  them.  It  must  be  stated,  however,  that  from  the 
first  a few  may  be  found  to  go  directly  to  a small  form  or  square  and 
either  boring  through  the  involucre  and  thence  into  the  blossom  or 
fruit,  or  else  first  crawling  between  the  involucre  and  fruit  and  then 
boring  into  the  latter.  Often,  too,  they  at  first  simply  hide  behind  the 
involucre,  eating  the  epidermis  from  the  inside  and  boring  into  the  fruit 
later.  Preferring  the  tender  growing  portions  of  the  branches,  the 
younger  worms  after  finding  them  secrete  themselves  in  the  opening 
clusters  of  leaf  and  flower  buds  and  begin  boring. 

Their  first  feedings  upon  the  leaves,  whether  on  the  upper  or  lower 
surface,  are  principally  confined  to  the  epidermis.  About  the  time  of 
the  first  molt  they  begin  to  eat  small  holes  through  the  leaves.  This 
is  not  continued  long,  however,  as  at  this  time  the  worms  begin  their 
search  for  the  forms  and  squares.  During  the  younger  period  the  worms 
feed  most  on  the  reprodutive  organs  of  young  forms  or  such  as  are 
nearly  grown  and  opening.  Some  time  later,  after  about  the  second  molt, 
they  begin  boring  more  plentifully  into  the  larger  bolls.  The  older 
worms,  while  feeding  principally  in  larger  bolls,  do  not  confine  them- 
selves to  them  and  are  often  found  devouring  a form  or  opening  blos- 
soms. Due  to  their  choice  of  food  (speaking  only  of  the  bulk)  the 
younger  worms  are  found  mostly  on  the  younger  tender-growing  por- 
tions of  the  cotton  plant,  and  the  more  nearly  grown  ones  on  the  more 
mature  portions.  For  a change  the  full-grown  worm  sometimes  feeds 
on  a leaf  or  eats  through  the  green  stem  of  a newly  formed  branch. 
Stems  which  were  .25-.30  inch  in  diameter  and  having  above  them  a 
number  of  forms  have  been  observed  to  be  eaten  nearly  through  by 
them.  A day  or  two  after  the  branch  would  be  found  wilted  or  nearly 
broken  off. 

The  habits  of  the  worm,  as  to  the  manner  in  which  a boll  is  entered 
and  the  extent  to  which  it  feeds  upon  the  same  after  it  has  entered,  are 
also  rather  variable.  The  worm  may  pass  in  behind  the  involucre  and 
bore  into  the  boll  from  the  inside,  or  it  may  choose  to  do  so  from  the 
outside,  eating  through  the  involucre  and  then  into  the  boll.  The  hole 
is  usually  bored  from  the  bottom  and  passes  towards  the  apex ; fre- 


19 


quently,  however,  the  hole  is  bored  about  midway  of  the  boll  and  passes 
straight  in.  As  the  worm  thus  feeds  on  the  inside  of  the  boll  it  may 
pass  straight  towards  the  apex,  devouring  only  the  section  of  the  fruit 
which  it  has  entered  and  then  retreat,  and  attack  another  boll,  or  it 
may  bore  through  the  partition  into  a second  section,  devouring  it, 
or  the  passage  of  the  worm  may  be  a slanting  one  from  the  first,  in 
which  case  two  or  three  sections  may  be  entered  before  retreating.  The 
worm  seldom  continues  until  it  has  destroyed  all  of  the  sections  of  the 
boll,  though  the  remaining  sections  are  usually  made  worthless  by  the 
decay  which  arises  and  spreads  from  the  injured  portions. 

The  notion  which  some  planters  have  that  the  worm  eats  in  at  one 
point  on  the  boll  and  passes  out  at  another  is  wrong,  for  if  it  ever  does 
so  it  is  certainly  the  exception.  Occasionally,  however,  there  are  two 
holes  in  a boll  similar  to  those  which  the  Boll  Worm  makes  and  in- 
deed the  Boll  Worm  has  been  the  culprit.  Observation,  however,  has 
proven  that  the  Boll  Worm  occasionally  begins  boring  atone  point,  eats 
into  it  but  a short  distance,  retreats,  and  begins  a second  hole  at  another 
point  on  the  same  boll.  Sometimes,  also,  two  worms  are  found  attack- 
ing the  same  boll,  which,  when  they  have  finished  and  left  it,  appears 
as  if  a worm  had  entered  at  one  point  and  passed  out  at  another. 

It  is  further  believed  by  some  that  the  Boll  Worm  travels  only  at 
night  and  feeds  only  late  in  the  afternoon  and  evening.  Concerning 
both  it  must  be  said  that  the  worms  avoid  the  extremely  hot  sunshiny 
part  of  the  day,  and  prefer  traveling  and  feeding  during  the  cooler 
parts;  but  at  the  same  time  considerable  range  in  ust  be  allowed  for  the 
whims  of  the  worm,  and  other  conditions  which  may  arise  to  induce 
the  worm  to  go  from  boll  to  boll  during  mid-day  and  often  at  high 
temperatures.  As  bearing  on  this  it  may  be  stated  that  often  while 
making  morning  observations  in  the  cotton  fields  worms  were  found 
in  bolls.  Without  any  disturbance  these  branches  were  marked  so  that 
they  could  be  easily  found  for  experimental  purposes  in  the  afternoon. 
In  the  afternoon  it  was  always  found  that  a number  of  worms  had  gone 
to  other  bolls  or  even  branches  on  the  same  plant.  Occasionally,  too, 
one  would  be  found  to  have  left  the  plant  entirely  and  could  not  be 
found.  The  changing  of  plants  was  not  often  done  during  the  day,  but 
was  oftener  found  to  be  the  case  with  those  specimens  which  had  been 
marked  the  preceding  evening  and  were  looked  for  the  next  day.  The 
changing  from  boll  to  boll  on  the  same  plant  may  be  frequently  ob- 
served during  the  day.  The  time  of  day  when  the  worms  feed  most 
vigorously  is  during  the  cooler  portions  of  the  afternoon  and  evening 
and  in  the  morning  before  the  sun  shines  so  hotly. 

After  the  killing  frosts  in  late  October  and  November  the  worms 
which  had  not  yet  matured  were  found  to  feed  as  best  they  could  upon 
the  berries  of  /Solanum  carolinensc , and  possibly,  if  forced  to,  would 
feed  upon  any  other  available  green  plant  found  in  the  cotton  fields. 
Extensive  observations  on  this  point  could  not  be  made,  since  the  worms 


20 


were  not  at  all  plentiful.  It  remains  to  be  added  that  the  larger 
Heteropterous  insects,  mostly  Metapodius,  were  abundant  upon  Sola- 
num  at  this  time,  and  that  probably  great  numbers  of  the  remaining 
immature  worms  fell  a prey  to  them. 

The  cannibalistic  habits  of  the  Boll  Worm  are  also  of  importance  and 
must  be  considered  here.  First  to  be  mentioned  in  this  connection  is 
the  fact  that  the  Boll  Worm  devours  its  larval  skin  as  soon  as  molted 
and  does  so  before  it  begins  feeding  on  vegetable  matter  again.  When 
collecting  worms  from  the  fields  considerable  care  must  be  exercised  to 
have  a box  or  basket  large  enough  to  receive  some  foliage,  in  order  that 
the  worms  may  not  injure  and  destroy  each  other  before  reaching  the 
laboratory.  In  the  breeding  cages  the  Boll  Worms  not  only  attack 
each  other,  but  almost  any  other  larva  placed  in  the  arena.  In  a state 
of  nature  they  have  not  been  observed  to  deliberately  attack  each  other 
except  in  corn,  especially  when  the  field  was  a small  one,  and  great 
numbers  of  eggs  are  deposited  and  hatched  on  the  same  plant,  so  that 
an  unnatural  number  of  worms  expect  to  feed  upon  the  same  ear  of 
corn.  The  same  maybe  said  concerning  the  “bud,”  if  the  plant  be 
young  yet. 

In  several  instances  where  such  small  fields  of  corn  were  found  near 
large  cotton  fields,  examination  of  the  ears  resulted  in  finding  from  three 
to  six  worms  of  various  sizes  in  them.  A day  or  two  later  when  the 
same  ears  were  examined  some  of  the  smaller  ones  were  found  to  be 
badly  bitten  (enough  to  cause  death),  and  some  dead  ones  whose  bodies 
gave  evidence  of  a violent  death.  None  of  the  worms  had  been  de- 
voured, and  it  seems  that  the  warfare  had  been  brought  about  by  the 
worms  intruding  on  each  other’s  territory,  as  feeding  progressed,  and 
that  nothing  more  was  done  than  would  maintain  their  positions. 

THE  PUPA. 

A number  of  Boll  Worms  which  had  been  fed  on  bolls  in  breeding 
cages  matured  and  were  placed  in  a fruit  jar  about  two-thirds  full  of 
earth.  The  worms  at  once  entered  the  earth,  formed  their  cells,  and 
pupated  about  2 or  3 days  after.  The  pupa  is  a beautiful  green  at  first, 
but  soon  turns  to  a light  brown  or  mahogany.  When  all  the  worms 
had  pupated  the  earth  was  examined  to  determine  something  about 
the  depth  of  the  burrows  and  cells  and  the  manner  in  which  they  were 
made.  The  earth  had  been  recently  placed  in  the  jar  and  was  quite 
loose  when  the  worms  were  placed  on  it.  The  depth  of  the  burrows 
varied  from  2J  to  5 inches  and  throughout  their  course  were  partially 
filled  with  loose  earth.  The  cells  were  all  much  larger  than  any  part 
of  the  burrows  and  extended  upward  from  the  end  of  the  same.  One 
worm  had  come  to  the  surface  of  the  glass  in  making  its  burrow, 
and  was  observed  while  making  its  cell.  The  worm  seemed  to  test 
carefully  every  part  of  the  wall  of  the  cell  to  see  that  all  was  firm.  The 
whole  surface  was  then  thinly  coated  with  a sticky  fluid,  at  the  same 


21 


time  adding  a small  amount  of  webbing.  The  latter  was  plainly  to  be 
seen  on  the  glass  of  the  jar. 

Some  of  the  mature  Boll  Worms  which  had  been  left  in  the  breed- 
ing cage  without  earth  pupated  unprotected  on  the  lioor  of  the  same 
and  later  issued  as  moths.  In  another  instance,  however,  the  mature 
worm  had  been  left  in  a newly-made  breeding  cage.  The  next  morn- 
ing the  worm  was  found  to  have  nicely  webbed  together  the  sawdust 
accidentally  left  in  the  corner,  and  had  formed  a neat  little  cell,  which 
might  almost  be  called  a cocoon.  This  shows  plainly  that  the  Boll 
Worm  is  capable  at  least  of  spinning  a certain  amount  of  web  for  its 
cell,  whether  it  always  does  so  to  so  great  an  extent  or  not. 

It  was  stated  above  that  the  worms  pupated  about  2 or  3 days 
after  having  entered  the  earth.  This,  however,  applies  only  to  the 
mouths  of  August,  September,  and  October.  Later  the  time  is  longer, 
as  is  shown  by  the  following  observations  : On  November  1 a mature 
Boll  Worm  from  a breeding  cage  was  taken  to  a cotton  field  and  placed 
on  solid  earth,  a large  open  tin  can  being  placed  about  the  worm  so 
as  to  compel  it  to  make  its  burrow  under  observation.  The  work  of 
digging  its  burrow  was  begun  at  once,  and  by  the  next  day  it  had  dis- 
appeared below  the  surface.  A small  conical-shaped  mound  of  loose 
earth  was  formed  about  and  over  the  opening  of  the  burrow'.  On  No- 
vember 4 two  other  mature  Boll  Worms  were  similarly  placed  in  open 
cans,  the  one  on  solid  earth,  the  other  on  earth  which  had  been  dug  up 
and  made  very  loose.  So  far  as  could  be  seen  without  digging  the  bur- 
rows wrere  made  exactly  as  the  one  just  mentioned. 

On  November  14  all  thp  burrows  were  carefully  followed  up  with  a 
small  trowel,  to  determine  depth,  condition  of  the  burrows  and  cells. 
The  worm  placed  on  solid  earth,  November  1,  had  proceeded  as  follows : 
Down  for  an  inch,  then  slanting  at  about  an  angle  of  120  degrees  for 
2 inches  more  when  the  cell  had  been  made  upward.  The  cell  was 
about  an  inch  and  a half  long,  and  was  therefore  within  an  inch  or  less 
of  the  surface.  Very  little  webbing  was  noticeable  along  the  burrow, 
and  but  little  in  the  cell.  The  burrow  was  about  0.25  inch  in  diameter, 
larger  at  the  distal  end,  and  contained  a small  amount  of  loose  earth 
along  its  entire  length  ; also  a plug  of  loose  earth  about  0.25  inch  long 
at  the  distal  end  next  the  cell.  Having  been  in  the  earth  2 weeks,  I 
was  surprised  to  find  that  the  worm  had  not  yet  pupated.  The  burrows 
and  cells  of  the  other  two  worms  were  examined,  but  no  special  differ- 
ence worthy  of  note  was  found.  The  peculiar  facts  in  all  were : (1) 
That  the  cells  were  all  inclined  and  higher  than  the  lowest  part  of  the 
burrow,  thus  bringing  the  pupa  above  the  latter ; (2)  that  the  cells 
were  so  near  the  surface;  (3)  that  the  larvae  were  all  found  with  their 
heads  at  the  upper  end  of  the  cell,  wherefore  the  pupae  wrould  have 
been  found  with  the  anterior  portion  highest  and  resting  on  posterior 
end;  (4)  that  they  had  not  pupated  after  having  been  in  the  earth  so 
loug  a time. 


2‘2 


The  duration  of  the  pupal  state  as  noted  by  Dr.  Booth  for  August  to 
September  2,  was  10  to  11  days.  At  Holly  Springs,  Mississippi,  a 
uumber  of  worms  pupated  between  August  28  and  31.  Some  of  the 
pupae  issued  after  15  days  and  others  not  until  after  27  days.  Two 
others  which  had  pupated  September  4 and  7 issued  September  20  and 
30,  making  16  and  22  days  for  the  pupal  state,  respectively.  Another 
worm  pupated  August  31.  This  pupa  was  alive,  but  had  not  issued  at 
last  observation,  October  20,  when  it  was  injured  and  died  later. 

For  description  of  pupa  see  Fourth  Report,  U.  S.  Entomological  Com- 
mission, p.  371. 

THE  IMA  HO. 

For  description  of  the  moth  see  Fourth  Report,  U.  S.  Entomological 
Commission,  p.  371. 

The  sexes  of  the  Boll  Worm  moth  can  usually  be  readily  recognized, 
especially  if  but  a short  time  has  elapsed  since  their  issuance.  After 
the  females  have  deposited  most  of  their  eggs  and  their  wings  have 
become  worn  and  battered  the  sex  is  less  easily  distinguished.  The 
body  of  the  female  is  noticeably  more  robust  than  the  male;  especially 
the  abdomen,  which  is  distended  somewhat  by  the  eggs  which  are  being 
matured.  The  end  of  the  abdomen  is  ovoid,  acute,  the  tip  not  provided 
with  so  large  a tuft  of  thick  hairs  as  is  that  of  the  male.  The  abdomen 
of  the  male,  tapering  more  gradually  is  slightly  longer,  of  less  diameter, 
and  more  cylindrical. 

When  feeding  or  ovipositing,  the  flight  of  the  moth  is  much  slower 
than  when  flying  long  distances.  The  moth  approaches  a flower  dr 
gland,  often  steadying  itself  with  the  fore  legs,  in  any  case  Muttering 
its  wings  rapidly,  with  antennae  in  constant  motion.  Sometimes  they 
alight  to  sip  sweets,  or  perhaps  to  rest ; in  either  case  the  wings  are  not 
closed  down  upon  the  body,  but  are  partially  spread  and  elevated,  leav- 
ing bare  the  abdomen.  If,  however,  the  moth  alights  to  hide,  the  wings 
are  folded  down  closely  upon  the  body.  Much  the  same  flight  is  ob- 
served in  the  female  when  ovipositing,  sometimes  alighting  to  do  so, 
but  usually  only  steadying  herself  with  the  fore  legs.  In  the  act  of 
oviposition,  the  abdomen  is  bent  forward  sickle-shaped,  bringing  the 
apex  squarely  upon  the  surface  to  be  deposited  on.  The  time  occupied 
in  depositing  an  egg  in  this  manner  is  equivalent  to  the  time  it  requires 
to  count  three  or  four  slowly.  At  this  rate,  and  in  the  interval  of  flying 
about  from  plant  to  plant,  some  half  dozen  eggs  are  deposited,  when 
the  moth  is  seen  to  fly  away.  So  far  as  can  be  determined  these  inter- 
vening flights  are  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  and  rest  from  labor. 

Though  the  habits  of  the  Boll  Worm  moth  have  been  classed  as  noc- 
turnal, and  they  are  principally  so,  yet  its  diurnal  habits  are  perhaps  of 
geater  importance  than  has  hitherto  been  supposed.  During  continued 
daily  observations  on  the  Boll  W orm  in  the  field  the  moth  was  frequently 
seen  flying  about,  and  at  times  observed  to  feed.  Upon  closer  obser- 


23 


ration  it  was  found  that  on  pleasant  sunshiny  afternoons  the  moths 
flew  about  quite  plentifully,  feeding  freely  during  their  flight.  Often 
while  standing  in  a patch  of  cowpeas,  from  about  3 p.  m.,  have  I ob- 
served the  moths,  without  any  previous  disturbance,  rise  here  and 
there,  fly  about  the  pea  blossoms  or  the  glands  at  the  base  of  the  young 
pods,  sip  their  exudations  for  a few  minutes  at  a time,  and  then  fly  away 
a short  distance,  alight  to  rest  and  hide.  In  the  early  part  of  the 
afternoon  the  length  of  their  visits  to  the  pea  blossoms  are  short  and 
the  time  of  their  hiding  longer  than  later.  About  5 to  0 p.  m.,  when 
the  sun  is  yet  quite  high,  the  moths  begin  to  fly  for  a louger  time  and 
their  hidings  are  of  shorter  duration. 

My  own  experience  with  the  moth  has  been  that  it  feeds  freely  from 
about  4 p.  m.  until  sundown,  when  the  females  begin  depositing  their 
eggs,  feeding  being  apparently  a minor  matter  at  this  time.  The  moths 
thus  seen  flying  about  in  the  afternoon  are  not  confined  to  one  sex, 
though  the  males  predominate  during  the  earlier  period  until  an  hour 
or  so  before  sundown,  when  both  sexes  appear  presumably  in  about 
equal  numbers.  The  favorite  food  of  the  moths  at  daytime  are  the 
blossoms  and  other  secreting  glands  of  the  cowpeas;  they  also  feed  freely 
on  clover  and  Relenium  tenuifolium.  During  the  day  the  moth  is  seldom 
met  with  in  the  cotton  fields  either  as  feeding  or  by  being  flushed.  It 
therefore  appears  that  during  the  day  the  moth  prefers  to  hide  and 
feed  upon  plants  some  distance  away  from  the  cotton  fields.  During 
twilight  and  night  the  moths  are  found  abundantly  in  corn  and  cotton 
fields,  and  feed  almost  entirely  upon  the  exudations  of  the  various 
glands  found  on  the  cotton  plant. 

But  not  only  are  the  feeding  habits  of  the  moth  partly  diurnal  but 
also  those  of  the  deposition  of  eggs.  Though  on  several  occasions  a 
moth  was  seen  depositing  eggs  on  corn,  and  once  on  cowpeas  in  mid- 
afternoon,  the  habit  is  not  one  of  frequent  occurrence. 

These  diurnal  habits  of  feeding  and  occasional  deposition  are  of  great 
importance  in  the  consideration  of  the  utility  of  lights  as  traps  for 
catching  the  moths  at  night,  and  will  be  taken  up  more  fully  in  that 
connection. 

The  number  of  eggs  which  a female  may  be  capable  of  depositing 
is  difficult  of  absolute  determination,  but  has  been  shown  to  be  much 
greater  than  was  supposed.  A female  which  had  issued  in  confinement 
was  placed  in  a breeding  cage  with  a male  which  had  issued  the  suc- 
ceeding day.  Five  days  after  deposition  of  eggs  began,  and  continued 
for  7 days.  During  this  time  087  eggs  were  laid.  Unfortunately, 
the  female  which  was  thus  under  observation  after  having  died  became 
mixed  with  other  dead  specimens  on  the  table  and  hence  no  dissections 
were  made  with  a view  of  determining  whether  any  well  developed 
eggs  remained  in  the  abdomen  or  whether  the  number  of  potential  ova 
was  great.  A female  captured  August  5,  and  confined  in  a box  de- 
posited 627  eggs  in  one  night.  Another,  captured  August  8,  and 


24 


kept  in  the  same  manner,  deposited  468  in  one  night.  Another,  cap- 
tured August  14,  deposited  505  eggs  the  first  night,  was  kept  in  a 
tin  box  without  food  during  the  next  day  and  deposited  125  eggs  more 
on  the  second  night,  making  630  in  all.  The  first  female  spoken  of 
above  as  having  deposited  her  687  eggs  on  seven  successive  nights  did 
so  as  follows,  beginning  with  the  first  night  and  continuing  in  order: 
49,  5,  10,  436,  147,  22,  18;  averaging  98  per  night. 

The  life  of  the  moth  was  probably  shortened  by  confinement,  and 
therefore  the  average  number  of  eggs  deposited  each  night  is  entirely  too 
higji  for  oviposition  under  normal  conditions.  The  record,  however, 
shows  that  a climax  in  egg  deposition  is  reached  after  a certain  period. 
(The  possible  importance  of  this  fact  is  considered  under  the  head  of 
lights  as  traps  for  the  moth.)  The  total  number  of  eggs  deposited  by 
the  four  females  above  noted  was  2,413,  averaging  603  per  moth.  But 
the  number  of  eggs  deposited  in  one  night  by  the  moths  captured  and 
confined  show  that  their  period  of  greatest  egg  deposition  had  already 
been  reached  by  them.  Judging  from  the  record  of  the  moth  whose 
deposition  of  eggs  was  observed  from  the  first,  it  seems  safe  to  suppose 
that  probably  each  of  the  other  moths  had  deposited  about  50  eggs 
previous  to  being  captured.  This  would  raise  the  average  to  653  eggs 
per  female.  But  again,  from  dissections  of  the  females  thus  observed  in 
confinement  it  was  found  that  a number  of  well  developed  eggs  re- 
mained, and  usually  also  a great  number  of  potential  ova.  The  aver- 
age of  653  eggs  per  female  is  therefore  certainly  not  too  great  and  proba- 
bly much  too  small. 

What  the  number  of  eggs  deposited  in  one  night  in  a free  state  of 
nature  are  can  only  be  approximated.  As  has  been  stated  the  female 
deposits  four,  five,  or  more  eggs  in  succession,  then  flies  away,  feeds 
or  rests  a time,  afterwards  repeating  the  process.  The  interval  of 
nondeposition  is  necessarily  variable,  though  as  near  as  can  be  deter- 
mined about  5 to  15  minutes.  How  long  deposition  is  continued  dur- 
ing an  evening  is  also  not  to  be  definitely  stated,  though  it  is  noticeable 
that  the  moths  begin  to  decrease  greatly  in  numbers  soon  after  8 o’clock, 
thus  approximately  the  time  is  about  2 hours.  From  these  data  it  may 
be  approximated  that  from  about  30  to  60  eggs  are  normally  deposited 
in  a single  night.  For  the  nights  during  the  period  of  greatest  deposi- 
tion, the  number  deposited  is  probably  much  larger. 

Upon  the  number  and  distribution  of  the  eggs  upon  the  various  parts 
of  the  host  plants  the  following  data  are  collated  : By  actual  count  the 
number  of  eggs  found  on  five  corn  plants  is  as  follows,  in  averages:  per 
plant,  74  distributed  as  follows:  tassel,  10;  leaf  sheaths,  10;  leaves, 
14;  husks  of  ears,  15;  silks,  25.  The  above  count  was  made  in  a small 
patch  of  corn  surrounded  by  cotton  fields  with  no  other  corn  near, 
wherefore  the  number  of  eggs  per  plant  was  perhaps  greater  than  on 
plants  in  larger  fields  of  corn.  (This  point  will  be  considered  more  fully 
under  corn  as  a protection  to  cotton,  which  see.)  Of  five  cotton  plants 


25 


the  number  and  distribution  of  eggs  in  averages  was  as  follows:  per 
plant,  7 ; leaves,  4 ; involucre,  1 ; stem  and  petiole,  each,  1.  These  are 
the  data  for  plants  examined  at  random  at  different  times  while  mak- 
ing observations.  Bearing  upon  the  choice  of  the  place  of  deposition 
the  record  of  the  female  already  spoken  of  as  depositing  in  confinement 
is  interesting,  and  for  the  whole  period  of  deposition  was  as  follows: 
on  leaves,  upper  side,'  37 ; under  side,  110  ; stem,  23 ; petiole,  51 ; in- 
volucre, 4 ; 

The  eggs  are  deposited  upon  quite  a number  of  host  plants.  Corn  is 
unquestionably  preferable  if  not  too  near  maturity.  Cotton  perhaps 
ranks  next,  though  they  deposit  freely  upon  cowpeas.  In  addition  to 
these  the  moth  was  observed  to  deposit  on  the  flower  heads  of  Helenium 
tenui folium,  Amarantus  spinosus , and  A.  retroflexus  with  Datura  stra- 
monium, upon  which  the  moth  feeds  occasionally,  Erigeron  canadense , 
and  a species  of  Panicum,  on  the  doubtful  list.  Deposition  was  not 
actually  observed  on  any  other  host  plants,  though  presumably  the  moth 
will  deposit  on  those  plants  upon  which  the  worm  is  known  to  feed. 

The  food  of  the  moth  is  quite  diversified.  During  the  night,  so  far 
as  observed,  the  secretions  of  the  various  glands  of  cotton  seem  to  be 
their  main  food,  while  during  the  day  the  same  may  be  said  of  cow- 
peas,  Helenium  tenui folium,  and  to  a lesser  degree  of  newly  protruding 
corn  tassels ; occasionally,  Amarantus  retroflexus , A spinosus , Datura 
stramonium , and  perhaps  some  of  the  grasses.  There  may  be  many 
other  flowers,  glands,  possibly  also  fruits,  which  are  visited,  but  which 
did  not  come  under  observation. 

The  regular. flight  of  the  moth  is  very  swift  and  never  very  high.  In 
flying  some  distance  in  a cotton  field  it  seldom  rises  to  the  level  of  the 
tops  of  the  cotton  plants,  but  flies  lower,  darting  this  way  and  that  be- 
tween the  plants  and  foliage  in  the  rows,  and  in  this  way  from  row  to 
row  across  the  field.  This  manner  of  flight  is  also  of  importance  in  ad- 
justing lights  as  traps  for  them,  and  is  referred  to  its  appropriate 
heading. 

During  the  greater  portion  of  the  day  the  moths  remain  hid.  If  in 
corn  field  they  are  found  down  behind  the  sheath  of  the  blades  of  the 
stalks,  about  two  or  three  feet  from  the  ground.  But  most  of  the  moths 
hide  outside  of  both  corn  and  cotton  fields,  around  the  edges  in  the 
weeds,  under  dried  grass  and  rubbish,  or  in  adjoining  fields  of  clover 
or  cowpeas.  When  found  hiding  in  these  places  they  are  usually  upon 
or  near  the  ground,  wings  folded  upon  the  body,  and  so  located  that  a 
dried  blade  of  grass  or  other  object  quite  completely  hides  them  from 
view. 

NUMBER  OF  BROODS  AND  HIBERNATION 

Observations  having  only  begun  in  August,  the  notes  taken  begin 
with  the  fourth  brood,  which  is  the  one  which  first  begins  to  deposit 
freely  ou  cotton. 


26 


The  broods  overlap  each  other  mostly  as  a result  of  a difference  in 
the  rapidity  of  growth  of  many  of  the  worms.  One  lot  of  Boll  Worms 
obtained  from  eggs  deposited  in  a breeding  cage  by  a single  female  in 
a single  night,  and  later  hatched  on  the  same  date,  were  reared  under 
the  same  conditions.  Some  of  these  worms  matured  and  entered  the 
earth  for  pupation,  while  others  were  yet  but  half  or  two-thirds  grown. 
Due  to  such  great  irregularity  in  the  length  of  the  larval  state  fresh 
females  of  the  fourth  brood  may  be  found  along  with  the  first  to  issue 
of  the  fifth  brood  in  September.  Not  much  work  of  the  Boll  Worm  in 
cotton  is  noticed  until  August  or  early  in  September.  From  about  the 
middle  of  September  the  moths  of  the  fifth  brood  begin  appearing, 
and  continue  to  the  last  of  the  month,  or  even  the  first  of  October, 
after  which  time  they  are  not  often  met  with.  At  least  a partial  sixth 
brood  begins  appearing  late  in  September  and  early  in  October,  and 
consist  principally  no  doubt  of  those  individuals  that  have  undergone 
their  transformations  rapidly.  That  all  of  the  sixth  brood  does  not 
appear  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  they  are  fewer  in  number  than  any 
of  the  earlier  broods.  Hence  many  of  the  pupae  of  the  fifth  brood  of 
moths  pass  through  the  winter  as  such  and  form  a part  of  the  first 
brood  in  spring.  The  moths  of  the  last  brood  appearing  so  irregularly, 
worms  hatched  from  eggs  of  this  brood  are  found  in  all  stages  as  late 
as  November  20  to  December  1.  At  Shreveport,  Louisiana,  during 
this  period  Boll  Worms  were  found  on  cotton  which  had  only  -molted 
the  second  time  and  were  therefore  only  about  one-third  grown. 

But  this  irregularity  in  duration  of  certain  stages  of  the  insect  is  not 
coufined  to  the  larvae,  but  to  the  pupae  as  well.  Of  a number  of  pupae 
which  had  been  kept  over  from  September  and  October  one  issued  at 
Shreveport,  Louisiana,  December  12.  Whether  the  moths,  if  there  be 
many  which  issue  at  this  time,  hibernate  as  such  or  deposit  their  eggs 
at  once  and  die  soon  after,  has  not  been  determined  positively.  If  the 
latter  be  the  case,  the  progeny  will  certainly  be  entirely  lost,  since  no 
living  food  plants  are  found  at  this  period.  The  Boll  Worms  which  were 
yet  immature  at  the  time  of  the  killing  frost  early  in  December  were 
quite  certainly  destroyed,  as  nothing  remained  for  them  to  feed  upon. 
As  to  whether  the  moths  hibernate,  I can  only  say  that  close  and  con- 
tinued search  during  December  has  failed  to  discover  the  moth.  This 
may  not  be  surprising,  however,  since  certainly  the  moths  which  issue 
at  so  late  a date,  and  which  would  therefore  be  likely  to  hibernate,  are 
very  few  in  number,  and  hence  would  be  met  with  perhaps  only  acci- 
dentally during  the  winter  season.  Though  a fewr  moths  issue  at  so 
late  a time  as  has  been  mentioned,  the  other  extreme  is  also  met  with 
in  the  pupal  state.  Evidence  of  this  is  the  fact  that  several  pupae 
which  were  obtained  from  breeding  cages  late  in  A ugust  had  not  issued 
up  to  November,  when  they  were  still  alive,  but  were  accidentally  in- 
jured and  died. 

It  must  be  kept  in  mind  throughout  in  speaking  of  certain  stages  of 


27 


the  species  that  a majority  only  of  that  stage  is  referred  to.  It  should 
further  be  remembered  that  these  observations  apply  only  to  the  north- 
ern region  of  “the  cotton  belt”  and  doubtless  can  be  much  enlarged 
upon  by  observations  in  more  southern  portions. 

NATURAL  ENEMIES. 

The  fact  that  the  Boll  Worm  was  so  scarce  during  the  past  season 
precluded  making  extensive  observations  along  this  line. 

Among  the  vertebrates  only  circumstantial  evidence  was  obtained. 
In  one  instance  where  the  dissevered  wings  and  torn  bodies  of  Helio- 
this  were  found  under  and  near  a large  tree  in  a cotton  field  it  was 
also  found  that  a u butcher  bird  ” had  its  nest  on  one  of  the  upper 
branches.  Another  was  the  case  of  a negro  tenant,  who  complained 
about  the  crows  lighting  on  his  corn  plants  in  the  field  and  eating  into 
the  end  of  the  ears.  Upon  examination  it  was  found  that  the  corn  was 
badly  infested  with  Boll  Worm.  This  alone  could  not  serve  to  estab- 
lish the  fact  that  crows  picked  into  the  ears  for  the  primary  purpose  of 
feeding  on  the  worms.  Feeding  on  the  tender  grains  of  corn  beneath 
the  husk  quite  probably  an  occasional  small  Boll  Worm  was  eating.  It 
is  also  probable  that  still  others  will  be  injured  by  the  pecking  into  the 
ends  of  the  ears.  The  crops  and  stomachs  of  a number  of  quails  were 
examined  and  though  they  had  them  shot  about  cotton  fields  no  Boll 
Worms  were  found  in  these  parts  of  their  digestive  organs.  Upon  vis- 
iting the  fields  about  which  they  had  been  shot  no  Boll  Worms  could 
be  found  and  the  negative  result  has  therefore  no  great  significance. 

A common  species  of  Soldier  bug  ( Podisus  spinosus)  was  found  de- 
vouring a large  full-grown  Boll  Worm.  An  immature  capsid  (near 
Leptoterna ) was  overlooked  and  left  on  a branch  of  cotton  placed  in  a 
breeding  cage  for  a female  to  deposit  upon.  Soon  after  deposition 
some  of  the  eggs  showed  signs  of  shriveling  and  were  supposed  to  be 
sterile.  Close  examination,  however,  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  de- 
stroyer, which  was  as  yet  but  a pupa.  The  eggs  being  nearly  empty 
it  was  evident  that  the  pupa  had  punctured  the  eggs  and  sucked  their 
coutents.  The  same  pupa  was  then  placed  on  a branch  of  cotton  with 
some  newly-hatched  Boll  Worms,  all  of  which  fell  victims  to  its  beak. 
A common  species  of  the  robber  flies  ( Erax  lateralis)  was  also  seen  to 
catch  the  moth  while  on  the  wing. 

No  observations  could  be  made  upon  ants  in  relation  to  the  Boll 
Worm,  since  the  latter  were  not  abundant  enough  for  that  purpose. 
The  ants  have  been  watched  on  corn  for  an  hour  without  noticing  an 
attack  upon  the  eggs  found  deposited  there.  They  are  occasionally 
seen  to  enter  the  holes  through  the  husks  into  the  ears,  but  I did  not 
observe  that  they  went  in  for  the  purpose  of  attacking  the  Boll  Worms. 
They  only  sipped  freely  of  the  juices  and  ferments  of  the  injured  kernels 
of  corn  and  the  excrement  of  the  worms.  Sometimes  dead  worms  are 


28 


found  in  the  ends  of  ears  into  which  ants  have  entered,  but  the  condi- 
tion of  the  worms  plainly  indicates  that  they  had  not  been  bitten  or 
tormented  to  death.  In  fact,  worms  under  similar  conditions,  except 
the  absence  of  the  ants,  are  often  found,  but  from  which  parasites  are 
usually  bred.  A nearly  grown  Boll  Worm  was  placed  in  the  path  of  a 
great  army  of  ants,  but  was  not  caused  any  great  inconvenience  by 
them.  Sometimes  an  ant  would  run  up  on  the  back  of  the  worm,  but 
the  twisting,  jerking,  and  rolling  of  the  worm  soon  displaced  the  in- 
truder and  the  worm  escaped  uninjured. 

Of  the  three  parasites,  the  one  attacking  the  eggs  ( Trichogramma 
pretiosa)  is  most  important,  though  there  are  at  least  three  others  at- 
tacking the  worms.  A small  Chalcid*  was  bred  in  great  numbers  from 
a Boll  Worm  captured  in  the  field  and  transferred  to  a breeding  cage 
to  rear.  The  worm  had  been  dead  for  a day  or  two  before  the  para- 
sitic larvne  issued  from  its  body.  These  did  not  form  silken  cocoons 
but  pupated  nakedly  on  the  side  of  the  glass  bottle.  At  least  two 
species  of  Tachina  deposit  their  eggs  on  the  backs  of  the  worms.  The 
one  deposits  a pure  white  egg,  the  other  a deep  brown  or  black  one.t 

Both  kinds  are  of  the  usual  form  and  size  of  Tachina  eggs.  Great 
difficulty  has  been  experienced  in  rearing  the  dipterous  larvae  after 
issuing  from  the  dead  body  and  I have  thus  far  .obtained  no  adults. 

As  already  stated,  the  most  important  parasite  is  the  small  Tricho- 
gramma of  the  egg.  The  number  of  eggs  which  were  found  to  be  de- 
stroyed by  this  parasite  was  simply  amazing.  In  small  patches  of  corn 
near  cotton  fields  it  was  noticed  that  of  the  many  eggs  found  on  the 
husks  and  blades  but  a few  retained  their  normal  color,  but  soon  turned 
dark  or  entirely  black.  Of  the  57  eggs  taken  from  some  8 or  10  corn 
silks  from  this  field  October  18  only  7 hatched.  The  remainder  were 
kept  in  a vial  for  a t ime,  when  later  the  parasites  issued  in  abundance. 
In  this  instance  84  per  cent  of  the  eggs  had  been  destroyed  by  the 
parasites.  This  per  cent  may  be  a little  too  high  for  the  average,  but 
judging  from  the  large  majority  of  eggs  seen  on  the  plants,  which  were 
black  and  evidently  parasitized,  it  is  certainly  conservative  to  say  that 
during  the  Fall  season  75  per  cent  of  the  eggs  are  destroyed  through  its 
agency. 

INSECT  RAVAGES  EASILY  MISTAKEN  FOR  THOSE  OF  THE  BOLL 

WORM. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  many  planters  attribute  all  of  the  shed  forms 
or  bolls  which  show  any  signs  of  insect  attack  to  the  work  of  the  Boll 
Worm,  it  seems  advisable  to  treat  briefly  of  a few  other  insect  depreda- 
tions which  are  not  well  understood  by  them,  and  whose  marks  upon  the 
fallen  squares  may  readily  be  mistaken  by  an  inexperienced  eye. 

* This  was  Hexaplasta  zigzag , and  is  a parasite  of  Phora  and  not  of  Jletia,  Phora 
being  a scavenger  on  dead  larvae  of  all  kinds  in  the  South. — C.  V.  R. 

tNo  black  Tachiuid  eggs  are  known,  and  these  were  doubtless  the  eggs  of  Eu- 
plectnis  comstocTcii. — C.  V.  R. 


29 


EUPHORIA.  MELANCHOLIC  A. 

These  beetles,  together  with  the  four  species  of  larvae  immediately 
following,  are  perhaps  of  greatest  importance  in  this  connection.  The 
first  observation  upon  this  species  was  made  at  Lamar,  Mississippi. 
It  led  me  to  believe  that  the  beetles  did  original  boring  into  the  bolls  in 
order  to  reach  the  soft  parts  and  their  juices  inside.  Subsequent  ob- 
servations have  not  verified  this  opinion.  The  beetles  observed  at 
Lamar  were  found  on  a boll  with  their  heads  inserted  into  a small  per- 
fectly roiiLid  hole  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  deep,  or  just  deep  enough  to 
reach  the  soft  parts  beneath  the  pericarp.  Few  Boll  Worms  had  been 
found  in  the  field,  and  it  seemed  quite  probable  that  the  beetle  had  eaten 
out  the  cavities  themselves.  At  Holly  Springs,  Mississippi,  where  the 
beetles  were  found  quite  plentifully  in  some  fields,  none  were  ever  again 
seen  under  similar  circumstances. 

Flying  about  among  the  cotton  plants  during  an  afternoon  they  would 
be  seen  to  alight  on  some  boll  which  had  been  recently  bored  by  the 
Boll  Worm,  but  which  had  already  been  deserted  by  it.  Here  the 
beetle  would  sip  of  whatever  juices  there  might  be  coming  out  of  the 
injured  boll.  This  is  quite  profuse  at  times,  especially  from  those  bolls 
of  which  the  Boll  Worm  has  but  partially  destroyed  a certain  section. 
From  these  proceeds  a profuse  frothing  ferment,  highly  relished  by  the 
beetles,  for  occasionally  two  or  three  may  be  found  at  such  bolls. 
When  no  boll  with  this  tasteful  exudate  is  found,  they  often  alighi  on 
the  tender-growing  portions  of  a branch  where  leaf  and  flower  buds 
may  as  yet  be  found  but  partially  developed.  They  crowd  down  be- 
tween these  and  puncture  the  tender  and  juicy  peduncles,  nearly 
always  attacking  those  bearing  flower  buds.  The  small  form  supported 
by  this  peduncle  dries  up  just  as  those  bored  by  the  newly  hatched 
Boll  Worm,  and  when  dried  enough  to  fall  readily  can  not  easily  be 
distinguished  from  young  Boll  Worm  work.  With  a view  of  determin- 
ing whether  the  beetle  ever  did  original  boring  upon  cotton  bolls  if  left 
to  its  choice,  a number  were  placed  on  branches  of  cotton  in  a breeding 
cage,  so  as  to  be  kept  under  observation.  The  results  of  these  studies 
during  confinement  showed  plainly  that  the  beetle  did  its  most  injurious 
work  by  puncturing  peduncles  bearing  forms  or  puncturing  the  very 
small  bolls ; in  either  case  they  were  always  shed.  It  therefore  appears 
that  if  the  beetle  bores  or  eats  into  bolls  at  all,  it  certainly  is  an  excep- 
tional method  of  attack. 


PLATYNOTA  SENT AN A. 

The  larva  of  this  Tortricid  moth  is  a small,  green,  slender,  hairy 
worm,  having  a brown  head,  and  is  about  half  an  inch  long.  It  attacks 
forms  and  squares  much  the  same  as  the  young  Boll  Worm  does.  After 
the  work  is  done  and  the  worm  has  gone,  its  work  can  not  be  distin- 
guished from  young  Boll-Worm  ravages.  These  larvae  continue  their 


30 


habit  of  feeding  on  forms  or  young  bolls  until  about  half  grown,  when 
they  often  migrate  to  the  leaves,  fold  a portion  of  them  together,  and 
feed  under  eover.  Many,  however,  remain  with  the  young  bolls,  and 
reach  maturity  by  feeding  on  them.  They  have  been  observed  to  bore 
half-grown  bolls  and  destroy  their  contents. 

CACCEOlA  ROSACE  ANA. 

This  Tortricid  attacks  the  cotton  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  pre- 
ceding species,  and  for  that  reason  its  depredations  may  be  mistaken 
for  traces  of  the  Boll  Worm.  The  worm  differs  from  the  preceding  in 
that  the  head,  dorsal  surface  of  the  first  segment,  and  the  legs  are  black. 

PRODENIA  LINEATELLA. 

This  fleshy  worm  was  observed  entering  into  nearly  grown  bolls  and 
feeding  on  their  conteuts.  Its  ravages  are  exactly  like  those  of  a nearly 
grown  Boll  Worm,  and  the  two  can  not  be  distinguished. 

noctuid  (undetermined). 

A cutworm,  looking  much  like  Agrotis  c-nigrum , was  found  in  a large 
breeding  cage  which  had  been  placed  over  some  cotton  plants  in  the 
field.  When  placed  over  the  plants,  none  of  the  forms  or  bolls  had  been 
injured,  and  no  Boll  Worms  were  found  on  the  plants.  Some  time  later 
several  large  bolls  had  been  bored,  and  this  worm  was  the  only  one 
which  could  be  found  in  the  cage.  The  evidence  is  therefore  only  cir- 
cumstantial. 

PLANT  LICE. 

(Aphis  gossypii  and  Aphis  sp.) 

These  small,  greenish,  mostly  wingless,  insects  were  especially  abun 
dant  during  the  past  season.  Earlier  in  the  season  they  are  found  prin- 
cipally on  the  leaves*  and  younger  growing  portions  of  the  branches, 
but  frequently  also  on  the  young  bolls  between  them  and  the  involucre. 
Later  in  the  season  they  are  fouud  most  abundantly  in  the  last-named 
localities,  aud  in  such  great  numbers  on  a single  form  or  young  boll 
that  the  latter  soon  fall  off  as  a result  of  their  puncturings. 

In  many  cases  the  fruit  thus  injured  simply  dries  and  adheres  to  the 
branch.  This  fact  often  serves  to  distinguish  it  from  Boll  Worm  work. 
Even  when  this  is  not  the  case  their  work  is  readily  distinguished  in 
that  the  form  or  square  contains  numerous  small  punctures. 

THRIPIDJE. 

These  small  brownish  insects  during  August  were  found  in  great 
numbers  in  the  forming  blossoms  of  the  cotton  plant.  The  feeding  of 
these  insects  causes  the  form  to  drop  soon  after  the  blossom  falls,  if 


31 


not  before.  Such  forms  often  present  small  black  spots  looking  like 
small  borings,  but  which  are  so  numerous  that  they  need  not  be  con- 
fused with  young  Boll-Worm  ravages.  It  must  be  noted  that  these 
signs  of  mechanical  injury  are  not  to  be  attributed  to  the  Thrips.  The 
shedding  of  these  bolls  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the  work  of  the 
Thrips  on  the  essential  organs  prevents  fertilization.  This  insures  the 
dropping  of  the  fruit. 

Many  other  species  of  the  suborder  Heteroptera  probably  puncture  the 
pericarp  of  the  very  young  bolls  or  their  peduncles,  in  either  case  caus- 
ing the  shedding  of  the  fruit.  Careful  examination  will  show  that  the 
injury  is  a puncture  and  should  not  be  mistaken. 

Neither  of  the  iirst  four  species  mentioned  are  numerous  enough  to 
cause  alarm  or  extended  damage,  and  are  only  mentioned  to  show  that 
there  is  a certain  small  per  cent  of  injury  easily  attributed  to  the  Boll 
Worm  which  does  not  justly  belong  to  that  species. 


REMEDIES. 

TOPPING  OF  COTTON  AND  ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 

These  have  both  been  justly  pronounced  inefficient  as  a means  of 
fighting  the  Boll  Worm  (see  Fourth  Report  U.  S.  Entomological  Com- 
mission). It  may  be  stated,  however,  that  numerous  interviews  with 
farmers  verified  the  opinion  that  topping  did  no  harm,  and  that  if  u you 
could  strike  it  right”  it  was  an  advantage.  Experimentation  is  first 
necessary  to  show  that  it  is  practical  and  profitable  to  practice  topping 
of  cotton  as  an  additional  means  of  cultivation  and  the  proper  time  to 
do  so  determined.  When  this  is  done  it  will  depend  largely  upon 
whether  that  time  falls  within  the  period  of  greatest  deposition  by  the 
moths.  If  so,  no  doubt  some  additional  benefit  will  be  derived  by  the 
destruction  of  the  eggs  deposited  on  the  parts  cut  away  in  topping. 
But  since  the  moth  has  been  found  to  have  such  a wide  range  of  de- 
position and  the  portion  cut  off  in  topping  is  so  small  in  proportion  to 
the  whole  surface  of  the  plant  exposed  and  suitable  for  deposition,  it  is 
not  to  be  recommended  to  incur  the  expense  of  topping  when  nothing 
more  is  to  be  accomplished  than  the  destruction  of  the  few  eggs  which 
are  likely  to  be  found  on  the  parts  cut  away.  The  rotation  of  crops 
can  be  of  no  avail  against  the  insect,  since  it  feeds  equally  well  upon  the 
corn  or  cowpeas,  which  are  most  likely  to  be  rotated  with  the  cotton. 

FALL  PLOWING. 

This  is  to  be  urged  for  several  reasons.  It  has  been  my  experience, 
that  where  the  cells  of  the  Boll  Worm  pupae  are  broken  up  and  placed 
in  loose,  moist  earth,  which  is  allowed  to  be  moist  continuously  and 
possibly  to  excess,  that  the  pupae  die  in  a majority  of  cases  even  with- 
out freezing.  It  therefore  appears  that  actual  contact  of  the  pupa 


32 


with  the  cold  moist  earth  sooner  or  later  may  cause  its  death.  From 
this  fact  and  the  long  continuous  rainy  season  of  the  winter  here  it 
seems  probable  that  great  numbers  of  the  pupae  will  be  destroyed  if 
the  soil  be  plowed  late  in  December,  so  as  to  allow  the  loose  earth  to 
become  well  drenched  by  the  almost  continuous  January  rains.  Sub- 
sequent rains  will  keep  it  quite  wet,  often  perhaps,  to  excess.  The 
pupal  cells  having  been  broken  up,  the  wet  earth  directly  affects  the 
wellbeing  of  the  pupae*  Even  though  the  exposure  to  moisture  alone 
should  not  prove  entirely  efficient,  a light  frost  or  the  sudden  cold 
wave  changes  of  the  atmosphere  would  greatly  aid  in  the  work  of 
destruction.  Certain  it  is,  that  a heavy  frost  occurring  when  the  pupae 
are  in  such  condition  would  destroy  all  thus  exposed.  For  this  reason 
if  the  soil  could  be  plowed  in  November  so  that  the  first  black  frost 
of  the  winter  season  could  be  utilized  in  killing  exposed  pupae,  great 
benefit  would  certainly  be  derived. 

CORN  AS  PROTECTION  TO  COTTON. 

Cornfields  planted  in  July  or  August  were  always  found  to  be  badly 
infested  with  worms.  Especially  was  this  the  case  where  the  fields 
were  small  and  near  cotton  fields.  At  the  same  time  corn  fields  no 
larger  but  greater  distances  away  from  cotton  fields  were  less  infested 
and  the  cotton  more  so.  As  has  previously  been  noted,  this  is  explained 
by  the  fact  that  the  moths  feed  mostly  on  cotton  at  night,  but  leave  it 
to  deposit  on  corn  if  found  suitable  and  near  by.  Even  late  spring 
planting  was  found  suitable  for  deposition  in  August,  though  maturing 
rapidly  and  having  nearly  grown  worms  in  the  ears.  Especially  sug- 
gestive were  the  observations  made  in  cotton  fields  where  a poor  stand 
had  been  obtained  and  where  corn  had  been  planted  in  the  “skips.” 
In  all  cases  the  moths  deposited  freely  upon  the  corn,  though  it  was 
fast  reaching  maturity.  Several  of  these  cotton  fields  were  carefully  ex- 
amined. The  most  extended  searcli  for  worms  revealed  very  few  in- 
deed, and  the  only  possible  conclusion  to  be  arrived  at  was  on  the 
whole  that  the  damage  to  the  cotton  was  not  so  great  as  in  those  fields 
without  the  corn  distributed  through  them.  It  is  therefore  evident  that 
by  the  proper  management  of  the  planting  of  corn  the  latter  could  be 
made  to  answer  as  a great  protection  to  the  cotton  against  Boll  Worm 
ravages.  This  management  must  consist  in  arranging  the  crops  on  the 
plantation  so  that  green  corn  suitable  for  egg  deposition  shall  be  kept 
near  or  in  the  cotton  fields  in  range  of  the  moths. 

It  must  be  stated,  however,  that  the  corn,  which  is  intended  to  act  as 
a trap  for  the  deposition  of  the  eggs,  and  hence  of  the  worms  as  soon 
as  hatched,  must  be  planted  with  a view  of  being  cut  as  fodder  as  soon 
as  a sufficient  number  of  worms  are  found  in  the  plants  and  before  the 
worms  begin  maturing.  From  this  it  follows  that  the  corn,  which  is  to 
be  allowed  to  mature  and  produce  corn  must  be  planted  further  away 
from  the  cotton  fields  in  order  that  it  may  become  infested  as  little  as 


33 


possible.  The  importance  of  this  will  be  appreciated  when  it  is  remem- 
bered that  all  the  worms  which  mature  on  this  corn  and  produce  moths 
will  furnish  an  additional  supply  to  infest  cotton  and  at  the  same  time 
reduce  the  number  trapped  by  the  corn  planted  for  that  purpose.  The 
corn  cut  for  fodder  should  be  disposed  of  in  such  a way  as  to  insure  the 
destruction  of  the  worms  found  in  the  plants  when  cut.  Each  planting 
of  corn  which  is  to  act  as  a trap  should  be  planted  soon  enough  to  be 
in  good  condition  for  deposition  as  each  brood  of  moths  makes  its  appear- 
ance. This  would  require  about  three  plantings  for  the  northern  por- 
tions of  the  cotton  belt,  and  probably  four  in  the  southern. 

The  three  plantings  should  occur  about  the  first  days  of  June,  July, 
and  August,  respectively,  and  be  cut  whenever  the  worms  are  nearing 
maturity,  to  be  sure  to  prevent  their  escape.  By  this  method  the 
least  possible  number  of  worms  reach  maturity.  This  consequently 
reduces  their  ravages  on  cotton  later  in  the  season  to  a minimum.  This 
minimum  is  the  most  that  can  be  hoped  for,  no  matter  what  may  be  the 
remedial  or  preventive  measures  resorted  to.  This  method  would 
furnish  a great  source  of  fodder,  and  would  tend  to  diversify  Southern 
agriculture,  a result  greatly  to  be  desired. 

LIGHTS  FOR  ATTRACTING  THE  MOTHS. 

Most  of  the  experiments  with  lights  for  trapping  the  moths  have 
proven  unsatisfactory  so  far  as  economic  results  are  concerned,  but 
have  been  suggestivein  that  they  have  clearly  marked  out  what  will  be 
necessary  to  make  the  use  of  lights  more  efficient. 

While  at  Shreveport,  Louisiana,  in  company  with  Dr.  A.  R.  Booth, 
two  kinds  of  patented  lamps  were  taken  into  a large  field  of  cotton  to 
test  their  relative  values  and  also  to  determine  if  possible  the  ease 
with  which  the  moth  could  be  attracted  to  lights.  The  lamps  were 
lighted  at  6:30  p.  m.  Quite  a number  of  moths  were  seen  flying  about 
in  the  field  as  we  passed  through  it,  but  up  to  half  an  hour  after  sun- 
down but  few  insects  of  any  kind  were  attracted.  From  that  time 
until  8 to  9 p.  m.  insects  of  nearly  every  description  were  captured,  but 
no  Boll  Worm  moths.  Sometimes  a moth  would  be  seen  to  approach 
the  lamps  but  was  more  interested  in  feeding  and  depositing,  always 
passing  by  or  around  without  apparently  noticing  the  lamps. 

The  lamps  had  been  placed  on  pedestals  high  enough  to  bring  them 
above  the  level  of  the  top  of  the  cotton  plants,  hoping  thereby  to 
attract  moths  from  greater  distances.  In  the  mean  time  it  was  noted 
that  the  moth  seldom  attained  to  such  a height  during  her  flights  about 
the  cotton  plants.  Accordingly,  on  the  eveniug  of  August  8,  the  same 
lamps  were  taken  into  the  field,  but  placed  so  as  to  meet  the  habits  of 
flight  of  the  moth.  This  placed  them  at  least  on  a level  or  a little 
below  the  plane  of  the  top  of  the  cotton  plants.  It  was  found  that 
more  moths  approached  and  came  nearer  the  lamp,  and  one  was  caught. 
In  most  cases,  judging  from  the  flight  aud  actions  of  the  moths,  the  lamps 
23024— No.  24 3 


34 


were  simply  met  with  in  their  regular  flight  through  the  field  for  the 
evening,  and  that  their  course  had  not  been  materially  influenced  by 
the  lights.  Despite  this  fact,  it  was  evident  that  the  probabilities  of 
trapping  the  moths  at  this  height  were  increased.  To  vary  the  experi- 
ment, the  lamp  was  carried  through  the  field  at  about  the  height  just 
mentioned,  and  one  person  walked  along  on  each  side  some  distance 
from  the  lamps  so  as  to  disturb  the  moths  in  that  vicinity.  In  this  way 
still  more  of  the  moths  came  near  the  lamps,  and  another  one  was 
caught.  This  is  impractical,  however,  since  the  expense  of  labor  is 
too  great,  at  least  until  some  means  of  making  the  lights  more  efficient 
is  effected. 

One  of  the  lamps  was  provided  with  a shield  constructed  so  that  it 
would  revolve  with  the  wind,  and  thus  prevent  the  lights  from  being 
blown  out.  This  is  entirely  wrong,  since  the  moth  usually  flies  with 
the  wind,  in  which  case  the  light  is  of  course  shut  oft  from  view  en- 
tirely. This  defect  renders  the  lamp  entirely  worthless  for  the  end  de- 
sired. In  our  experiments  this  shield  was  held  or  made  stationary,  and 
hence  the  defect  did  not  enter  or  vary  the  significance  of  the  results. 

At  Holly  Springs,  Mississippi,  lamps  were  placed  in  cotton  fields  at 
various  times  during  August.  Some  consisted  merely  of  beer  bottles 
filled  with  kerosene  and  a piece  of  unraveled  cotton  rope  for  a wick,  and 
others  of  more  powerful  lamps.  In  all  cases  the  lamps  were  placed  in 
pans  containing  an  inch  or  so  of  water,  with  a little  oil  on  the  surface, 
the  whole  being  placed  on  a supporting  pole  or  pedestal.  The  beer- 
bottle  lamps  burned  satisfactorily,  produced  a good  light,  and  attracted 
insects  of  nearly  every  order  and  kind  except  the  Boll  Worm  moth, 
though  these  had  been  seen  flying  about  in  the  field  late  in  the  after- 
noon. 

On  the  night  of  September  9 these  lamps  were  again  taken  into  a 
cotton  field  having  a small  patch  of  corn  near  by  ; also  a large  patch 
of  weeds,  principally  sneeze  weed  ( Helenium  tenuifolium).  A lamp  was 
placed  in  each  at  about  the  level  of  the  tops  of  the  plants,  except  the 
one  in  corn  which  was  placed  on  about  the  same  level  as  the  ears  on 
the  plants.  By  5 o’clock  the  moths  were  seen  flying  plentifully  and 
ovipositing  freely.  The  lamps  were  lighted  at  6:15  o’clock.  No  insects 
of  any  kind  were  attracted  until  7 o’clock,  when  moths  of  all  kinds  be- 
gan flying  near  the  lamps.  By  7:15  a Boll  Worm  moth  had  been 
caught  at  the  lamp  in  corn.  At  7:25  at  the  lamp  in  cotton  a Boll 
Worm  moth  flew  near  the  lamp,  alighted  on  the  pedestal  and  rested. 
From  here  it  flew  up  to  a small  boll  in  the  direct  light  of  the  lamp,  de- 
posited an  egg  and  flew  off’.  From  this  time  on  many  Ichneumonids  and 
other  Hymenoptera,  as  also  great  numbers  of  Microlepidoptera  were 
caught.  At  7:40  a Boll  Worm  moth  was  seen  to  fly  through  the  flame  of 
the  lamp  but  was  not  captured.  In  corn  at  7:50  a moth  flew  about  the 
lamp  and  alighted  on  a blade  of  corn  less  than  2 feet  away.  For  this 
act  of  defiance  it  was  introduced  to  the  cyanide  bottle.  Not  many 


35 


moths  were  seen  between  8 and  9 o’clock  but  the  lamps  were  left  burn- 
ing all  night  to  determine  what  would  be  the  nature  of  the  catch  by 
the  next  morning.  At  this  time  the  catch  was  examined  and  the  results 
are  tabulated  below.  For  convenience  the  lamps  in  Selenium , corn,  and 
cotton  will  be  numbered  1,  2,  and  3,  respectively. 


Table  VII. 
Hymenoptera. 


Ichneumo- 

nidae. 

Miscella- 

neous. 

Total. 

1 

10 

4 

14 

2 

9 

3 

12 

3 

12 

2 

14 

Total  for  al  1 _ 

40 

Lepidoplera. 


Lamp. 

Agrotis. 

Helio- 

this. 

Spilo- 

soma. 

Miscel- 

laneous 

Noctuids. 

Geome- 

tridae. 

Pyralidae. 

Pternpho- 

ridae. 

Miscel- 

laneous. 

Total. 

1 

17 

15 

300 

332 

2 

2 

1 

1 

30 

27 

300 

361 

3 .. 

1 

1 

25 

20 

26 

250 

323 

T< 

)tal  for  all 

1,  016 

Diptera. 


Lamp. 

Tipulidae.  1 

Miscella- 

neous. 

Total. 

1 

8 1 

25 

33 

2 

40 

10 

50 

3 

75 

75 

Tntal  for  all 

158 

Coleoptera. 


Lamp. 

Epicauta.  | 

Scara- 

baeidae. 

Elateridae. 

Staphy- 

linidae. 

Carabidae. 

Miscella- 

neous. 

Total. 

1 

2 

2 

25 

8 I 

25 

62 

2 ...  . 

7 

2 

50 

59 

3 

2 

i 

6 i 

9 

Total  for  all 

130 

Hemiptera. 


Lamp. 

Homoptera. 

Heteroptera. 

Total. 

1 

200 

100 

300 

2 

200 

100 

300 

3 

200 

150 

350 

Total  for  all 

950 

36 


Table  VII— Continued. 
Neurojptera. 


Lamp. 

Ctirysopa. 

Total. 

1 

1 

1 

2. 

1 

1 

3 

Total  for  all 

2 

Orthoptera. 


Lamp. 

Mantis. 

CEcanthus. 

Locus  tidae. 

Total. 

1 

1 

2 

2 

5 

2 

1 

2 

3 

3 

2 

2 

Total  for  all 

10 

The  above  results  show  that  the  direct  benefit  to  cotton  plants,  so  tar 
as  known,  is  very  small.  At  the  same  time  such  beneficial  insects  as 
the  Ichneumonids,  predaceous  beetles,  and  the  Praying  Mantis  arede- 
stroyed,  and  if  trapping  be  systematically  followed  up  the  loss  may  in- 
deed be  considered  greater  than  the  gain. 

These  experiments  led  to  the  belief  that  the  lights  used  were  not  bril- 
liant enough  for  the  intended  purpose.  Accordingly,  an  electric  lamp 
was  rented.  The  lamp  is  provided  with  a round  burner  and  the  flame 
produced  is  about  5 inches  in  circumference.  When  the  chimney  is 
placed  over  the  flame  the  lamp  is  said  to  give  a light  equal  to  100  can- 
dles. Experiments  with  this  lamp  in  connection  with  the  others  were 
continued  in  the  cotton  fields  during  September.  On  the  evening  of  the 
13th  both  kinds  were  placed  out.  The  night  proved  to  be  a damp  cold 
one,  and  the  dew  fell  early  in  the  evening.  As  a result  no  Boll  Worm 
moths  and  but  few  insects  of  any  kind  were  trapped.  Of  this  small 
number  the  parasitic  Hymenoptera  and  predaceous  beetles  were  greatly 
in  the  majority.  The  insects  caught  were  such  as  are  easily  attracted 
to  lights,  and  were  quite  equally  distributed  between  the  three  lamps 
(two  beer-bottle  ones  and  the  other  the  electric  lamp).  A rainy  season 
began  at  this  time  and  continued  so  that  no  further  experiments  with 
lamps  could  be  made  until  October  4.  At  this  time  the  electric  lamp 
was  placed  in  a cotton  field  to  determine  what  would  be  the  nature  of 
the  catch.  Heliothids  had  been  seen  flying  about  in  the  evening  while 
making  some  other  observations,  but  none  were  captured  by  the  lamp 
at  night.  The  other  insects  trapped  were  about  the  same  in  kind  as 
those  already  tabulated  for  September  9,  only  that  the  quantity  cap- 
tured by  the  electric  lamp  was  about  equal  to  that  of  all  three  of  the 
others,  audit  had  only  been  left  burning  until  10  o’clock. 

October  20  the  lamps  were  again  placed  out,  this  time  one  in  a patch 
of  cowpeas  and  the  other  some  distance  away  in  a small  patch  of  corn 
which  had  been  planted  in  July.  During  the  day  Boll  Worm  moths 


37 


were  seen  hiding  behind  the  sheaths  of  the  corn  blades,  while  a number 
were  also  seen  flying  about  the  cowpeas.  The  one  in  the  cowpeas  was  a 
beer  bottle  lamp  and  placed  about  the  height  of  the  plants.  The  one  in 
the  corn  was  the  electric  lamp,  and  was  placed  about  the  height  of  the 
ears  of  corn.  They  were  lighted  at  6 p.m.  At  this  time  a few  of  the  fe- 
males were  depositing  on  corn.  At  7 o’clock  some  were  seen  to  flyby 
the  lamp  but  were  not  trapped.  The  parasitic  Hymenoptera  and  smaller 
Lepidoptera  had  been  caught  in  great  abundance  at  both  lamps.  Re- 
turning at  10  o’clock  to  further  examine  the  catch  of  the  lamps,  they 
were  found  to  have  been  stolen  and  no  further  notes  could  be  taken. 
The  moths  at  this  time  were  not  very  abundant  and  doubtless  were  but 
a portion  of  the  last  brood  of  the  season.  The  moths  seen  flying  by  the 
electric  lamp  were  near  enough  to  have  been  stopped  had  the  lamp  been 
provided  with  long  projecting  wings  and  a larger  pan  to  receive  the 
moths  as  they  fell.  No  Heliothids  were  observed  at  the  beer-bottle 
lamp. 

These  light  experiments,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  record,  were  begun 
at  the  time  that  the  midsummer  brood  was  issuing  abundantly,  and 
hence  also  during  the  period  of  greatest  egg  deposition  a little  later. 
During  this  period,  as  has  been  stated,  the  provoking  observation  was 
made  of  seeing  the  female  near  the  lights,  deposit  an  egg  in  plain  view, 
fly  away  and  continue  her  work.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the 
female  is  not  easily  diverted  from  the  work  of  depositing  eggs  by  the 
ordinary  lights  used.  Later,  when  the  experiments  show  that  a few 
moths  were  trapped,  it  is  also  true  that  the  period  of  greatest  deposi- 
tion had  passed,  and  that,  though  dissections  showed  that  a few  eggs 
still  remained  together  with  a number  of  potential  ova,  the  females  had 
passed  their  prime.  As  bearing  on  this  the  following  may  be  drawn 
from  the  observations  of  Dr.  Booth  : The  insect  contents  of  a globe  of  a 
2,000 candle  power  arc  light  were  examined  continuously  from  Septem- 
ber 3 to  13,  inclusive.  An  average  of  40  Heliothids  were  found  for  each 
night.  Of  these  1 in  6 or  8 were  females,  containing  on  an  average 
from  30  to  40  eggs  in  the  oviducts.  The  lamp  tender  reported  that  after 
September  26  no  more  moths  were  caught. 

The  fact  that  the  moth  was  frequently  seen  to  fly  near  the  light, 
often  as  near  as  2 or  3 feet,  suggests  that  the  lamps  to  be  efficient  not 
only  must  be  brilliant,  but  must  also  have  some  wide  and  extensive 
wings  extending  from  it  in  such  a way  as  not  to  throw  a shadow  and 
to  arrest,  temporarily  at  least,  the  flight  of  the  moth  passing  near  by. 
If  now  the  large  pan  and  the  lamp  be  provided  with  an  additional  in- 
ducement in  the  way  o*f  some  strong  smelling  sweets,  the  moth  thus 
arrested  in  its  flight  and  its  attention  diverted  from  its  evening  work, 
if  not  falling  into  the  pan,  may  be  attracted  a second  time  and  be  cap- 
tured. 

Unless  it  is  found  that  the  earlier  broods  are  more  easily  attracted  to 
lights  it  is  questionable  whether  the  inefficient  lights  so  commonly  used 


38 


by  planters  are  to  be  at  all  recommended  if  uothing  more  is  to  be  accom- 
plished than  the  trapping  of  the  Boll  Worm  moth,  and  for  the  following 
reasons  : (1)  But  a small  per  cent  are  caught ; (2)  of  these  the  great  ma- 
jority are  males ; (3)  while  some  females  are  caught  before  having 
deposited  many  eggs,  the  greater  per  cent  have  passed  their  iirime  • 
(4)  beneficial  insects  being  more  easily  trapped  are  destroyed  in  too 
great  numbers  in  proportion  to  the  benefit  derived  from  the  destruction 
of  obnoxious  insects  to  warrant  such  inefficient  warfare.  These  may 
all  be  included  in  the  one  general  reason  that  the  lights  are  only  strong 
enough  to  readily  attract  beneficial  insects  but  are  powerless  to  attract 
the  obnoxious  insects  desired  until  its  most  important  work  (deposition 
of  eggs)  has  almost  been  completed. 

POISONED  SWEETS. 

No  field  experiments  were  made  with  poisoned  sweets,  but  a number 
were  made  with  moths  in  the  laboratory.  The  mixture  was  composed 
of  1 part  of  white  arsenic  dissolved  in  20  parts  boiling  water;  4 parts 
of  this  solution  were  added  to  3 parts  of  ordinary  table  sirup.  The 
mixture  was  placed  in  a watch  glass  under  a bell  jar  or  sprayed  upon 
cotton  branches  in  a breeding  cage.  When  the  moths  were  placed  in 
they  always  soon  found  the  sweets  and  sipped  of  them.  The  result  of  all 
the  experiments  showed  that  the  moths  readily  partook  of  the  sweetened 
liquids.  Those  having  sipped  of  the  poisoned  solutions  died,  on  an 
average,  within  30  minutes ; the  shortest  time  being  15,  the  longest  45 
minutes.  Experiments  were  also  made  upon  a few  other  insects,  mostly 
such  as  were  considered  beneficial.  They  were  placed  in  the  cages  just 
as  the  moths  had  been  and  were  found  to  partake  of  the  sweets  quite  as 
readily  and  died  as  certainly.  Thus  in  field  experiments  doubtless 
many  beneficial  insects  will  also  be  destroyed  by  the  extensive  use  of  the 
poisoned  sweets. 

The  moths  kept  in  cages  for  experimental  purposes  were  fed  by  spray- 
ing unpoisoned  solutions  of  the  sweets  upon  the  cotton  branches.  The 
moths  fed  readily  and  lived  usually  from  5 to  8 days. 

The  poisoned  sweets  used  iu  the  experiments  in  the  laboratory  con- 
tained no  liquids  which  could  liberate  a strong  odor  such  as  is  neces- 
sary in  field  experiments.  These  may  be  added  in  the  form  of  beer  or 
vinegar  or  perhaps  any  other  liquid  having  similar  properties. 

It  was  demonstrated  by  the  experiments  in  the  laboratory  that  newljr 
issued  and  old  moths  were  alike  easily  induced  to  feed  on  the  poisoned 
drops  of  sweets  sprayed  on  the  branches  in  the  cages.  It  may  there- 
fore follow  that  if  these  poisoned  liquids  can  be  properly  applied  to  the 
plants  upon  which  the  moths  feed  freely  both  at  night  and  during  the 
day,  that  females  may  be  readily  attracted  to  feed,  and  hence  killed, 
during  their  entire  period  of  deposition.  It  therefore  appears  probable 
that  if  some  practical  means  is  employed  to  apply  these  poisoned  sweets 
properly  and  abundantly  as  food  for  attracting  the  moths  that  such 


39 


method  of  warfare  against  the  adults  will  prove  more  efficient  than  any 
other  alternative  yet  resorted  to  against  them.  It  is  evident,  however, 
that  to  be  most  efficient,  the  poisoned  sweets  must  be  applied  from  the 
time  when  the  moths  begin  feeding  freely,  and  in  such  a way  that  they 
may  meet  with  them  readily  in  their  flights  about  their  food  plants. 
The  first  will  be  accomplished  if  applied  as  early  as  4 o’clock  in  the 
afternoon,  in  which  case  the  poisoned  liquids  would  also  be  exposed  to 
their  visits  during  the  evening  and  night.  The  second  can  be  attained 
by  spraying  the  poisoned  liquid  upon  the  food  plants.  For  those  moths 
feeding  during  the  day  this  must  be  applied  principally  to  cow  peas,  for 
those  feeding  at  night  upon  cotton. 

The  practicability  of  this  method  is  yet  somewhat  questionable  since 
probably  one  application  of  the  poisoned  liquids  would  be  efficient  only 
for  a few  days.  It  may  further  be  questioned  in  that,  as  has  been  noted, 
the  moths  of  any  given  brood  issue  quite  scatteringly.  At  the  same 
time  it  may  be  that  applications  of  the  poisoned  sweets  at  intervals  of  3 
or  4 days  will  prove  to  be  as  practical  as  arranging  for,  and  attending  to, 
light  trapping  properly.  My  own  efforts  to  experiment  fully  along  this 
line  were  rather  frustrated  by  rainy  weather  during  September.  This 
made  experiments  difficult  and  more  or  less  indecisive. 

The  possible  utility  of  combining  poisoned  sweets  with  lights  has  al- 
ready been  noted.  The  fact  that  females  are  readily  attracted  by  sweets 
before  man/  eggs  have  been  deposited  by  her  may  become  a sufficient 
additional  inducement  to  entice  those  flying  so  near  the  lamps  to  linger 
a few  moments  longer  and  probably  result  in  her  capture.  With  these 
probabilities  in  mind  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  approaching  season  may 
be  more  propitious  for  experimental  work  and  the  Boll  Worm  more 
abundant. 

PYRETHRUM. 

Experiments  with  the  dry  powder. — The  first  of  the  following  series  of 
experiments  with  pyrethrum  were  made  upon  infested  corn.  The  patch 
of  corn  was  about  two  rods  square  and  located  near  the  center  of  the  town 
(Holly  Springs,  Mississippi).  It  was  a second  planting  and  was  only 
knee  high  at  this  time,  August  19.  The  middle  rows  of  the  patch  were 
selected  and  one  row  for  each  experiment  taken.  The  powder  was 
dusted  from  above  down  into  the  bud  of  the  corn  by  means  of  a small 
cheese-cloth  sack,  double  thickness. 

Experiment  1. 

August  19,  2:30  p.  m.  Mixture,  equal  parts  lime  dust  and  pyrethrum.  The  plants 
in  the  row  by  actual  count  contained  43  worms  of  various  sizes. 

Result. — Soon  after  dusting  a few  acted  uneasily,  began  to  crawl,  and  finally  drop- 
ping to  the  ground,  bid  in  the  loose  earth.  This  note  applies  more  or  less  to  all  the 
experiments  made  with  the  powders.  August  20,  10  a.  m.,  17  worms  alive  and  feed- 
ing, 10  dead,  16  not  present.  In  percentages  this  is  39.5,  23.3,  37.2,  respectively.  The 
living  worms  were  mostly  nearly  mature  ones  which  had  penetrated  far  into  the 
center  of  the  bud  and  may  not  all  have  come  in  contact  with  the  powder.  The  dead 


40 


ones  were  mostly  composed  of  half  or  two-thirds  grown  worms.  These  notes  again 
apply  equally  well  to  nearly  all  the  other  experiments  with  the  powder.  The  follow- 
ing experiments  will  therefore  be  given  more  concisely. 

Experiment  2. 

August  19,  3 p.  m.  Mixture,  2 parts  lime  dust,  1 part  pyrethrum.  Number  of 
worms  in  plants,  43. 

Result. — August  20,  11:30  a.  in.,  20  living,  10  dead,  13  not  present,  or  46.5,  23.3,  30.2 
per  cent,  respectively. 

Experiment  3. 

August  19,  3:30  p.  m.  Mixture  pyrethrum  full  strength.  Number  of  worms  54. 

Result.— August  20,  12  m.,  25  living,  8 dead,  21  not  present,  or  46.3,  14.8,  38.9  per 
cent,  respectively. 

Experiment  4. 

August  19,  4 p.  ih.  Mixture  equal  parts  lime  and  pyrethrum.  Worms  not  counted. 

Result,— August  20,  2 p.  m.,  19  living,  12  dead,  or  61.3  and  38.7  per  cent,  respec- 
tively. 

Experiment  5. 

August  19,  4:30  p.  m.  Mixture  2 parts  lime,  1 part  pyrethrum.  Worms  not 
counted. 

Result. — August  20,  2:30  p.  m.,  26  living,  8 dead,  or  76.  5 and  23.5  per  cent,  respec- 
tively. 

Experiment  6. 

August  19,  5 p m.  Full  strength  pyrethrum.  Worms  not  counted  and  only  a part 
of  the  row  dusted. 

Result. — August  20,  3 p.  m.,  5 living,  6 dead,  or  45.5  and  54.5  per  cent,  respectively. 

The  dead  worms  of  experiments  1 to  6 were  kept,  for  raising  any  possible  parasites, 
until  September  3,  when  they  were  found  to  be  perfectly  dry  and  were  thrown  away. 
No  parasites  had  issued  from  them. 

As  checks  on  experiments  1 to  6 it  may  be  stated  that  in  examining 
the  rows  carefully  to  count  the  actual  number  of  worms  in  the  plants 
no  dead  worms  were  found.  Numerous  other  observations  upon  corn 
of  a similar  age,  and  which  had  not  been  dusted,  verified  the  one  made 
while  counting  the  worms. 

The  first  6 experiments  and  their  results  may  be  tabulated  for  con- 
venience as  follows : 


Table  VIII. 


Experi- 

ment. 

Substance  used. 

Living. 

Dead. 

Absent. 

Probable 

benefit. 

1 

Lime  and  pyrethrum,  equal  parts 

39.5 

23.3 

37.2 

60.  5 

2 

Lime  2 parts,  pyrethrum  1 part 

46.5 

23.3 

30.2 

53.5 

3 

Pyrethrum,  fullstrength 

46.3 

14.8 

38.9 

53.7 

4 

Same  as  experiment  1 

61.  3 

38.  7 

38.7 

5 

Same  as  experiment 2 . T ^ ... 

76.5 

23.5 

23.5 

6 

Same  as  experiment 3.. .............. 

45.5 

54.  5 

54.5 

Averages 

52. 6 

29.7 

17.7 

47.4 

41 


Experiment  7. 

August  20,  10:45  a.  m.  Dusted  the  17  living  nearly-grown  worms  of  experiment  1 
■with  full  strength  pyrethrum,  and  placed  them  in  a closed  mailing  box  without  food. 

Record — 11a.m.,  some  are  beginning  to  be  restless;  12:30  p.  m.,  all  are  quiet; 
1:45  p.  m.,  one  almost  dead,  others  jump  when  touched  ; 4:20,  p.  in.,  one  dead,  others 
as  before. 

August  21,  11:30  a.  m.  Somehave  becoir  e quite  active  again,  and  as  a result  4 were 
"bitten,  3 are  dead,  6 others  alive  and  active,  while  the  rest  were  probably  eaten. 
The  active  ones  were  placed  in  a breeding  cage,  and  provided  with  branches  of  cot- 
ton having  leaves  and  bolls.  Some  died  later  and  a few  matured. 

Experiment  8. 

August  30,  4:30  p.  m.  Eighteen  of  the  living  worms  from  experiments  4,  5,  and  6 were 
well  dusted  with  lime.  Nine  were  placed  in  each  of  two  closed  mailing  boxes.  This 
experiment  was  for  the  purpose  of  having  a check  on  any  possible  effect  of,  the  air- 
slacked  lime  on  the  worms. 

August  21,  11:45  a.  m.  In  one  box  two  were  injured  and  died.  The  rest  alive  and 
active.  In  the  other  box  all  are  well  and  active.  Both,  lots  were  then  placed  on 
branches  of  cotton  in  breeding  cages.  All  began  feeding ; a few  died  later,  but  most 
of  them  matured. 

Experiment  9. 

September  11.  Boll  Worm  in  a boll  with  posterior  segments  protruding.  Dusted 
this  with  full  strength  pyrethrum  at  9:15  a.  m.  ; no  immediate  effect  was  noticeable; 
11:30  a.  m. ; worm  has  turned  round  ; head  almost  protruding;  not  feeding;  3 a.  m., 
has  turned  round  now  to  position  same  as  when  dusted,  and  is  feeding.  With  a 
pair  of  forceps  placed  some  pyrethrum  powder  on  the  body  of  the  worm  in  the  hole. 
Did  not  effect  the  worm  noticeably  for  five  to  ten  minutes. 

September  12,  8:30  a.  m.  Has  left  the  boll  and  is  in  the  upper  corner  of  the  cage 
still  alive  and  active. 

September  13,  8 a.  m.  Has  returned  to  the  boll  it  had  left,  and  is  feeding.  Dusted 
the  protruding  portion  with  pyrethrum.  In  the  afternoon  the  worm  was  found 
crawling  about  in  the  cage,  but  appeared  to  be  full  grown  and  searching  for  a place 
to  pupate.  Placed  back  on  the  branch  again. 

September  14.  Worm  still  on  the  boll  and  is  active,  but  not  feeding.  Particles  of 
pyrethrum  are  found  adhering  to  the  body.  The  anus  is  swollen  and  inflamed,  pro- 
ducing a watery  exudate.  This  may  be  due  to  the  effect  of  the  pyrethrum,  for  this  is 
the  portion  of  the  body  which  was  usually  protruding  from  the  hole  in  the  boll  and 
received  most  of  the  dusting.  The  worm  was  placed  in  a partially  opened  form. 

September  15.  Has  eaten  the  form  almost  entirely. 

September  16.  Crawling  about  in  cage.  Placed  on  a branch. 

September  17.  Crawling  about  in  cage.  Has  shortened  some  and  is  preparing  to 
pupate.  Placed  in  a tin  can  with  earth  to  allow  it  to  do  so.  Pupated  September  21. 
Pupa  still  alive  October  3,  when  it  was  placed  in  alcohol  as  a specimen. 

In  one  instance,  when  a worm  had  been  experimented  with  in  a similar  way  to  Ex- 
periment 9,  the  worm  went  down  to  corner  of  the  cage  (which  was  a newly  made  one\ 
webbed  together  the  loose  sawdust  found  there,  and  pupated  in  the  cell  thus  formed. 

Experiment  10. 

September  20,  5:30  p.  m.  Marked  five  bolls  in  which  Boll  Worms  were  feeding  and 
a portion  of  the  body  protruding.  At  5:40  dusted  profusely  with  pyrethrum,  full 
strength. 


42 


6 p.  m.  The  first  worm  ceased  feeding  and  left ; can  not  be  found.  The  second  was 
entirely  in  boll,  but  came  out  and  is  twisting  about  uneasily ; finally  it  fell  to  the 
ground  in  convulsions,  tumbling  over  on  its  back  as  if  to  scrub  off  the  powder.  The 
third  ceased  feeding.  The  fourth  was  a young  worm  and  is  not  to  be  found.  The  fifth 
still  feeding. 

6:15.  The  second  is  still  in  convulsions  and  can  not  crawl  well;  it  is  one  about 
two-thirds  grown.  The  third  has  fallen  to  the  ground,  but  is  crawling  into  loose 
earth.  The  fifth  continues  feeding.  The  last  two  are  nearly  grown  worms,  and 
doubtless  will  take  some  time  to  become  badly  paralyzed.  At  6:30,  while  making 
other  observations,  it  became  dark,  and  could  not  find  the  worms  again. 

A number  of  individual  experiments  with  grown  worms,  both  in  the 
laboratory  and  open  air,  were  made.  The  worms  were  well  dusted  with 
full-strength  pyrethrum  and  were  allowed  their  pleasure  as  to  their 
abode  afterwards.  They  always  crawled  into  the  loose  earth  as  soon 
as  possible,  and  as  long  as  they  were  observed  showed  signs  of  recovery. 
Other  experiments  similar  to  Experiment  9 are  omitted  because  their 
results  were  practically  the  same  in  all  cases. 

DECOCTIONS  OF  PYRETHRUM. 

Seven  pints  of  rain  water  were  brought  to  boiling  in  an  open  pan  ; 
12  grains  of  pyrethrum  were  then  stirred  in  and  boiled  for  15  minutes. 
The  whole  was  then  strained  so  as  to  get  out  most  of  the  powder.  This 
decoction  was  made  on  the  afternoon  of  September  19,  but  owing  to  a 
threatening  rain  was  kept  in  sealed  Mason  jars  until  the  next  day,  when 
the  decoction  was  sprayed  on  bolls  containing  Boll  Worms.  The  fol- 
lowing strengths  were  used : Full,  two-thirds,  and  half. 

Experiment  15. 

September  20.  The  bolls  with  worms  in  had  all  been  found  and  marked  during 
the  forenoon.  The  day  was  warm  and  sunshiny.  In  the  afternoon  it  was  found  that 
one  of  the  worms  had  changed  bolls  since  morning  observation.  At  2:40  p.  m.  full 
strength  of  the  decoction  was  sprayed  on  each  of  six  bolls  containing  Boll  Worms. 
Four  of  the  six  were  not  in  bolls,  but  between  them  and  their  involucres.  The 
greater  portion  of  the  plants  surrounding  the  boll  was  also  sprayed. 

2:50.  No  uneasiness  manifested  by  any. 

3:15.  Five  as  before ; one  half-grown  worm  has  moved  and  can  not  be  found. 

3:45.  No  change ; has  not  affected  the  worms  yet. 

4:10.  None  feeding;  no  change. 

5:00.  One  feeding ; others  as  before. 

5:50.  None  feeding. 

September  21.  Two  worms  still  in  place  ; one  feeding,  the  other  just  molted ; two 
others  finished  the  bolls  in  which  they  were  found  and  have  disappeared;  the  other 
one  is  in  boll  in  laboratory. 

September  23.  All  have  gone  but  one;  this  one  went  to  another  boll,  fed,  and  has 
just  molted;  an  hour  later  it  was  found  devouring  molted  skin. 

Experiment  16. 

September  20.  Equal  parts  decoction  and  rain  water.  At  3 o’clock  sprayed  five 
bolls,  each  containing  a Boll  Worm.  Four  were  not  feeding,  but  resting  between  boll 
and  involucre;  the  other  was  in  boll  feeding.  None  had  changed  position  since 
morning  observation. 


43 


3:25.  One  seems  to  l>e  a little  uneasy  ; others  manifest  no  anxiety. 

3:42.  The  one  in  boll  has  turned  around  and  is  poking  its  head  out  of  the  bolls ; 
another  has  moved  and  gone  into  a blossom;  the  others  same  as  before. 

4:10.  One  is  feeding  ; all  the  others  quiet  and  not  feeding. 

5:00.  One  feeding  ; others  no  change. 

5:50.  None  feeding. 

September  21.  Four  still  in  place,  all  feeding;  the  other  has  left  the  plant. 

September  23.  One  still  in  place,  but  has  about  destroyed  its  boll.  The  others 
have  done  so  and  are  gone. 

The  record  of  the  experiment  with  two  parts  decoction  and  one  part  rain  water  is 
omitted  because  of  the  similarity  of  results  to  those  of  Experiment  16. 

Checks  on  Experiments  15  and  16. 

September  20.  At  first  three,  but  later  five  more  worms  were  marked  as  checks. 

2:30.  One  entirely  in  boll,  feeding  ; another,  nearly  mature, resting  and  not  feeding; 
a third,  very  young  one,  is  feeding. 

5:00.  Checks  all  in  place  feeding. 

5:50.  All  but  very  young  one  feeding.  Made  a search  for  more  worms  ; found  five, 
all  of  which  are  in  bolls  feeding. 

September  21.  One  still  in  boll,  but  not  feeding. 

The  small  worm  has  bored  through  a form  and  is  feeding.  The  nearly  matured 
worm  has  destroyed  its  boll  and  has  gone  away. 

The  result  of  all  the  experiments  with  pyretlirum  is,  on  the  whole, 
negative.  Before  treating  more  fully  of  the  results  of  the  experiments 
it  must  be  stated  that  the  corn  plants,  cotton  bolls,  and  Boll  Worms  were 
more  thickly  and  thoroughly  dusted  or  sprayed  than  it  would  have 
been  possible  to  do  by  dry  method  of  application  which  would  be  inex- 
pensive enough  to  be  practical.  There  is  a special  difficulty  in  the  case 
of  cotton.  At  the  time  when  the  powder  would  be  most  efficient,  that 
is,  when  the  worms  are  yet  less  than  half  grown,  they  are  found  princi- 
pally at  work  in  forming  blossoms  and  very  young  bolls.  In  these  the 
involucre  so  completely  and  effectually  inclose  the  portions  in  which 
the  worms  are  at  work  that  it  is  practically  impossible  to  reach  them. 
It  is  well  known  that  the  young  form  or  boll  is  sensitive  to  excessive 
rains,  and  their  involucres,  it  seems,  are  to  a great  extent  a provision  of 
nature  to  protect  the  tender  young  bolls  from  such  injury.  To  what- 
ever extent  this  may  b e the  case,  it  is  certain  that  their  involucres  make 
it  exceedingly  difficult  to  reach  the  forms  and  bolls  beneath  them  by 
any  of  the  methods  of  spraying,  and  therefore  also  to  all  decoctions  or 
solutions  of  whatever  kind. 

Upon  corn  before  it  has  tasseled  the  powder  may  be  used  with  greater 
success,  as  will  be  seen  from  a study  of  Experiments  1 to  6.  From  these 
we  find  that  a certain  benefit  of  about  30  per  cent,  is  obtained,  with  a 
possible  benefit  of  about  47  per  cent.  This  last  is  too  high,  however,  as 
some  of  the  worms  which  leave  do  so  only  temporarily  and  to  recover, 
after  which  they  return.  We  also  find  that  the  young  worms  are  muck 
more  susceptible,  or  at  any  rate  less  able  to  resist  the  effect  of  the  pyre- 
thrum.  Consequently  of  the  worms  killed,  the  great  majority  were  half 
or  less  than  half  grown.  From  the  behavior  of  the  grown  or  nearly 


44 


mature  worms  in  all  the  experiments,  it  is  evident  that  they  strongly 
resist  the  effects  of  the  powder,  and  if  ample  opportunity  is  given  to 
escape  to  the  ground  or  loose  earth,  may  often  entirely  overcome  its 
influence  and  recover.  Whether  on  corn  or  cotton,  it  must  be  admitted 
that  the  protection  is  only  temporary.  This  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
in  some  of  the  experiments  undisturbed  individuals  entered  bolls  with 
impunity  soon  after  dusting  and  after  the  first  worm  had  retreated,  or 
even  the  same  worm  going  back  and  feeding  upon  the  boll  from  which 
it  had  been  driven,  presumably,  by  the  pyrethrum. 

As  has  been  noted,  there  is  a certain  benefit  derived  from  the  appli- 
cation of  the  powder  to  young  corn  before  tasseling.  It  is  just  to  con- 
sider that  the  pyrethrum  was  at  a disadvantage,  in  that  it  was  not  ap- 
plied early  enough  to  catch  the  worms  before  they  had  become  so 
nearly  grown  or  had  entered  far  into  the  bud.  If  it  had  been  applied 
earlier  a much  greater  per  cent  of  the  worms  then  present  would 
doubtless  have  been  destroyed.  Such  being  the  case,  the  use  of  pyre- 
thrum may  prove  to  be  a decided  advantage  in  cooperation  with  the  plan 
of  planting  corn  as  traps  for  egg  deposition,  and  hence  the  worms 
when  these  are  hatched.  This  can  be  done  by  thoroughly  applying 
pyrethrum  of  about  one-half  or  third  dilution  with  lime  to  the  corn 
plants  at  a time  when  the  worms  are  found  to  be  about  half  grown. 
By  doing  this  the  time  of  cutting  out  corn  to  destroy  the  worms  it  con- 
tains will  be  delayed  for  a time  longer,  and  hence  also  be  exposed  to  the 
depositions  of  the  moth  for  a greater  period.  Experiments  in  this 
direction  will  be  taken  up  extensively  this  season. 

The  powder  being  thus  limited  in  its  efficacy,  especially  on  cotton,  it 
is  not  surprising  that  decoctions  of  the  powder  prove  to  be  even  less 
effective.  As  will  be  noted  from  the  experiments  with  the  decoctious 
when  compared  with  the  record  of  the  checks  upon  the  same,  little 
more  was  accomplished  than  to  temporarily  arrest  the  feeding  of  the 
worms.  It  is  true  some  of  the  worms  changed  bolls  during  the  after- 
noon, and  others  which  were  in  bolls  came  out,  but  it  must  also  be 
noted  that  the  same  action  was  taken  by  other  worms  which  were  un- 
der observation  and  which  had  not  been  sprayed.  There  is  some  ques- 
tion, therefore,  that  the  decoction  was  directly  accountable  for  the 
action  of  the  worms  upon  which  it  was  sprayed. 

This  doubt  is  further  increased  from  the  fact  that  it  was  often  noted 
in  worms  which  had  been  marked  for  observation  that  they  very  fre- 
quently changed  bolls  or  even  plants  during  midday  or  afternoon. 

OTHER  VEGETABLE  INSECTICIDES. 

The  work  upon  vegetable  insecticides  was  assigned  almost  entirely  to 
Prof.  Jerome  McNeill,  Fayetteville,  Arkansas.  He  has  been  as  unfor- 
tunate as  myself  in  being  unable  to  obtain  plenty  of  Boll  Worms  to  ex- 
periment with.  Progress  was  further  impeded  by  unpropitious  weather. 
For  this  reason  the  greater  portion  of  the  time  was  occupied  in  collecting 


45 


such  roots,  plauts,  flowers,  and  fruits  as  might,  upon  experimentation, 
prove  to  have  insecticidal  properties.  This  was  undertaken  with  a view 
of  discovering  if  possible  some  product  easily  grown  in  the  infested 
regions  through  the  cultivation  of  which  it  might  be  possible  to  pro- 
vide for  an  insecticide  which  would  be  cheap  and  accessible  to  all. 
From  these  various  collections  Professor  McNeill  has  made  numerous 
extracts,  emulsions,  and  decoctions,  some  of  which  he  informs  me  are 
quite  promising,  and  which  are  on  hand  to  experiment  with  when  oppor- 
tunity offers.  As  this  part  of  the  work  has,  therefore,  not  been  com- 
pleted for  the  reasons  stated,  I shall  at  present  give  only  a summary  of 
Professor  McNeill’s  letters  and  report  of  progress  during  the  past  sea- 
son. 

(1)  Alcoholic  extracts  and  decoctions  have  thus  far  been,  on  the 
whole,  unsatisfactory. 

(2)  Extracts  and  extract  emulsions  of  the  various  vegetables  or  parts 
thereof  seem  to  be  promising.  Of  these  kerosene,  kerosene  ether,  gas- 
oline and  benzine  extracts,  and  emulsions  of  pyrethrum  are  perhaps 
most  important. 

(3)  Of  the  plants  experimented  with,  Lobelia  syphilitica , L.  cardi- 
nalis , probably  L.  inflata , and  Ariscema  triphyllum  are  among  the  more 
important  as  giving  promise  of  good  results.  They  have  been  shown 
to  possess  insecticide  properties,  but  to  what  extent  and  how  best 
utilized  remains  an  open  question. 

(4)  An  exceedingly  dilute  solution  of  potassium  cyanide  is  an  effi- 
cient insecticide,  but  its  effects  on  the  cotton  plants  has  not  yet  been 
determined. 


METEOROLOGICAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 

Of  these  rain,  humidity,  and  temperature  are  the  principal  phenom- 
ena to  consider.  What  relation  these  may  have  to  the  various  stages 
of  the  transformations  of  Heliothis , the  following  tabulated  data  may 
serve  to  indicate.  The  averages  of  humidity  and  temperature  are  given 
for  the  entire  period  covered  by  each  example : 


Table  IX. 
EGG. 


When  deposited. 

When  hatched. 

Dura- 

tion. 

Bain, 
number 
of  days. 

Temperature. 

Humidity. 

Max. 

Min. 

Max. 

Min. 

0 

c 

° 

o 

Night,  Aug.  5-6 

Aug.  10, 10  a.  m 

3 

93 

74 

88 

56 

Night,  Aug.  8-9 

Aug.  10,  evening 

2 

0 

94 

73 

87 

63 

Night,  Aug.  14-16 

Aug.  18,  9 a.  m 

34 

1 

84 

72 

(*)  j 

<*) 

Night,  Aug.  15-16 

Aug.  18,  9 a.  m. 

24 

0 

84 

72 

(*) 

n 

Night,  Sept.  19-20 

Sept.  24,  evening 

5 

5 

79 

67 

(*) 

(') 

Night,  Sept.  20-21 

Sept.  25,  morning 

44 

5 

78 

64 

(') 

n 

Night,  Sept.  21-22 

Sept.  25,  morning 

34 

4 

77 

67 

(*) 

(*) 

* Data  for  humidity  at  Holly  Springs,  Miss  , could  not  be  obtained.  The  first  two  are  from  Shreve* 
port,  La.,  where  eggs  were  under  observation. 


46 


Table  IX — Continued. 
LARVA. 


When  hatched. 

When  matured. 

Dura- 

tion. 

Rain, 
number 
of  days. 

Temperature. 

Humidity. 

Max. 

Min. 

Max. 

Min. 

0 

0 

0 

o 

August  9 

August  23  

15 

1 

91 

71 

£8 

65 

A ii  gust  10 

August 25  (died) 

16 

2 

91 

71 

88 

67 

August  18  

September  7 » 

21 

6 

82 

68 

August  18  

September  12 

26 

7 

82 

68 

September  25 

October  12  (two  molts)  .. 

18 

7 

73 

60 

PUPA. 


When  pupated. 

When  issued. 

Dura- 

tion. 

Rain, 
number 
of  days. 

Temperature. 

Humidity. 

Max. 

Min. 

Max. 

Min. 

0 

o 

0 

o 

August  9 

August  20  . . 

11 

0 

91 

71 

89 

65 

August  23 

September  2 

10 

2 

91 

68 

82 

60 

A n gn  st  28 

September  12. 

15 

5 

81 

68 

August  28 

September  13 

16 

6 

80 

68 

August  28 

September  16 

19 

8 

79 

67 

August  28 

September  17 

20 

8 

79 

67 

August  31 

September  27 

27 

14 

79 

66 

September  4 

September  20 

16 

7 

80 

67 

September  7 _ . 

September  30 

22 

15 

79 

68 

These  data  may  be  studied  in  the  order  given. 

Egg. — For  the  first  two  lots  the  temperature  is  the  same  with  only  a 
slight  difference  in  humidity,  but  during  the  period  of  the  first  lot  rain 
fell  for  a part  of  the  time  on  3 successive  days ; during  the  second 
none  fell  at  all.  Under  these  conditions  the  duration  of  the  first  lot 
was  1£  days  longer.  The  period  covered  by  the  next  two  lots  of  Au- 
gust 15  and  August  16,  furnish  about  the  same  conditions  with  the  same 
results.  The  next  three  lots  were  deposited  much  later  in  the  season, 
had  lower  temperature  and  excessive  rains,  6.37  inches  having  fallen 
from  September  22  to  25  inclusive.  The  duration  of  the  egg  state  as  a 
result  was  much  prolonged.  There  is  no  check  on  this  lot,  however, 
since  no  eggs  under  direct  observation  were  hatched  during  that  sea- 
son with  the  same  low  temperature  but  without  the  excessive  rains. 
From  general  observations,  however,  there  is  no  question  but  that  low 
temperatures  also  prolong  the  duration  of  the  egg  state,  the  same  as 
the  rains  seem  to  have  done  in  each  of  the  two  first  lots  mentioned. 

Larva. — The  first  two  larvae  were  reared  under  almost  exactly  similar 
conditions  and,  as  will  be  seen,  matured  almost  at  the  same  time.  As 
compared  with  those  that  follow  the  duration  is  of  interest,  as  there 
■was  but  little  rain  and  a high  temperature.  The  next  two  were  worms 
hatched  from  the  same  lot  of  eggs,  and,  as  is  seen  from  the  table,  were 
reared  under  exactly  similar  conditions.  Despite  this,  the  difference  in 
time  of  maturing  is  5 days.  This  can  only  be  accounted  for  by  the  pe- 
culiarities of  the  species,  such  as  have  been  previously  discussed.  The 
difference,  as  compared  with  the  two  preceding,  was  principally  due  to 
the  much  lower  temperature.  If,  with  the  abundant  rain  during  that 


47 


period,  the  temperature  had  been  maintained  as  high  as  in  the  first,  the 
worms  would  .have  matured  more  rapidly.  This  is  verified  by  noticing 
the  retardation  of  growth  of  the  last  worm  recorded  in  the  table.  This 
worm  had  only  molted  twice  after  18  days.  The  temperature  during  this 
period  was  18°  lower  than  that  of  the  first  two  and  9°  lower  than  that 
of  the  second  two.  General  observations  established  this  fact  concern- 
ing the  feeding  of  the  worms,  viz : that  a moderate  amount  of  rain 
with  high  temperature  was  least  suited  to  their  most  vigorous  feeding 
and  growth,  and  consequently  their  earliest  maturity.  The  same 
amount  of  rain,  however,  with  a much  lower  temperature,  is  as  much 
a disadvantage,  and  increases  the  retarding  effect,  which  the  lower  tem- 
perature itself  would  have  had.  But  again,  high,  dry  temperatures  are 
avoided  by  the  worms,  which  during  that  time  feed  less  vigorously, 
and  thereby  prolong  their  larval  existence  some. 

Light  frosts  began  (both  in  Mississippi  and  Louisiana)  as  early  as 
October  27,  and  were  more  or  less  continuous  from  that  time  on.  At 
Holly  Springs,  Mississippi,  a killing  frost  occurred  October  31,  which 
froze  and  entirely  blackened  the  cotton  plants.  At  Shreveport,  Louisi- 
ana, however,  the  cotton  was  not  entirely  frozen  and  blackened  until 
about  December  4.  As  has  been  previously  noted,  worms  of  nearly  all 
stages  were  found  at  both  localities  a short  time  previous  to  the  killing 
frosts,  by  which  latter  the  younger  ones  were  quite  certainly  killed. 

Pupa . — For  the  first  of  the  pupae  recorded  it  is  found  that  a mod- 
erate amount  of  rain  with  high  temperature  shortens  the  duration  of 
the  pupal  state.  From  the  remaining  ones  it  is  found  that  with  but 
little  variation  in  the  low  temperature,  which  alone  would  have  pro- 
longed the  duration,  the  excessive  rains  greatly  added  to  the  delay. 

In  general,  then,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  duration  of  the  various 
stages  of  Heliothis  are  shortest  under  high  temperatures  with  moder- 
ate rainfall  j longer,  except  in  egg  and  pupa,  whenahigh,  dry  tempera- 
ture is  maintained;  longer  still  with  much  lower  temperature;  and  yet 
again  longer  with  lower  temperature  and  excessive  rains. 

Some  atmospheric  conditions  also  noticeably  influence  the  behavior 
of  the  moths.  The  hot  weather,  dry,  or  somewhat  rainy,  seems  to  have 
but  little  diverting  effect  on  the  habits  of  the  moths.  When  the  tem- 
perature is  much  lower,  and  is  accompanied  with  much  rain,  the  moth 
adapts  itself  to  the  condition  of  thiugs.  The  excessive  rains  last  sea- 
son continued  late  in  the  evening  and  into  the  night.  This  of  course 
covers  the  period  of  feeding  and  deposition.  This  seemed  to  have  the 
effect  of  inducing  the  moths  to  fly  and  feed  more  freely  during  the  mid- 
dle of  the  afternoon,  when  it  was  clear  and  warmer.  When  the  rainy 
spell  began  to  be  a protracted  one,  the  females  were  frequently  seen  at 
3 o’clock  during  the  warm  sunshiny  afternoons  busily  engaged  in  de- 
positing their  eggs.  The  instances  in  which  deposition  was  observed 
in  daytime  were  confined  mostly  to  this  period,  though  some  were  ob- 
served under  normal  conditions.  From  this  it  follows  that  to  a certain 


48 


extent,  at  least,  the  imagos  adapt  themselves  to  unfavorable  conditions^ 
and  that  their  period  of  egg  deposition,  on  the  whole,  is  not  much  in- 
fluenced by  such  conditions.  Their  progeny,  however,  as  has  already 
been  noted,  suffers  materially. 

As  bearing  on  the  abundance  (or  rather  scarcity)  of  the  Boll  Worm 
the  past  year,  I quote  from  the  report  of  Professor  Fulton  for  1890  as 
follows:  “The  most  important  irregularities  of  the  year  were  the  un- 
usually high  temperature  in  January  and  February,  with  a marked 
deficiency  of  temperature  in  March.’7  During  the  period  of  high  tem- 
perature in  January,  and  especially  February,  it  may  be  that  many 
of  the  moths  issued.  If  so,  the  cold  period  in  March  quite  likely 
killed  many  of  those  which  had  issued.  In  the  Bed  Biver  section  of 
Louisiana  the  Bed  Biver  overflowed  badly  in  spring,  and  planting  of 
both  corn  and  cotton  was  delayed  until  late  in  May  and  some  in  June. 
This  necessarily  delayed  finding  suitable  host  plants  for  the  moths 
which  had  issued  during  April  and  May  to  deposit  on,  and  doubtless  a 
large  per  cent  of  their  progeny  failed  to  survive.  In  some  localities 
also  corn  and  cotton  had  been  planted  and  was  large  enough  for  the 
moths  which  had  issued  to  deposit  upon  when  the  river  overflowed.  As 
a result  the  corn  and  cotton  both  were  drowned,  or  at  any  rate  stunted 
so  that  it  was  all  plowed  under  and  planted  a second  time.  By  this 
process  doubtless  many  of  the  first  brood  of  worms  were  destroyed. 
From  these  reasons  the  second  brood  and  consequently  all  subsequent 
broods  were  in  all  probability  greatly  reduced. 

From  all  the  information  gathered  through  observers  of  the  U.  S. 
Signal  Service  it  is  certain  that  the  boll-worm  depredations  are  much 
more  extensive  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  cotton  belt.  There  is, 
therefore,  no  question  but  that  the  future  work  on  the  Boll  Worm 
should  be  carried  on  principally  in  that  region. 

INSECT  DISEASES. 

The  work  upon  insect  diseases  has  formed  an  important  part  of  the 
investigation.  At  the  present  time,  however,  it  would  be  unwarranted 
and  hazardous  to  enter  largely  into  a report  upon  the  work  done  and  in 
contemplation,  or  to  draw  conclusions.  I shall  therefore  give  but  little 
more  than  a synopsis  of  the  present  condition  of  the  work,  and  will  re- 
serve acknowledgments  to  those  who  have  contributed  in  any  way  for  a 
more  detailed  report  in  the  future. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  in  preparing  for  such  work  was  to  equip 
and  arrange  for  a bacteriological  laboratory.  Some  time  was  spent  at 
Shreveport,  Louisiana,  in  cooperation  with  Dr.  Booth  (who  assumed 
charge  of  the  work  for  the  season)  towards  accomplishing  this  end. 
Hot-air  and  steam  sterilizers  were  designed  and  a good  workman  soon 
had  them  in  condition  for  use.  The  other  supplies  immediately  neces- 
sary were  ordered.  These  have  been  added  to  as  the  progress  of  the 


49 


work  demanded,  until  now  quite  a complete  laboratory  lias  been  fitted 
up,  sufficient  to  carry  on  to  a finish  all  the  work  and  experimentation 
which  it  will  be  possible  to  execute. 

The  diseased  insects  and  worms  from  which  the  cultures  on  hand 
have  been  made  were  obtained  from  various  sources  from  entomological 
workers  throughout  the  country. 

Extensive  and  conclusive  experiments  with  the  insect  diseases  on  hand 
were  not  made  for  the  same  reasons  stated  by  Professor  McNeill.  The 
status  of  this  portion  of  the  work  is,  therefore,  much  the  same  as  the 
latter,  viz,  ready  for  extensive  and  thorough  work  during  the  approach- 
ing season.  The  few  observations  made  are  encouraging,  but  . do  not 
warrant  any  definite  and  positive  statements  at  this  time. 

It  seems  highly  probable  that  the  Boll  Worm  is  readily  susceptible  to 
the  cabbage- worm  disease.  Dr.  Booth  in  one  instance  fed  Boil  Worms 
upon  diseased  cabbage  worms,  which  Boll  Worms  later  died.  Cul- 
tures were  obtained  from  these  dead  Boll  Worms.  Mounts  from  the 
cultures  were  made  later  and  studied  with  a microscope.  Micrococci 
were  present  in  great  abundance.  At  Holly  Springs,  Mississippi,  some 
Boll  Worms  were  accidentally  placed  in  a breeding  cage  in  which  dead 
oabbage  worms  had  been  temporarily  placed.  A number  of  these  Boll 
Worms  died  at  various  intervals.  The  dead  worms  were  sent  to  Dr. 
Booth,  who  made  cultures  from  their  dead  and  decaying  bodies.  Ex- 
amination of  mounts  made  from  these  cultures  again  showed  micro- 
cocci in  abundance.  The  above  evidence  is  not  direct  and  positive;  is 
merely  indicative,  and  at  best  unscientific,  It  consists  simply  of  obser- 
vations noted  during  the  progress  of  the  work,  and  simply  indicates  that 
scientific  experiments  may  prove  successful. 

Though  no  experiments  could  be  made  upon  the  Boll  Worms  with 
other  insect  diseases,  the  interesting  and  important  discovery  was  made 
at  Holly  Springs,  Mississippi,  that  the  Boll  Worm  itself  is  subject  to  a 
disease.  The  disease  is  not  confined  to  the  larval  stage,  but  has  been 
obtained  from  all  the  stages  of  the  species.  Two  females  issued  on  the 
night  of  September  14.  On  the  second  day,  it  was  noticed  that  the 
moths  were  rather  sluggish  and  that  the  abdomen  was  greatly  dis- 
tended. By  the  next  day  the  females  were  absolutely  helpless,  and  the 
abdomen  so  decomposed  that  it  barely  held  together  while  pinning  the 
moth.  The  last  signs  of  life  of  the  moth  consist  of  peculiar  alternate 
openings  and  closings,  contracting  and  expanding  of  the  anus  and  gen- 
ital organs.  At  the  time  it  did  not  occur  to  me  that  it  was  a disease  of 
the  species,  and  it  was  only  the  peculiar  manner  of  the  dying  of  the 
moth  which  had  attracted  my  attention.  Hence  it  was  that  the  moths 
were  simply  pinned  and  placed  in  insect  boxes.  This  was  done  Septem- 
ber 17.  November  28,  the  abdomen  of  the  moth  was  accidentally 
broken  off  and  the  internal  parts  were  found  to  be  partially  liquid. 
From  this  partially  liquid  portion  tubes  of  beef  broth  were  inoculated, 
as  also  from  a whitish,  waxy,  gelatinous  substance  in  the  extreme  poste- 
23024— No.  24 4 


50 


rior  end  of  the  abdomen.  A culture  was  obtained  from  the  waxy  portion, 
and  the  microbe  is  different  from  any  of  the  others  studied.  It  is  pos- 
sible that  the  cultures  obtained  from  the  moths  after  so  long  a time  are 
non-pathogenic  microbes,  instead  of  the  one  which  produced  the  disease 
of  the  imago.  No  positive  statements  will  therefore  be  given  until  ex- 
periments have  been  made.  Cultures  from  the  egg,  larvae  and  pupae  are 
in  stock,  and,  so  far  as  examined,  are  all  exactly  alike.  This  disease 
can  not  have  been  mistaken  for  any  other,  since  it  was  noted  before  any 
of  the  others  were  on  hand.  Thus,  having  probably  found  the  Boll 
Worm  subject  to  a disease  perhaps  peculiar  to  itself,  it  remains  to  be 
seen  whether  it  is  contagious  and  easily  disseminated  for  infection. 

In  addition  to  this,  a disease  of  each  of  the  two  larvae  whose  ravages 
are  easily  mistaken  for  those  of  the  Boll  Worm  was  also  discovered  at 
Holly  Springs,  Mississippi.  The  two  species  are  Prodenia  lineatella  and 
the  undetermined  Noctuid  spoken  of.  In  fact  the  disease  of  each  was 
so  prevalent,  that  but  few  of  the  worms  were  found,  and  of  those  found 
all  but  one,  which  had  been  placed  in  alcohol,  died  of  the  disease.  No 
great  apprehensions  need  therefore  be  bad  concerning  these  two  species. 

Diseases  of  Agrotis  messoria , Nephelodes  minians , as  also  of  the  large 
tomato  worm,  are  at  hand  in  the  form  of  cultures. 

Cultures  from  all  these  sources  were  begun  in  August,  1890.  By  the 
regular  methods  for  such  work  pure  cultures  have  now  been  obtained 
and  are  transferred  from  time  to  time  to  fresh  media,  in  order  to  con- 
tinue the  healthy  growing  germs  through  the  winter  and  in  good  con- 
dition for  the  approaching  season’s  experimental  work.  In  this  way  a 
vast  number  of  cultures  in  fine  condition  are  on  hand,  and  it  is  to  be 
hoped  that  abundant  opportunity  may  be  offered  this  season  to  execute 
extensive  and  thorough  experiments. 


O 


U.S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

DIVISION  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Bulletin  No.  25. 


DESTRUCTIVE  LOCUSTS. 


A POPULAR  CONSIDERATION  OF  A FEW  OF  THE 
MORE  INJURIOUS  LOCUSTS  (OR  “GRASSHOP- 
PERS”) OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  TO- 
GETHER WITH  THE  BEST  MEANS 
OF  DESTROYING  THEM. 

BY 

C.  V.  RILEY,  M.  A.,  Ph.  D., 

ENTOMOLOGIST. 


PUBLISHED  BY  AUTHORITY  OK  THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 

I89I. 


gu  !*tm  25.  D v $ior>  of  Entomology. 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

DIVISION  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Bulletin  No.  25. 


DESTRUCTIVE  LOCUSTS. 


A POPULAR  CONSIDERATION  OF  A FEW  OF  THE 
MORE  INJURIOUS  LOCUSTS  (OR  “GRASSHOP- 
PERS”) OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  TO- 
GETHER WITH  THE  BEST  MEANS 
OF  DESTROYING  THEM. 


C.  V.  RILEY,  M.  A.,  Ph.  D., 

ENTOMOLOGIST. 


PUBLISHED  BY  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


WASHINGTON: 


GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 

189I. 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Letter  of  submittal 5 

Introduction 7 

The  Rocky  Mountain  Locust 9 

Range  of  species 9 

Destructive  appearances 10 

Life  history  and  habits 10 

Where  the  eggs  are  laid 10 

Manner  in  which  the  eggs  are  laid 12 

Philosophy  of  the  egg-mass 13 

Number  of  egg-masses  laid  by  a single  female 14 

The  hatching  process 15 

Where  and  under  what  conditions  of  soil  the  young  hatch  most  freely.  18 

Time  of  hatching 18 

Habits  of  the  young  or  unfledged  locusts  in  the  temporary  region 19 

Directions  in  which  the  young  locusts  travel 21 

Rate  at  which  the  young  travel 22 

They  reach,  iu  the  temporary  region,  but  a few  miles  east  of  where 

they  hatch 22 

Rate  at  which  locust  swarms  move 23 

Direction  of  invading  swarms 24 

Time  of  appearance  of  invading  swarms 25 

Number  of  broods;  peculiarities  of  habit 25 

Hibernation 26 

The  Lesser  Migratory  locust 26 

Range  of  species 26 

Destructive  appearances , 27 

Life  history  and  habits 27 

The  Non-Migratory  Red-legged  Locust 27 

Range  of  the  species 27 

Destructive  appearances 28 

Life  history  and  habits 28 

The  California  Devastating  Locust 28 

Range  of  the  species 28 

Destructive  appearances 29 

Life  history  and  habits 30 

The  Differential  Locust 30 

Range  of  the  species 30 

Destructive  appearances 30 

Life  history  and  habits 31 

The  Two-striped  Locust 31 

Range  of  species 31 

Destiuctive  appearances 31 

Life  history  and  habits 32 


3 


4 


Page. 

The  Pellucid  Locust 32 

Range  of  species 32 

Destructive  appearances 32 

Life  history  and  habits 33 

The  American  Acridium ? 33 

Range  of  species 33 

Destructive  appearances 33 

Life  history  and  habits 34 

Remedies  and  devices  for  the  destruction  of  locusts 34 

Encouragement  of  natural  agencies 34 

Destruction  of  the  eggs 35 

(1)  Harrowing  in  the  autumn 35 

(2)  Plowing 35 

(3)  Irrigation 3b 

(4)  Tramping 36 

(5)  Collecting 36 

Destruction  of  the  young  or  unfledged  locusts 37 

(1)  Burning 37 

(2)  Crushing 39 

(3)  Trapping 43 

Ditching  and  trenching 43 

Protection  by  barriers 44 

Coal  oil. 45 

Coal  tar 48 

(4)  Catching  or  bagging 49 

(5)  Use  of  destructive  agents 53 

Protection  of  fruit  trees 53 

Destruction  of  the  winged  insects 54 

Diversified  agriculture 56 

Legislation 57 

Bran-arsenic  mash 59 

Explanation  to  plates • 61 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 


United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Division  of  Entomology, 
Washington , B.  (7.,  March  28,  1891. 

Sir:  I have  the  honor  to  submit  for  publication  Bulletin  No.  25  of 
this  Division,  being  a consideration  of  a few  of  the  commoner  ana  more 
destructive  locusts  of  the  United  States,  together  with  the  best  remedies 
to  be  used  against  them. 

Respectfully, 

* C.  V.  Riley, 

Entomologist . 

Hon.  J.  M.  Rusk, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture . 

5 


■ 

. 

. 


. 

' 


DESTRUCTIVE  LOCUSTS 


INTRODUCTION. 

Since  the  great  u grasshopper  years ” of  1873-’76  there  have  been 
frequent  outbreaks  of  comparatively  local  species,  as  well  as  a few  cases 
in  which  small  swarms  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locust  have  flown  out 
into  the  subpermanent  region  and  have  occasioned  some  damage  for  a 
year  or  so.  The  most  notable  cases  have  been  the  outbreaks  of  the 
Lesser  Migratory  Locust  in  New  Hampshire  in  1883  and  1889,  the  ex- 
traordinary multiplication  of  the  Devastating  Locust  in  California  in 
1885,  the  increase  of  local  species  in  Texas  in  1887,  the  multiplication 
of  a chance  swarm  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  species  in  a restricted  locailty 
in  Minnesota  in  1888,  and  last  year’s  damage  in  Idaho  by  several  non- 
migratory  species  combined. 

For  a number  of  years  the  First  and  Second  Reports  of  the  United 
States  Entomological  Commission,  which  contained  the  results  of  the 
labors  of  the  commission  upon  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locust,  have  been 
out  of  print,  and  yet  with  every  renewed  alarm  caused  by  locusts  there 
has  been  a great  demand  upon  this  Division  for  information,  which 
could  only  be  supplied  by  correspondence  or  by  publishing  the  infor- 
mation in  local  newspapers.  For  a time  the  demand  was  filled  by  sup- 
plying the  Annual  Report  of  this  Department  for  1877,  which  con- 
tained bodily  the  chapters  upon  remedies  from  the  first  commission 
report.  The  supply  of  this  document  was  also  soon  exhausted. 

The  fact  that  Mr.  Bruner  in  his  last  summer’s  trip  to  Idaho  investi- 
gated the  latest  rumors  and  found  that  considerable  damage  was  being 
done  and  that  the  farmers  were  not  acquainted  with  even  the  most 
rudimentary  measures  for  protection  and  remedy,  shows  the  necessity 
of  publishing  a condensed  and  practical  account  of  the  species  which 
become  seriously  injurious  from  time  to  time,  and  of  republishing  in  as 
brief  form  as  possible  the  matter  on  remedies  and  preventives  from  the 
reports  mentioned.  This  bulletin  is  the  result.  It  is,  in  fact,  a repro- 
duction of  matter  already  published  but  now  inaccessible  for  dissemina- 
tion, and  which,  from  its  nature,  has  a permanent  value,  together  with 
such  additional  facts  as  subsequent  experience  has  revealed.  It  con- 
tains no  technical  matter  whatsoever,  and  the  farmer  will  be  able  to 
recognize  the  different  species  from  the  figures  which  accompany  the 


8 


consideration  of  each.  The  portion  which  relates  to  remedies,  while 
drawn  up  for  use  against  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locust,  will  apply  in 
large  part  to  other  migratory  locusts,  as  well  as  to  the  non-migratory 
species.  Long,  detailed  descriptions  of  the  various  machines  which  were 
given  in  the  original  reports  are,  for  the  most  part,  omitted,  in  the  be- 
lief that  the  figures  themselves  will  be  sufficiently  suggestive  for  the 
present  purpose.  In  point  of  fact,  many  of  these  machines,  especially 
the  more  complicated,  while  serviceable,  cannot  be  recommended  to 
the  average  farmer  dealing  with  the  locust  plague,  and  experience  has 
shown  that  those  simple  forms  providing  for  the  use  of  coal  oil  and  coal 
tar  are,  on  the  whole,  the  most  efficacious  against  the  unfledged  insects. 
It  is,  therefore,  to  this  portion  of  the  bulletin  that  I would  particularly 
call  the  attention  of  those  needing  the  information  contained  in  it.  But 
little  experience  of  practical  value  has  been  had  since  the  last  great  in- 
vasion ; hence  little  has  been  added  to  this  section  of  the  bulletin  beyond 
a brief  description  of  the  trapping  system  used  in  Cyprus  against  the 
migratory  locusts  of  the  Old  World,  and  an  account  of  the  bran-arsenic 
mash  remedy  used  in  California  in  1885  against  the  Devastating  Locust. 

C.  Y.  R. 


THE  ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  LOCUST. 


( Galoptenus  spretus  Thomas.) 

Range  of  Species. — In  the  first  report  of  the  U.  S.  Entomological 
Commission  this  species  has  been  fully  treated,  and  the  region  over  which 
it  is  found  divided  into  the  Permanent , Subpermanent , and  Temporary 


Fig.  1. — Caloptenus  spretus ; Process  of  acquiring  wings : a,  pupa  with  skin  just  split  on  the  back; 
6,  the  ima go  extending ; c,  the  imago  nearly  out ; d,  the  imago  with  wings  expanded  ; e,  tbein  ago  with 
all  parts  perfect,  natural  size  (after  Riley). 

regions.  These  may  be  briefly  explained  as  follows : Permanent , that 
in  which  the  locust  breeds  each  year  and  is  always  to  be  found  in 
greater  or  less  numbers;  Subpermanent , that  in  which  it  is  liable  to 
breed  for  some  years,  when  it  multiplies  in  excessive  numbers  in  its 
truly  permanent  breeding  grounds,  but  from  which  it  in  time  disap- 
pears ; Temporary , that  over  which  the  locusts  migrate  in  years  of  ex- 
cessive abundance,  but  in  which  they  seldom  breed  and  generally  dis- 
appear within  a year.  The  Permanent  region  embraces  the  greater  part 
of  Montana,  a narrow  strip  of  western  Dakota,  all  but  the  northwestern 
quarter  of  Wyoming,  the  central  and  northwestern  portion  of  Colorado, 
a small  tract  in  north  central  Utah  and  southeastern  Idaho,  another 
similar  tract  in  eastern  Oregon  and  southern  Idaho,  and  a very  large 
area  in  the  British  possessions  north  of  Montana  which  equals  more 
than  one-third  of  the  whole  region.  The  Subpermanent  region  lies  im- 
mediately east  of  this,  taking  in  a part  of  Manitoba,  nearly  all  of  Da- 
kota, the  western  half  of  Nebraska,  and  the  northeastern  quarter  of 
Colorado.  The  Temporary  region  extends  to  within  from  250  to  300 
miles  of  the  Pacific  coast,  then  taking  in  northern  Arizona  and  New 


10 


Mexico,  all  of  Texas,  Indian  Territory,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  western  Mis- 
souri, the  greater  half  of  Iowa,  nearly  all  of  Minnesota,  besides  an  ad- 
ditional strip  in  the  British  possessions  which  includes  Manitoba  and 
the  country  north  to  Lake  Winnipeg. 

Destructive  Appearances. — In  Chapter  II  of  the  first  report  of  the 
Entomological  Commission  the  chronological  history  of  this  locust  is 
treated  at  length.  We  introduce  here  a short  resumd  of  these  appear- 
ances : 

1818  and  1819.  Minnesota  and  Red  River  region  in  Manitoba. 

1820.  Western  Missouri,  probably  also  Kansas  and  country  to  north. 

1842.  Minnesota  and  Wyoming. 

1845.  Texas. 

1846  and  1847.  Wyoming. 

1849.  Texas  and  possibly  Minnesota. 

1851-1872  and  1875-1877.  Every  one  of  these  years  in  Utah. 

1852.  Idaho. 

1853.  Dakota. 

1854.  Texas,  Kansas. 

1855.  Texas. 

1856.  Texas,  Kansas,  Iowa,  Minnesota,  possibly  Wyoming. 

1857.  Texas,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Iowa,  Minnesota,  Wyoming,  Mauitoba. 

1860.  Topeka,  Kansas. 

1861.  Nebraska,  Montana. 

1862.  Montana. 

1863.  Montana,  Dakota,  Minnesota. 

1864.  Montana,  Dakota,  Colorado,  parts  of  New  Mexico,  Nebraska,  Iowa,  Minnesota, 

Manitoba. 

1866.  Kansas,  Nebraska,  northeastern  Texas,  western  Missouri,  Iowa,  Minnesota, 
Colorado.  # 

1868-1869.  Montana,  Idaho,  Dakota,  Colorado. 

1870.  Iowa,  Minnesota,  and  slight  in  Dakota,  Idaho,  Wyoming. 

1872.  Slight  in  Minnesota,  Dakota,  Montana,  Colorado. 

1873.  Northern  Colorado,  southern  Wyoming,  Nebraska,  Dakota,  southwest  Minne- 

sota, northwest  Iowa. 

1874.  Colorado,  Nebraska,  and  Kansas  overrun,  while  parts  of  Wyoming,  Dakota, 

Minnesota,  Iowa,  Missouri,  New  Mexico,  Indian  Territory,  and  Texas  were 
ravaged  by  swarms  from  Montana  and  British  America  where  they  were 
abundant.  This  was  the  year  of  the  most  disastrous  invasions. 

1875.  Portions  of  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Missouri ; also  more  or  less  abundant  and  de- 

structive from  Manitoba  to  Texas. 

1876.  Montana,  British  America,  Wyoming,  Dakota,  Minnesota,  Colorado,  Kansas, 

Nebraska,  west  half  of  Iowa,  west  strip  of  Missouri,  Indian  Territory, 
Texas. 

1877.  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Dakota,  Montana. 

1885.  Eastern  Montana,  northwest  Dakota. 

1888.  Minnesota,  principally  Otter  Tail  County. 

Life-history  and  Habits — Where  the  Eggs  are  laid . — The  eggs  may 
be  laid  in  almost  any  kind  of  soil,  but  by  preference  they  are  laid  in  bare, 
sandy  places,  especially  on  high,  dry  ground,  which  is  tolerably  com- 
pact and  not  loose.  It  is  often  stated  that  they  are  not  laid  in  meadows 
and  pastures,  and  that  hard  road-tracks  are  preferred ; in  truth,  how- 
ever, meadows  and  pastures,  where  the  grass  is  closely  grazed,  are  much 


11 


used  for  ovipositing  by  the  female,  while  on  well-traveled  roads  she  sel- 
dom gets  time  to  fulfill  the  act  without  being  disturbed.  Thus  a well- 
traveled  road  may  present  the  appearance  of  being  perfectly  honey- 
combed with  holes,  when  an  examination  will  show  that  most  of  them 
are  unfinished  and  contain  no  eggs  ; whereas  a field  covered  with  grass 
stubble  may  show  no  signs  of  such  holes  and  yet  abound  with  eggs. 
In  tact,  wherever  holes  are  noticed,  it  may  generally  be  taken  for 
granted  that  they  contain  no  eggs,  for  the  mother  covers  well  the  hole 
when  she  has  time  to  properly  complete  her  task. 

Furthermore,  the  insects  are  more  readily  noticed  at  their  work  along 
roads  and  roadsides  than  in  fields  ; a fact  which  has  also  had  something 
to  do  in  forming  the  popular  impression.  Newly  plowed  land  is  not 
liked  ; it  presents  too  loose  a surface;  but  newly  broken  sward  is  often 
filled  with  eggs.  Moist  or  wet  ground  is  generally  avoided  for  the  pur- 
pose under  consideration. 

We  have  noticed  that  in  the  permanent  breeding  region,  wherever 
the  vegetation  is  scant,  the  females  show  a decided  preference  for  the 
shaded  base  of  shrubby  plants,  among  the  roots  of  which  they  like  to 
place  their  eggs ; whereas  in  the  temporary  region,  where  the  vegeta- 
tion is  generally  so  much  ranker,  exposed  situations,  or  those  compara- 
tively bare  of  vegetation,  are  preferred.  The  experience  of  1876  proved 
very  conclusively,  also,  that  they  are  instinctively  guided  toward  culti- 
vated fields,  where  the  young  will  find  good  pasturage  ; for  the  eggs 
were  noticeably  thickest  and  hatched  most  numerously  in  1877  in  culti- 
vated areas.  In  the  Cypress  Hills  region  of  British  America,  as  Mr. 
J.  G.  Kittson  informs  us,  the  high  lands  and  protected  slopes  of  the 
hills  are  preferred.  The  soil  of  the  mountain  region,  where  the  insects 
permanently  breed,  is  mostly  of  a compact,  scantily  covered,  gravelly 
nature,  and  the  notion  that  they  lay  most  in  pure  sand  is  an  erroneous 
one. 

Sandy  soil  that  is  compact,  especially  when  having  a south  or  east 
exposure,  is  much  chosen,  but  in  loose  and  shifting  sand  the  eggs  would 
perish.  In  1876,  it  was  generally  remarked  that  the  insects  were  more 
indifferent  than  usual  in  ovipositing,  and  that  eggs  were  much  more  fre- 
quently laid  in  low,  and  even  wet,  land  than  in  former  years. 

The  mass  seldom  reaches  more  than  an  inch  below  the  surface,  except 
where  some  vegetable  root  has  been  followed  down  and  devoured,  and 
the  insect  leaves  her  eggs  before  emerging;  in  this  way  the  mass  is 
sometimes  placed  a foot  below  the  surface.  In  abnormal  or  unhealthy 
conditions,  the  eggs  may  be  laid  in  exposed  places  without  any  hole,  in 
which  case  they  doubtless  never  give  birth  to  young.  In  other  cases, 
the  female  will  fill  her  hole  almost  entirely  with  the  sebific  matter.  Nor 
are  the  eggs  invariably  laid  in  the  ground,  for  while  we  know  of  no  ex- 
ceptions to  this  normal  position  in  spretus , yet  Mr.  Boll  informs  us  that 
around  Dallas,  Tex.,  in  1876,  the  eggs  of  differ entialis  were  very  numer- 
ously placed  under  the  bark  of  elm  and  hackberry  logs  that  had  been 


12 


felled  on  low  land.  We  have  also  received  from  Mr.  A.  W.  Hoffmeister,  of 
Fort  Madison,  Iowa,  the  eggs  of  a species  of  Stenobothrus , and  the  young 
that  hatched  from  them,  the  eggs  having  been  thrust  into  holes  made  by 
some  carpenter-bee  in  a fence-post;  while  Ghloealtis  conspersa  habitually 
bores  in  dead  wood. 

Manner  in  which  the  Eggs  are  laid. — The  female,  when  about  to  lay  her 
eggs , forces  a hole  in  the  ground  by  means  of  the  two  pairs  of  horny 
valves  which  open  and  shut  at  the  tip  of  her  abdomen,  and  which,  from 
their  peculiar  structure,  are  admirably  fitted  for  the  purpose.  (See  PI. 
I,  Fig.  2,  where  b , c , show  the  structure  of  one  of  each  of  the  upper  and 
lower  valves.)  With  the  valves  closed  she  pushes  the  tips  into  the 
ground,  and  by  a series  of  muscular  efforts  and  the  continued  opening 
and  shutting  of  the  valves  she  drills  a hole,  until  in  a few  minutes  (the 
time  varying  with  the  nature  of  the  soil)  nearly  the  whole  abdomen  is 
buried.  The  abdomen  stretches  to  its  utmost  for  this  purpose,  espe- 
cially at  the  middle,  and  the  hole  is  generally  a little  curved,  and  always 
more  or  less  oblique  (PI.  I,  Fig.  1,  d).  Now,  with  hind  legs  hoisted 
straight  above  the  back,  and  the  shanks  hugging  more  or  less  closely 
the  thighs,  she  commences  ovipositing. 

When  the  hole  is  once  drilled  there  exudes  from  the  tip  of  the  body 
a frothy,  mucous  matter,  which  fills  up  the  bottom  of  the  hole  and 
bathes  the  horny  valves.  This  is  the  sebific  fluid  which  is  secreted  by 
the  sebific  or  cement  gland.  By  repeatedly  extricating  and  studying 
specimens  in  every  possible  stage  of  oviposition  we  have  been  able  to 
ascertain  the  exact  method  by  which  the  egg-mass  is  formed.  The  proc- 
ess has  never  been  accurately  described  by  other  writers,  and  the  gen- 
eral impression — upon  which  figures  like  those  of  Gerstacker’s  * are 
founded — is  that  the  eggs  are  extruded  from  between  the  distended 
hooks  or  valves.  If  we  could  manage  to  watch  a female  from  the  time 
the  bottom  of  her  hole  is  moistened  by  the  sebific  fluid,  we  should  see 
the  valves  all  brought  together,  when  an  egg  would  pass  down  the  ovi- 
duct (PI.  I,  Fig.  3,  j)  along  the  ventral  side,  and,  guided  by  a little 
finger-like  style  (the  gubernaeulum  ovi , g),  “pass  in  between  the  horny 
valves  (which  are  admirably  constructed,  not  only  for  drilling  but  for 
holding  and  conducting  the  egg  to  its  appropriate  place),  and  issue  at 
their  tips  amid  the  mucous  fluid  already  spoken  of.  Then  follows  a 
period  of  convulsions,  during  which  more  mucous  material  is  elabo- 
rated, until  the  whole  end  of  the  body  is  bathed  in  it,  when  another 
egg  passes  down  and  is  placed  in  position.  These  alternate  processes 
continue  until  the  full  complement  of  eggs  are  in  place,  the  number 
ranging  from  20  to  35,  but  averaging  about  28.  The  mucous  matter 
binds  all  the  eggs  in  a mass,  and  when  the  last  is  laid  the  mother  de- 
votes some  time  to  filling  up  the  somewhat  narrower  neck  of  the  bur- 
row with  a compact  and  cellulose  mass  of  the  same  material,  which, 
though  light  and  easily  penetrated,  is  more  or  less  impervious  to  water, 


Die  Wanderheuschrecke,  Berlin,  1876,  Taf.  II,  Fig.  4. 


13 


and  forms  a very  excellent  protection  (PI.  I,  Fig.  5,  d ).”  When  fresh 
the  mass  is  soft  and  moist,  but  it  soon  acquires  a firm  consistency. 

During  the  operation  the  female  is  very  intent  on  her  work,  and  may 
be  gently  approached  without  becoming  alarmed,  though  when  sud- 
denly disturbed  she  makes  great  efforts  to  get  away,  and  extricates 
her  abdomen  in  the  course  of  a few  seconds,  the  time  depending  on  the 
depth  reached. 

The  legs  are  almost  always  hoisted  straight  above  the  back  during 
the  process,  as  shown  in  the  figure  (Fig.  1),  with  the  shanks  hugging 
more  or  less  closely  the  thighs.  Sometimes,  however,  especially  when 
the  abdomen  is  fully  buried,  the  ends  of  the  hind  feet  may  rest  firmly 
on  the  ground,  as  has  been  observed  by  Dr.  Packard  in  the  case  of 
femur rubrum. 

The  time  required  for  drilling  the  hole  and  completing  the  pod  will 
vary  according  to  the  season  and  the  temperature.  During  the  latter 
part  of  October  or  early  in  November,  1876,  when  there  was  frost  at 
night  and  the  insects  did  not  rouse  from  their  chilled  inactivity  until  9 
o’clock  a.  m.,  the  females  scarce  had  time  to  complete  the  process  dur- 
ing the  4 or  5 warmer  hours  of  the  day  ; but  with  higher  temperature 
not  more  than  from  2 to  3 hours  would  be  required. 

We  have  been  for  weeks  with  the  insects  where  they  were  so  thickly 
ovipositing  that  the  light,  clay-yellow  ground  would  be  darkened  by 
them,  and  have  laid  on  a closely-grazed  sward  for  hours  with  speci- 
mens in  the  act  all  around,  and  have  repeatedly  verified  all  that  we 
have  here  described. 

Philosophy  of  the  Egg-mass.— To  the  casual  observer  the  eggs  of  this 
locust  appear  to  be  thrust  indiscriminately  into  the  hole  made  for  their 
reception.  A more  careful  study  of  the  egg-mass,  or  egg-pod,  will 
show,  however,  that  the  female  took  great  pains  to  arrange  them,  not 
only  so  as  to  economize  as  much  space  as  possible,  consistent  with  the 
form  of  each  egg,  but  so  as  to  best  facilitate  the  escape  of  the  young 
locust ; for  if,  from  whatever  cause,  the  upper  eggs  should  fail  to  hatch, 
or  should  hatch  later  than  the  lower  ones,  the  former  would  offer  an 
impediment  to  the  exit  of  the  young  in  their  endeavors  to  escape  from 
these  last,  were  there  no  provision  against  such  a possibility.  The  eggs 
are,  indeed,  most  carefully  placed  side  by  side  in  four  rows,  each  row 
generally  containing  seven.  They  oblique  a little  crosswise  of  the  cyl- 
inder (PI.  I,  Fig  4,  a).  The  posterior  or  narrow  end,  which  issues  first 
from  the  oviduct,  is  thickened,  and  generally  shows  two  pale  rings 
around  the  darker  tip  (PI.  I,  Fig  5,  h).  This  is  pushed  close  against  the 
bottom  of  the  burrow,  which,  being  cylindrical,  does  not  permit  the  outer 
or  two  side  rows  to  be  pushed  quite  so  far  down  as  the  two  inner  rows, 
and  for  the  very  same  reason  the  upper  or  head  ends  of  the  outer  rows 
are  necessarily  bent  to  the  same  extent  over  the  inner  rows,  the  eggs 
when  laid  being  somewhat  soft  and  plastic.  There  is,  consequently,  an 
irregular  channel  along  the  top  of  the  mass  (PI.  I,  Fig.  5,  c),  which  is 


14 


filled  only  with  the  same  frothy  matter  that  surrounds  each  egg,  which 
matter  occupies  all  the  other  space  in  the  burrow  not  occupied  by  the 
eggs.  The  whole  plan  is  seen  at  once  by  a reference  to  the  figure  re- 
ferred to,  which  represents,  enlarged,  a side  view  of  the  mass  within 
the  burrow  (a),  and  a bottom  (b)  and  top  ( c ) view  of  the  same,  with  the 
earth  which  adheres  to  it  removed. 

Number  of  Egg  masses  laid  by  a single  Female. — Yersin  concludes,  refer- 
ring to  the  European  migratoria , that  eggs  are  laid  thrice,  at  intervals 
of  about  a month,  while  Kriinitz,  Keferstein,  and  Stoikowitschf  also 
declare  that  they  are  laid  in  three  different  masses.  Professor  Whit- 
man, in  his  1876  experiments,  had  a female  which  laid  about  the  middle 
of  July,  and  died  September  9,  without  laying  again,  though  eggs  were 
found  in  the  ovaries  at  death.  The  time  between  the  first  and  second 
laying,  observed  by  Korte,  was  6 days.  Mr.  Aughey,  from  experiments 
made  in  1876,  found  the  interval  still  shorter,  ranging  from  2 to3days; 
but  he  requests  us  to  add  that  other  experiments,  not  recorded,  showed 
a much  longer  interval  between  the  periods,  extending  in  some  cases  to 
20  days.  It  would  thus  appear  that  there  is  the  greatest  diversity  in 
the  time  intervening  between  the  periods  of  egg-laying  and  that  the 
number  of  egg-masses  formed  by  one  individual  is  by  no  means  con- 
stant. It  is  natural  to  suppose  that  there  will  be  great  difference  in 
individual  prolificacy,  and  we  are  also  of  the  opinion  that  there  is  great 
difference  in  this  respect  in  diff  ereut  generations — those  that  hatch  in 
the  permanent  region  being  more  prolific  than  those  which  hatch  in  the 
temporary  region.  This  opinion  is  not  only  warranted  by  the  general 
experience  of  farmers,  but  also  by  experiment.  As  compared  with 
those  of  1876,  the  autumn  flights  of  1877  were  for  the  most  part  intes- 
tate, and  it  was  very  generally  noticed  that  they  laid  no  eggs.  There 
is,  as  we  have  seen  in  the  preceding  chapter,  the  best  of  reasons  for 
believing  that  these  flights  were  not  from  the  permanent  region,  but 
consisted  mainly  of  insects  that  had  bred  in  the  temporary  region. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  reproductive  organs  are  easily  affected  by 
any  sudden  change  of  climatic  conditions  which  animals  maybe  subjected 
to,  and  that  sterility  is  one  of  the  most  frequent  consequences  of  such 
change.  It  was  upon  this  general  rule  that  the  late  B.  D.  Walsh,  knowing 
nothing  of  the  return  migration,  based  the  theory  that  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain locust  could  never  thrive  in  the  temporary  region,  but  would  become 
intestate  and  perish  there.  In  1876  we  had  measurable  success  in  get- 
ting spretus  to  lay  eggs  in  confinement.  In  1877,  though  we  made  far 
more  strenuous  efforts  with  the  insects  that  hatched  in  Texas  and  Kan- 
sas, yet  we  signally  failed.  Of  many  thousands  which  we  hatched  in 
St.  Louis  and  endeavored  to  rear  under  the  most  favorable  circum- 
stances in  vivaria  containing  growing  grain,  most  of  them  died  in  from 
3 to  8 days  from  hatching.  We  succeeded  in  bringing  a few  through 
the  third  and  two  through  the  fourth  molt.  At  Oarbondale,  III.,  from 


t See  Koppen,  p.  36. 


15 


Minnesota  eggs,  Mr.  Thomas  had  better  luck,  and  reared  several  to  the 
winged  condition.  We  repeatedly  dispatched  living  specimens  both  of 
the  pupse  and  the  mature  insects  from  Texas,  Kansas,  and  Iowa  to  our 
office  clerk,  Mr.  Th.  Pergande,  St.  Louis,  but  with  no  more  favorable 
results,  as  he  entirely  failed  to  obtain  eggs,  and  the  females,  when  dead, 
were  found,  upon  examination,  to  contain  none.  This  want  of  fecund- 
ity, though  not  universal,  was  quite  general  with  the  insects  of  1877, 
and  is  in  keeping  with  the  general  experience  as  to  the  sickly  and  de- 
generate nature  of  the  brood. 

It  is  quite  manifest,  therefore,  that  in  answering  the  question  we  have 
just  asked  we  can  do  so  only  in  a general  and  qualified  manner.  The 
number  of  eggs  produced  by  a well-developed  locust  will  range  from  100 
to  150,  if  we  consider  species  generally.  We  have  counted  171  in  one 
mass  of  (7 aloptenus  differ entialis;  from  120  to  130  in  those  of  (Edipoda 
phanwcoptera , and  about  120  in  that  of  Acridium  americanum.  The  great 
probability  is  that  the  eggs  of  such  species  are  all  laid  at  once.  In  spe- 
cies like  spretus , which  rarely  lay  more  than  30  eggs  in  one  mass,  it  were 
natural  to  infer  that  different  layings  take  place,  even  did  the  facts  at 
hand  not  prove  such  to  be  the  case.  In  1876  the  insects  were  pushing 
continuously  southward  from  the  middle  of  August  till  the  end  of  October, 
and  during  most  of  this  time  they  were  laying  eggs.  In  fact,  throughout 
the  country  invaded,  from  Minnesota  to  south  Texas,  they  continued 
laying  till  frost,  and  we  know  from  examinations  that  many  of  them 
perished  before  all  the  ova  had  been  disposed  of.  Stragglers  were  even 
noticed  in  Texas  as  late  as  December. 

To  sum  up  the  inquiry,  we  would  give  it  as  our  belief  that  the  laying 
season  normally  extends  from  6 to  8 weeks;  that  it  may  be  shortened 
or  lengthened  by  conditions  of  weather  and  climate;  that  fecundity  is 
materially  affected  by  the  same  conditions  ; that  the  average  number 
of  egg  masses  formed  is  three ; and  that  the  average  interval  between 
the  periods  of  laying  by  the  same  female  is  2 weeks. 

The  Hatching  Process.— Carefully  examined,  the  eggshell  is  found  to 
consist  of  two  layers.  The  outer  layer,  which  is  thin,  semiopaque,  and 
gives  the  pale,  cream-yellow  color,  is  seen  by  aid  of  a high  magnifying 
power  to  be  densely,  minutely,  and  shallowly  pitted ; or,  to  use  still 
more  exact  language,  the  whole  surface  is  netted  with  minute  and  more 
or  less  irregular,  hexagonal  ridges  (PI.  I,  Fig.  4,  a , h).  It  is  a mere  cov- 
ering of  excreted  matter,  similar  in  nature  to  the  mucous  or  sebific  fluid 
already  described,  which  binds  the  eggs  together.  The  inner  layer  (or 
chorion ) is  thicker,  of  a deeper  yellow,  and  perfectly  smooth.  It  is  also 
translucent,  so  that,  as  the  hatching  period  approaches,  the  form  and 
members  of  the  embryon  may  be  distinctly  discerned  through  it.  The 
outer  covering  is  easily  ruptured,  and  is  rendered  all  the  more  fragile 
by  freezing  ; but  the  inner  covering  is  so  tough  that  a very  strong  pres- 
sure between  one’s  thumb  and  finger  is  required  to  burst  it.  How, 
then,  will  the  embrjmn,  which  fills  it  so  compactly  that  there  is  scarcely 


16 


room  for  motion,  succeed  iu  escaping  from  such  a prison  ? The  rigid 
shell  of  the  bird’s  egg  is  easily  cracked  by  the  beak  of  its  tenant ; the 
hatching  caterpillar,  curled  within  its  eggshell,  has  room  enough  to 
move  its  jaws  and  eat  its  way  out;  the  egg-coverings  of  many  insects 
are  so  delicate  and  frail  that  the  mere  swelling  of  the  embryon  affords 
means  of  escape ; those  of  others  are  so  constructed  that  a door  flies 
open,  or  a lid  lifts  by  a spring,  whenever  pressure  is  brought  to  bear; 
in  some,  two  halves  open,  as  in  the  shell  of  a mussel ; whilst  in  a host 
of  others  the  embryon  is  furnished  with  a special  structure  called  the 
egg-burster,  the  office  of  which  is  to  cut  or  rupture  the  shell,  and  thus 
afford  means  of  escape.  But  our  young  locust  is  deprived  of  all  such 
contrivances,  and  must  have  another  mode  of  exit  from  its  tough  and 
sub  elastic  prison.  Nature  accomplishes  the  same  end  in  many  different 
ways.  She  is  rich  in  contrivances.  The  same  warmth  and  moisture 
which  promote  the  development  of  the  living  embryon  also  weaken  the 
inanimate  shell,  by  a process  analogous  to  decomposition,  and  by  a 
general  expansion  consequent  upon  the  swelling  of  the  embryon  within. 

-Thus,  the  eggs  when  about  to  hatch  are  much  more  plump  and  some- 
what larger  and  more  transparent  than  they  were  when  laid.  At  last, 
by  the  muscular  efforts  of  the  nascent  locust,  and  the  swelling  of  its 
several  parts,  especially  about  the  head  and  mouth,  the  shell  gives  way, 
generally  splitting  along  the  anterior  ventral  part.  The  whole  process 
may, in  fact,  be  likened  to  the  germination  of  a hard-covered  seed,  when 
planted  in  moist  ground,  and,  precisely  as  in  this  latter  case,  there  is 
iu  some  loose  soils  a certain  heaving  of  the  ground  from  the  united 
swelling  of  the  locust  eggs.  All  the  eggs  in  a given  mass  burst  very 
nearly  at  one  and  the  same  time,  and  in  that  event  the  lowermost  indi- 
viduals await  the  escape  of  those  in  front  of  them,  which  first  push 
their  way  out  through  the  neck  of  the  burrow  (PI  i,  Fig.  4,  d)  provided 
by  the  parent. 

They  all  escape,  one  after  the  other,  through  one  small  hole,  which 
in  the  field  is  scarcely  noticeable.  Such  is  the  usual  mode  of  hatching ; 
but  when  the  young  from  the  lower  eggs  hatch  first,  or  when  the  upper 
eggs  perish  and  leave  the  lower  ones  sound — as  is  not  uufrequently  the 
case — the  exit  is  nevertheless  easily  made  along  the  channel  already 
described  (PI.  i,  Fig.  5,  c). 

When  once  the  shell  is  ruptured  the  nascent  larva  soon  succeeds,  by 
a series  of  undulating  movements,  in  working  free  therefrom  and  mak- 
ing its  way  to  the  light  in  the  manner  just  described.  Once  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  it  rests  for  a few  minutes,  generally  lying  on  the 
side.  Its  members  are  still  limp  and  directed  backward,  and  it  is  yet 
enveloped  in  a very  delicate  film  or  pellicle,  which  must  be  cast  off  be- 
fore the  little  creature  can  move  with  alacrity. 

By  continuance  of  similar  contracting  and  expanding  movements 
which  freed  the  animal  from  the  earth,  this  film  in  a very  short  time 
splits  along  the  middle  of  the  back  near  the  head  (strictly  the  protho- 


17 


rax,)  and  is  then  worked  off  behind,  and  finally  kicked  from  the  hind 
feet  in  a little  white  crumpled  pellet,  that  has  justly  been  likened  by 
some  of  our  correspondents  to  a diminutive  mushroom.  These  little 
pellets  invariably  lie  close  around  the  hole  in  the  ground  from  which 
the  young  locusts  issued.  The  pellicle  begins  to  split,  under  ordinary 
conditions  of  warmth,  within  a minute  from  the  time  the  locust  is  fairly 
out  of  the  ground,  and  is  shed  in  from  one  to  five  minutes,  according  to 
circumstances.  Pale  and  colorless  when  first  freed  from  this  pellicle, 
the  full-born  locust  is  nevertheless  at  once  capable  of  considerable  ac- 
tivity, and  in  the  course  of  an  hour  assumes  its  natural  dark  gray  col- 
oring. Dr.  Packard  observed  (Report  to  Dr.  Hayden,  1877,  p.  634)  that 
specimens  which  hatched  at  11  a.  m.  began  to  turn  dark  at  3 p.  m.,  thus 
showing  that  the  time  may  vary ; but  numerous  close  observations 
which  we  have  made  on  single  individuals  show  that  an  hour  seldom 
passes  after  the  amnion  is  thrown  off  before  the  gray  color  is  acquired. 

From  this  account  of  the  hatching  process,  we  can  readily  understand 
why  the  female  in  ovipositing  prefers  compact  or  hard  soil  to  that  which 
is  loose.  The  harder  and  less  yielding  the  walls  of  the  burrow,  the 
easier  will  the  young  locust  crowd  its  way  out. 

Though  the  covering  which  envelops  the  little  animal  when  first  it 
issues  from  the  egg  is  quite  delicate,  it  nevertheless,  in  the  strugglesof 
birth,  undoubtedly  affords  much  protection,  and  itis  an  interesting  fact 
that  while,  as  we  have  just  seen,  it  is  shed  within  a few  minutes  of  the 
time  when  the  animal  reaches  the  free  air,  it  is  seldom  shed  if,  from  one 
cause  or  other,  there  is  failure  to  escape  from  the  soil,  even  though  the 
young  locust  may  be  struggling  for  days  to  effect  an  escape. 

While  yet  enveloped  in  this  pellicle,  the  animal  possesses  great  forc- 
ing and  pushing  power,  and,  if  the  soil  be  not  too  compact,  will  fre- 
quently force  a direct  passage  through  the  same  to  the  surface,  as 
indicated  at  the  dotted  lines  (PI.  I,  Fig.  5,  e).  But  if  the  soil  is  at  all 
compressed  it  can  make  little  or  no  headway,  except  through  the  appro- 
priate channel  ( d ).  While  crowding  its  way  out  the  antennae  and  four 
front  legs  are  held  in  much  the  same  position  as  within  the  egg,  the 
hind  legs  being  generally  stretched.  But  the  members  bend  in  every 
conceivable  way,  and  where  several  are  endeavoring  to  work  through 
any  particular  passage,  the  amount  of  squeezing  and  crowding  they 
will  endure  is  something  remarkable.  Yet  if  by  chance  the  protecting 
pellicle  is  worked  off  before  issuing  from  the  ground,  the  animal  loses 
all  power  of  further  forcing  its  way  out.  The  instinctive  tendency  to 
push  upward  is  also  remark  able.  In  glass  tubes,  in  which  I have  had  the 
eggs  hatching  in  order  to  watch  the  young,  these  last  would  always 
turn  their  heads  and  push  toward  the  bottom  whenever  the  tubes  were 
turned  mouth  downward ; while  in  tin  boxes,  where  the  eggs  were  placed 
at  different  depths  in  the  ground,  the  young  never  descended,  even 
when  they  were  unable  to  ascend  on  account  of  the  compactness  of  the 
soil  above. 


26787 — No.  25 2 


18 


Where  and  under  what  Conditions  of  Soil  the  Young  hatch  most  freely. — 
The  eggs  will  hatch  under  the  most  varied  conditions.  As  a rule,  the 
soils  and  locations  preferred  by  the  female  in  ovipositing  will  be 
those  in  which  the  young  will  most  freely  hatch,  viz,  compact  and  sandy 
or  gravelly  knolls  and  hillsides  with  a south  or  southeast  exposure. 

The  experience  of  1877  shows  also  that  hatching  takes  place  very 
freely  in  late-mown  meadows  or  prairies  or  grazed  pastures,  where  the 
exposure  of  the  ground  admits  of  ready  oviposition  and  the  warmth  of 
the  sun.  In  dry,  well-drained,  and  compact  soils  of  a light  nature  the 
eggs  are  much  better  preserved  than  in  heavy  clays  and  loams,  where 
they  are  more  subject  to  mold  and  rot.  The  experience  of  1877  is  rather 
misleading  on  this  point,  and  indicates  the  necessity  of  generalizing, 
not  from  the  experience  of  one,  but  of  many  years.  The  insects  were 
most  numerous,  and  seemed  to  hatch  most  numerously  in  the  lowlands 
and  in  sheltered  situations  along  river  courses.  The  facts  are,  that  in 
such  situations  those  which  did  hatch  survived  in  larger  proportions 
than  did  those  which  hatched  in  more  exposed  places,  because  the 
former  were  better  protected  from  the  cold  rains  and  storms  of  spring. 

Time  of  Hatching. — Here,  again,  we  can  not  take  the  exper  ience  of  any 
one  year  as  a guide,  but  find  the  necessity  of  generalizing  from  all  past 
experience.  In  much  of  the  locust  area  there  prevailed  such  late  warm 
weather  in  the  autumn  of  1876  that  considerable  numbers  of  the  young 
hatched  prematurely ; and  such  is  very  generally  the  case.  We  had 
also  some  unseasonably  warm  weather  in  January  and  February,  1877, 
during  which  large  numbers  hatched.  These  all  subsequently  perished. 
During  the  latter  part  of  March  and  early  in  April  the  hatching  was 
general,  but  there  followed  a period  of  cold,  rainy  weather,  which 
checked  the  hatching  and  destroyed  a large  number  of  the  insects  that 
had  hatched.  May  and  June  were  characterized  by  abundant  rains 
and  storms,  alternating  with  warm,  sunny  weather,  causing  the  hatching 
to  be  irregular  and  in  some  cases  quite  retarded.  It  would  not  be  in- 
correct, therefore,  to  say  that  in  one  and  the  same  neighborhood  the 
hatching  commenced  on  the  1st  of  February,  and  did  not  cease  till  the 
end  of  June,  thus  covering  a period  of  5 months.  Yet  this  is  excep 
tional,  and  it  has  been  much  more  regular  and  the  period  more  restricted 
in  previous  years. 

Those  eggs  which  are  laid  earliest  the  previous  year  will  also  hatch 
earliest ; and  since  the  egg-laying  covers  an  average  period  of  6 or  8 
weeks  in  the  same  locality  and  lasts  generally  till  frost,  it  follows  that 
the  eggs  pass  the  winter  in  every  stage  of  development — some  with  the 
fluids  clear  and  limpid,  others  with  the  embryo  fully  formed  and  ready 
at  the  first  approach  of  spring  to  hatch.  This  we  found  also  to  be  act- 
ually the  case,  for  many  hundreds  of  egg-masses  examined  during  the 
winter  of  1876-777,from  divers  parts  of  the  infested  region,  showed  every 
state  of  development. 

In  the  same  locality  hatching  will  take  place — cwteris  jparibus — first 


19 


on  light  dry  soils  and  on  south  and  southeast  exposures;  latest  on  low, 
moist,  and  shaded  or  tenacious  ground. 

^ We  see,  therefore,  that  the  hatching  will  not  alone  vary  according  to 
temperature  and  the  earliness  or  lateness  of  the  spring,  but  that  it  is 
quite  variable  under  the  same  conditions.  In  every  instance  there  will 
be  a few  hatching  when  the  first  hatched  in  the  same  locality  are  getting 
wings  ; and  we  give  it  as  a general  rule  that  the  bulk  of  the  eggs  hatch 
out  in  the  different  latitudes  about  as  follows : 

In  Texas,  from  the  middle  to  the  last  of  March. 

In  the  southern  portions  of  Missouri  and  Kansas,  about  the  second 
week  in  April. 

In  the  northern  parts  of  Missouri  and  Kansas  and  the  southern  sec- 
tions of  Iowa  and  Nebraska,  the  latter  part  of  April  and  first  of  May. 

In  Minnesota  and  Dakota  the  usual  time  for  hatching  ranges  from 
early  in  May  in  the  southern  portions  to  the  third  week  in  the  northern 
extremity. 

In  Montana  and  Manitoba,  from  the  middle  of  May  to  the  first  of 
June. 

In  short,  the  bulk  of  the  insects  hatch  in  ordinary  seasons  about  the 
middle  of  March  in  latitude  35°,  and  continue  to  hatch  most  numerously 
about  four  days  later  with  each  degree  of  latitude  north,  until  along  the 
forty-ninth  parallel  the  same  scenes  are  repeated  that  occurred  in  south- 
ern Texas  seven  or  eight  weeks  before. 

From  a number  of  experiments  which  we  have  made  on  the  eggs,  we 
conclude  that,  with  a constant  temperature  of  8.3°  F.,  with  favorable 
conditions  of  soil,  the  eggs  will  hatch  in  from  four  to  five  weeks  after 
they  are  laid,  and  in  a temperature  of  75°  F.  in  about  six  weeks.  Dr. 
Kiley  has  had  the  eggs  of  Galoptenus  atlanis  (laid  in  July)  hatched  in 
from  three  to  four  weeks;  those  of  Tragocepliala  viridifasciata  (laid  in 
June)  in  three  weeks;  and  those  of  Acridium  americanum  (laid  in  July) 
in  rather  more  than  a month. 

Habits  of  the  young  or  unfledged  Locusts  in  the  temporary  Region. — The 
habits  of  the  young  insects  as  they  occur  in  the  temporary  region,  and 
particularly  in  the  country  south  of  the  forty-fourth  parallel  and  east 
of  the  one  hundredth  meridian,  are  as  follows:  Although  possessed  of 
remarkably  active  powers  from  the  moment  they  leave  the  egg,  yet  so 
long  as  provision  suffices  for  them  on  their  hatching-grounds  the  young 
remain  almost  stationary  and  create  but  little  apprehension.  As  soon, 
however,  as  the  supply  of  food  in  these  situations  is  exhausted,  they 
commence  to  migrate,  frequently  in  a body  a mile  wide,  devouring,  as 
they  advance,  all  the  grass,  grain,  and  garden-truck  in  their  path.  The 
migrating  propensity  is  not  developed  until  after  the  first  molt,  aud  often 
not  till  after  the  second  or  third.  Up  to  that  time  they  are  content  to 
huddle  in  warm  places,  and  live  for  the  most  part  on  weeds,  and  espe- 
cially on  the  common  Dog-fennel  or  May-weed  (Maruta),  where  it  is 
present. 


20 


The  young*  locusts  display  gregarious  instincts  from  the  start,  and 
congregate  in  immense  numbers  in  warm  and  sunny  places.  They  thus 

often  blacken  the  sides  of  houses  or  the 
sides  of  hills.  They  remain  thus  huddled 
together  during  cold,  damp  weather. 
When  not  traveling,  and  when  food  is 
abundant,  or  during  bad,  rainy  weather, 
they  are  fond  of  congregating  on  fences, 
buildings,  trees,  or  anything  removed 
from  the  moist  ground.  They  also  pre- 
fer to  get  into  such  positions  to  undergo 
their  different  molts.  In  fields  they 
collect  at  night  or  during  cold,  damp 
weather,  under  any  rubbish  that  may  be  at  hand,  and  may  be  enticed 
under  straw,  hay,  etc.,  scattered  on  the  ground.  Old  prairie-grass  affords 
good  shelter,  and  where  a wheat  field  is  surrounded  with  unburned  prai- 
rie they  will  gather  for  shelter  along  the  borders  of  this  last. 

It  is  more  particularly  while  they  are  yet  small,  or  in  the  first,  second, 
and  third  stages,  that  the  young  locusts  hide  at  night,  and,  during  un- 
favorable weather,  at  day  also.  In  windy  weather  they  are  fond  of 
gathering  and  secreting  under  auy  shelter,  or  in  crevices  and  inequali- 
ties of  the  soil.  At  such  times  farmers  too  often  conclude  that  the 
pests  have  perished  and  vanished ; but  a few  hours  of  pleasant,  sunny 
weather  will  bring  the  insects  to  sight  again  and  dispel  the  delusion. 
When  very  vigorous  and  numerous  they  gradually  move  across  a field 
of  small  grain  and  cut  it  off  clean  to  the  ground  as  they  go,  appearing 
to  constantly  feed.  But  when  diseased  or  sickly,  as  in  1877,  they 
gather  in  bare  and  sunny  spots  and  huddle  and  bask  without  feeding. 
The  very  cold,  wet  weather  that  is  prejudicial  to  them  is  beneficial  to 
the  grain,  and  under  such  circumstances  it  generally  grows  so  rank  and 
rapidly  that  they  make  little  impression  upon  it. 

It  is  when  they  are  abundant  and  vigorous  enough  to  bare  the  ground 
of  vegetation,  and  this  principally  after  they  are  half-grown,  that  the 
habit  of  migrating  in  large  bodies  is  developed.  In  1877  scarcely  any 
disposition  to  migrate  was  shown,  and  this  was  in  strong  contrast  with 
what  occurred  in  1875.  In  a year  like  this  last,  when  they  are  vigorous 
and  abundant,  their  power  for  injury  increases  with  their  growth. 

At  first  devouring  the  vegetation  in  particular  fields  and  patches  in 
the  vicinity  of  tbeir  birthplaces,  they  gradually  widen  the  area  of  their 
devastation,  until  at  last,  if  very  numerous,  they  devour  every  green 
thing  over  extensive  districts.  Whenever  they  have  thus  devastated  a 
country  they  are  forced  to  feed  upon  one  another,  and  perish  in  im- 
mense.numbers  from  debility  and  starvation.  Whenever  timber  is  ac- 
cessible they  collect  in  it,  and  after  cleaning  out  the  underbrush,  feed 
upon  the  dead  leaves  and  bark.  A few  succeed  in  climbing  up  into  the 


Fig.  2. — Caloptenus  spretns : a a , newly 
hatched  larvae;  b,  full-grown  larva;  c, 
pupa,  natural  size  (after  Riley). 


21 


rougher  barked  trees,  where  they  feed  upon  the  foliage,  and  it  is  amus- 
ing to  see  with  what  avidity  the  famished  individuals  below  scramble 
for  any  fallen  leaf  that  the  more  fortunate  mounted  ones  may  chance 
to  sever.  This  increase  in  destructiveness  continues  until  the  bulk  of 
the  locusts  have  undergone  their  larval  molts  and  attained  the  pupa 
state.  The  pupa,  being  brighter  colored,  with  more  orange  than  the 
larva,  the  insects  now  look,  as  they  congregate,  like  swarms  of  bees. 
From  this  time  on  they  begin  to  decrease  in  numbers,  though  retaining 
their  ravenous  propensities.  They  die  rapidly  from  disease  and  from 
the  attacks  of  natural  enemies,  while  a large  number  fall  a prey,  while 
in  the  helpless  condition  of  molting,  to  the  cannibalistic  proclivities  of 
their  own  kind.  Those  that  acquire  wings  rise  in  the  air  during  the 
warmer  parts  of  the  day  and  wend  their  way  as  far  as  the  wind  will 
permit  toward  their  native  home  in  the  Northwest.  They  mostly  carry 
with  them  the  germs  of  disease  or  are  parasitized,  and  wherever  they 
settle  do  comparatively  little  damage. 

Directions  in  which  the  young  Locusts  travel. — The  young  insects  when 
migrating  move,  as  a rule,  during  the  warmer  hours  of  the  day  only, 
feeding,  if  hungry,  by  the  way,  but  generally  marching  in  a given  direc- 
tion until  toward  evening.  They  travel  in  schools  or  armies,  to  no  par- 
ticular or  constant  point  of  the  compass,  but  purely  in  search  of  food — 
the  same  school  one  day  often  pursuing  a different  course  from  that 
pursued  the  day  previous.  On  this  point  the  experience  of  1875  as 
well  as  of  1877  is  conclusive,  though  the  bulk  of  the  testimony  as  to 
their  actions,  when  hatching  out  in  the  more  northern  States,  is  to  the 
effect  that  the  prevailing  direction  taken  is  south  or  southeast,  while 
in  Southern  Texas  it  is  just  opposite,  or  north.  A person  traveling 
along  a road  may  often  see  one  army  marching  in  one  direction  to  the 
left  and  another  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  right,  and  we  have 
repeatedly  had  such  an  experience. 

If,  from  any  reason  whatsoever,  the  vanguard  of  a column  changes  its 
course,  the  changed  direction  is  in  some  way  communicated  in  wave-like 
form  to  those  in  the  rear.  Usually,  the  front  of  a column  is  not  easily 
diverted,  however,  but  will  pass  through  such  obstacles  as  open  fences 
rather  than  change  course.  Sometimes  two  schools  going  in  different 
directions  will  cross  each  other,  the  individuals  of  either  keeping  to  their 
particular  course  and  presenting  a singular  spectacle  as  they  hop  past 
one  another. 

It  is  recorded  in  Europe  that  few  things,  not  even  water,  stop  the 
armies  of  the  young  locusts  when  on  the  march,  and  Dongingk  relates 
having  seen  them  swim  over  the  Dniester  for  a stretch  of  1\  German 
miles,  and  in  layers  7 or  8 inches  thick.*  We  have  had  similar  experi- 
ence with  our  own  species.  In  1875,  near  Lane,  Kans.,  they  crossed  the 
Pottawatomie  Greek,  which  is  about  4 rods  wide,  by  millions ; while 


Koppen,  loc.  cit.,  p.  43. 


22 


tlieBig  and  Little  Blues,  tributaries  of  the  Missouri,  near  Independence, 
the  one  about  100  feet  wide  at  its  mouth  and  the  other  not  so  wide, 
were  crossed  at  numerous  places  by  the  moving  armies,  which  would 
march  down  to  the  water’s  edge  and  commence  jumping  in,  one  upon 
another,  till  they  would  pontoon  the  stream,  so  as  to  effect  a crossing. 
Two  of  these  mighty  armies  also  met,  one  moving  east  and  the  other 
west,  on  the  river  bluff,  in  the  same  locality,  and  each  turning  their 
course  north  and  down  the  bluff,  and  coming  to  a perpendicular  ledge 
of  rock  25  or  30  feet  high,  passed  over  in  a sheet  apparently  6 or  7 
inches  thick,  and  causing  a roaring  noise  similar  to  a cataract  of  water. 
(Riley’s  Eighth  Report,  p.  118.) 

The  experience  of  correspondents  as  to  the  movements  of  the  young 
is  very  conflicting,  as  it  naturally  wouid  be  from  what  we  have  already 
said.  One  man  will  notice  the  insects  moving  with  the  wind,  and  con- 
clude that  it  is  the  rule  for  them  to  do  so ; another,  against  the  wind, 
and  draw  an  opposite  conclusion. 

Rate  at  which  the  Young  travel . — When  about  half-grown  they  seldom 
move  at  a greater  rate  than  three  yards  a minute,  even  when  at  their 
greatest  speed  over  a tolerably  smooth  and  level  road,  and  not  halting 
to  feed.  They  walk  three-fourths  this  distance  and  hop  the  rest.  Two 
consecutive  hops  are  seldom  taken,  and  any  individual  one  may  be  run 
down  and  fatigued  by  obliging  it  to  hop  ten  or  twelve  times  without  a 
rest. 

According  to  Sydow,  the  young  of  the  European  P.  migratorius  travel, 
when  at  their  most  rapid  gait,  a German  mile  in  four  hours.  Even 
taking  the  shortest  German  mile,  or  nearly  four  English  miles,  we  very 
much  doubt  the  accuracy  of  this  statement,  for  though  the  migratoria 
is  a larger  species  than  spretus , we  can  not  believe  that  it  travels  nearly 
ten  times  as  fast,  and  we  have  again  and  again  timed  our  own  species. 

They  reach , in  the  temporary  Region , but  a few  Miles  east  of  where  they 
hatch. — At  the  rate  at  which  they  travel,  as  just  described,  they  could 
not  extend  many  miles,  even  if  they  continued  to  travel  in  one  direction 
from  the  time  of  hatching  until  maturity.  They  travel,  on  an  average, 
not  more  than  6 hours  per  day;  and  their  unfledged  existence  termi- 
nates in  from  6 to  8,  say  7,  weeks.  It  is  very  easy  to  calculate  from 
these  facts  that  if  they  continued  in  one  direction  from  the  time  they 
hatch  until  they  acquire  wings,  they  could  not  extend  30  miles.  In 
reality,  however,  they  do  not  travel  every  day ; and  where  food  is  abun- 
dant they  scarcely  travel  at  all. 

Moreover,  as  we  have  just  shown,  the  migratory  propensity  is  seldom 
manifested  during  the  first  or  second  larval  stages,  and  it  is,  in  fact, 
largely  dependent  on  conditions  of  health  and  vigor  of  the  insects  and 
on  the  amount  of  food  supply.  We  have  learned  of  no  cases  where 
the  young  have  extended,  during  growth,  10  miles  east  of  the  hatching 
limit. 

As  experience  abundantly  proves,  the  insects,  when  they  get  wings 


23 


in  the  temporary  region,  especially  in  early  summer,  instinctively  fly 
to  the  north  or  northwest,  and.  do  not  extend  to  do  damage  farther  east. 
Those,  also,  which  acquire  wings  later  in  the  summer  in  more  northerly 
regions,  and  which  fly  more  to  the  south,  never  extend  any  great  dis- 
tance east  of  where  they  hatch  ; those  developing  on  the  eastern  con- 
fines of  the  species’  range  (see  map)  passing  south westwardly,  and  those 


Fig.  3.—Caloptenus  spretus , anal  characters  of  male  ; a,  from  above  : b,  from  the  side:  c,  from  below; 
enlarged  six  times  (Emerton  del). 


born  toward  the  mountains  southeastwardly.  In  1875,  a few  stragglers 
were  carried  as  far  as  the  center  of  Missouri,  by  being  swept  into  the 
Missouri  River,  and  drifting  on  logs  and  chips  during  the  anmw  rise 
in  July.  But  whenever  scattering  individuals  are  carried  in  rais  or 
any  other  way  beyond  the  eastern  limits  we  have  laid  down,  they  soon 
perish.  Most  of  them  are  diseased  or  disabled,  and  if  they  lay  eggs, 
these  hatch  in  the  autumn  and  perish  at  the  approach  of  winter. 

Bate  at  which  Locust  Swarms  move. — The  rate  of  migration  of  the  # 
winged  insects  will  depend  entirely  on  circumstances.  The  history  of 
the  past  years  of  invasion  shows  conclusively  that  the  rate  of  progress 
of  invading  swarms  from  the  permanent  breeding-places  will  average 
about  20  miles  a day.  It  is,  however,  exceedingly  irregular  and  greatly 
dependent  on  the  velocity  of  the  wind.  Bad  weather  may  impede  or 
adverse  winds  divert  flight. 

One  noticeable  feature  of  the  invasions  is  the  greater  rapidity  with 
which  the  insects  spread  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  season,  while  in  full- 
est vigor,  and  the  reduction  in  the  average  rate  of  progress  the  farther 
east  and  south  they  extend.  The  length  of  their  stay  depends  much 
upon  circumstances.  Early  in  the  summer,  when  they  first  begin  to 
pour  down  on  the  more  fertile  country,  they  seldom  remain  more  than 
two  or  three  days ; whereas,  later  in  the  season,  they  stay  much  longer. 
In  speaking  of  the  advent  and  departure  of  these  insects,  I use  relative 
language  only.  The  first  comers,  when — after  having  devoured  every- 
thing palatable — the}T  take  wing  away,  almost  always  leave  a scattering 
rear  guard  behind,  and  are  generally  followed  by  new  swarms;  and  a 
country  once  visited  presents  for  weeks  the  spectacle  of  the  insects 
gradually  rising  in  the  air  between  the  hours  of  9 or  10  a.  m.  and  3 
p.  m.,  and  being  carried  away  by  the  wind,  while  others  are  constantly 
<1  roppiug. 


24 


In  short,  the  rate  of  spread  is  greatest  during  the  first  10  or  15  days  of 
their  winged  existence,  or  before  the  females  become  occupied  with  egg- 
laying.  The  invading  insects  are  then  passing  the  extensive  plains  and 
thinly  settled  regions  of  the  Northwest,  where  there  is  little  inducement 
for  them  to  halt,  and  the  rate  at  such  times,  with  strong  and  favorable 
wind,  may  reach  a maximum  of  from  200  to  300  miles  a day. 

Tlie  rate  of  spread  of  departing  swarms  from  the  temporary  region  is 
very  much  the  same.  It  is  most  rapid  and  direct  early  in  the  season 
when  the  insects  first  begin  to  leave  more  southern  latitudes,  and  be- 
comes more  slack  and  inconstant  as  summer  advances. 

Extended  fiight  does  not  take  place  till  4 or  5 days  after  the  first  in- 
sects become  winged.  For  the  first  2 or  3 days  the  newly-winged  indi- 
viduals mingle  with  the  larvae  and  pupae,  eating  ravenously  and  making 
short  flights  of  a few  yards  or  more,  as  if  to  try  their  wings,  recalling  fully 
the  habit  of  native  nonmigratory  species.  Then  for  a while  they  rise 
one  by  one  higher  in  the  air  and  float  along  with  the  wind,  and  finally, 
when  weather  and  wind  are  favorable,  all  that  are  strong  and  mature 
enough  rise  as  with  a common  impulse  during  the  warmer  morning  hours 
and  move  off  vigorously  in  one  direction  until  they  are  soon  out  ot  sight. 
They  begin  to  rise  when  the  dew  has  evaporated,  and  generally  desceud 
againw>ward  evening.  A swarm  passing  over  a country  yet  infested 
with  *^e  mature  insects  constantly  receives  accretions  from  these,  and  is, 
consequently,  always  more  dense  in  the  afternoon  than  in  the  forenoon. 
In  rising  the  insects  generally  face  the  wind,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  they 
could  ascend  to  any  great  height  without  doing  so. 

The  velocity  of  flight,  which,  for  many  reasons,  is  quite  distinct  from 
the  general  movement  understood  by  “rate  of  spread”  or  “ migration,” 
is  naturally  greater  and  will  average  about  10  miles  an  hour.  It  is  also 
greatly  dependent  on  the  wind.  Mr.  S.  S.  Clevenger,  of  New  Auburn, 
Minn.,  gives  the  average  rate  at  15  miles  for  that  locality;  while  the 
reports  of  other  correspondents  give  the  range  from  4 to  40  miles,  the 
more  common  rates  mentioned  being  12,  15,  and  20  miles  per  hour. 
Mr.  Brown  Lusted,  of  Winnipeg,  Mauitoba,  tells  us  that  in  1867,  when 
he  was  traveling  from  Saint  Cloud,  Minnesota,  to  Manitoba,  the  locusts 
were  moving  in  the  same  direction,  at  from  30  to  35  miles  a day.  Pro- 
fessor Aughey’s  observations  for  1877  give  the  rate  per  hour  at  4 miles 
and  upward ; but  he  has  himself  expressed  to  us  the  belief  that  his 
estimates  are  somewhat  low.  We  have  ourselves  never  witnessed 
them  flying  so  slowly  as  4 miles  per  hour,  which  must  be  considered 
the  minimum  rate  where  there  is  no  impediment.  When  tacking 
against  the  wind,  they  may  move  not  more  than  1 mile,  while  the  maxi- 
mum  rate,  in  a strong  wind,  may  reach  as  high  as  50  miles  or  more  per 
hour. 

Direction  of  invading  Swarms. — While  there  may  be,  during  an  inva- 
sion, local  flights  in  all  possible  directions  (except,  perhaps,  due  west), 
the  general  movement  east  of  the  mountains  is  conspicuously  toward 


25 


the  south  and  southeast.  The  more  local  and  irregular  flights  are  gener- 
ally made  for  food,  but  the  more  extended  southward  movements  are 
in  obedience  to  other  laws,  discussed  in  Chapter  XII  of  the  Report  and 
also  on  page  250.  West  of  the  main  Rocky  Mountain  range  the  rule  of 
flight  appears  to  be  from  the  higher  plains  and  plateaus,  where  the  in- 
sect normally  breeds,  to  the  lower  and  more  fertile  valleys;  and  the 
greater  irregularity  of  the  prevailing  winds  an  I more  broken  nature  of 
the  country  preclude  the  same  regularity  in  directions  of  flight  that,  on 
the  whole,  prevails  east  of  the  range. 

Time  of  Appearance  of  invading  Swarms . — In  endeavoring  to  deduce 
general  conclusions  respecting  the  time  of  year  that  the  1874  swarms 
reached  different  parts  of  the  country,  great  difficulty  was  experienced 
in  sifting  those  accounts  which  referred  to  the  progeny  of  the  1873  in- 
vasion, and  those  which  hatched  within  the  insect’s  native  range,  and 
came  from  the  extreme  Northwest.  The  same  was  true  of  the  fresh 
1876  swarms,  and  those  which  hatched  in  Minnesota. 

As  a rule,  the  insects  which  hatch  in  the  temporary  region  acquire 
wings  and  leave  before  the  fresh  swarms  from  the  mountain  region 
appear.  In  the  more  northern  regions,  as  in  Minnesota  and  Manitoba 
westward,  the  insects  hatched  on  the  ground  acquire  wings  the  latter 
part  of  June  and  in  July.  The  period  is  earlier  as  we  go  south,  until 
in  southern  Texas  they  are  able  to  fly  in  April.  The  time  of  appear- 
ance of  invading  swarms  from  the  permanent  region  is  in  inverse  ratio, 
i . £.,  earlier  to  the  north  and  later  to  the  south.  Thus  while  on  the  con- 
fines of  the  permanent  region  it  is  almost  impossible  to  distinguish 
between  the  insects  which  hatch  there  and  the  fresh  swarms  from  the 
Northwest,  the  difference  becomes  more  and  more  marked  toward  the 
south  and  east. 

In  1874,  swarms  appeared  during  June  in  southern  Dakota;  during 
July  in  Colorado,  Nebraska,  and  Minnesota;  during  the  latter  part  of 
this  month  in  Iowa  and  western  Kansas.  During  August  they  came 
into  southeast  Kansas  and  Missouri;  and  by  the  middle  of  October 
they  reached  Dallas,  in  Texas.  In  1876  they  came  later. 

Number  of  Broods. — Peculiarities  of  Habit. — The  Rocky  Mountain 
Locust,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  a second  lot  of  eggs  is  sometimes  de- 
posited in  one  season,  is  essentially  single-brooded.  This  second  depo- 
sition of  eggs  generally  fails  to  hatch  and  arrive  at  maturity  in  time 
to  reproduce  the  species.  This  follows  from  the  fact  that  this  locust 
is  a sub-boreal  insect  and  attains  its  greatest  x^erfection  only  where 
the  winters  are  long  and  cold  and  the  summers  short.  The  theory  has 
been  advanced  that  the  object  of  the  migrations  of  this  sx^ecies  is  to  find 
a suitable  region  for  producing  a second  brood;  for  instance,  that  a 
brood  hatched  early  in  the  south  moves  to  the  northern  limits  of  its 
range  and  brings  forth  a second  brood.  But  it  is  a notable  fact  that  in 
years  of  disastrous  invasion  from  the  northwest  in  late  summer  and 
autumn  the  locusts  have  not  prevailed  in  the  south  during  the  spring. 


26 


Also  in  years  when  they  hatch  and  prevail  in  the  temporary  region 
their  migration  therefrom  in  early  summer  is  virtually  complete  and  no 
disastrous  incoming  swarms  visit  the  same  region  later  in  the  season. 
Single-broodedness  is  then  the  rule.  Where  the  species  has  been  ob- 
served to  breed  for  2 or  3 consecutive  years,  as  in  Minnesota  and  north- 
erly regions,  only  one  annual  generation  is  produced.  Those  swarms 
which  reach  Manitoba  from  the  south  in  early  summer  lay  eggs  the 
bulk  of  which  remain  nnhatched  till  the  following  spring.  The  same 
was  observed  in  Minnesota  in  1873,  the  eggs  laid  that  year  remaining 
mostly  unhatched  until  1874.  This  rule  may  have  exceptions.  Many 
insects  are  single-brooded  at  the  northerly  limit  of  their  range,  but 
double-brooded  farther  south,  and  the  premature  hatching  of  the  eggs 
of  this  locust  in  autumn  in  southerly  regions  is  a step  in  this  direction. 
But  it  has  been  conclusively  shown  that  it  can  not  establish  itself  under 
more  southern  climatic  influences  which  suit  some  of  its  related  species, 
but  can  bret  d permanently  only  under  those  conditions  which  induce 
single-broodedness. 

Hibernation . — From  the  facts  just  stated  it  will  be  seen  that  the  nor- 
mal hibernation  is  passed  in  the  egg  state.  Though  many  Acridiidae 
hibernate  in  the  imago  or  even  the  pupa  state,  under  bark,  logs,  or 
stones,  the  species  under  consideration  after  laying  its  eggs  in  the 
summer  lasts  until  autumn,  but  dies  with  the  approach  of  cold  weather. 

THE  LESSER  MIGRATORY  LOCUST. 

(Caloptenus  atlanis  Riley.) 

Range  of  Species. — C.  atlanis , in  common  with  the  next  species,  C. 
femur -rubrum,  has  a very  extended  natural  range,  breeding  annually  in 
abundance  from  middle  Florida  nearly  to  the  Arctic  circle,  in  many 
places  entirely  replacing  the  latter  species.  It  becomes  less  common 


enlarged  six  times  (after  Riley). 

towards  the  Mississippi,  C.  femur-rubrum  generally  predominating, 
while  it  gives  way  to  spretus  on  the  great  plains.  It,  however,  rather 
strangely,  considering  that  it  is  essentially  an  eastern  species,  again  ap- 
pears toward  the  Pacific  in  the  more  northern  regions  extending  from 
about  the  fortieth  parallel  in  Utah  and  California  as  far  north  as  the 
Yukon  River. 


27 


Destructive  Appearances. — In  our  annual  report  for  1883  we  gave 
a full  historical  account  of  the  destructive  appearance  of  this  srecies, 
and  to  this  account  those  who  are  interested  are  referred.  They  have 
been  reported  as  injurious  in  1743,  1746,  1749,  1754,  1797,  1798,  1816, 
1821, 1826,  1871,  1872,  1874,  1875,  1877, 1882, 1885,  and  1889,  in  one  and 
another  locality  in  New  England.  The  1885  appearance  was  described 
in  the  report  mentioned,  and  that  of  1889  is  treated  in  Insect  Life , Yol. 
ii,  pp.  66-70.  Mr.  Bruner,  in  1885,  found  the  species  numerous  about 
Glendive,  Montana,  and  in  many  places  in  the  region  of  the  Yellow- 
stone and  Missouri  Rivers  it  was  twice  as  numerous  as  spretus. 

Life-iiistory  and  Habits. — The  following  is  from  the  report  for  1885. 

In  general  life  history  it  is  in  all  respects  similar  to  G.  spretus.  It 
will  be  unnecessary,  therefore,  to  give  here  anything  beyond  the  most 
salient  facts. 

The  eggs  and  the  egg  mass  are  so  similar  to  those  of  C.  spretus  that 
there  is  no  other  difference  than  in  the  somewhat  smaller  size  of  either. 
They  are  laid  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground  in  precisely  the 
same  manner.  Each  female  in  the  course  of  her  life  usually  deposits 
two  of  these  masses,  though  at  St.  Louis  I have  observed  instances  in 
which  three  and  even  four  were  placed  by  the  same  female.  It  is  in  the 
egg  state  that  the  insect  passes  the  winter  and  the  young  locusts  hatch 
in  the  spring.  The  average  period  between  hatching  and  maturity  we 
found  at  St.  Louis  to  be  80  days,  or  some  10  days  longer  than  in  the 
case  of  C.  spretus  and  C.  femur -rubrum,  but  in  New  Hampshire  it  is 
probably  somewhat  longer. 

In  about  one  week  after  reaching  full  growth  the  insects  pair,  and 
soon  thereafter  commence  ovipositing.  There  is  undoubtedly  but  one 
annual  generation  in  New  England,  whereas  in  Missouri  we  found  uni- 
formly two.  In  the  Merrimac  Yalley  the  hatching  period  extends 
throughout  May,  and  most  of  the  individuals  have  become  winged  by 
the  early  part  of  July.  Oviposition  continues  from  the  latter  part  of 
July  till  frost.  Some  of  the  earlier  laid'eggs  hatch  in  autumn,  so  that 
there  is  the  same  tendency  toward  a second  brood  as  we  find  in  spretus , a 
tendency  which  is  more  marked  during  a warm,  protracted  autumn,  and 
which  is  beneficial  to  the  farmer,  inasmuch  as  all  these  autumn-hatched 
individuals  invariably  perish  during  the  winter. 


THE  NON-MIGRATOKY  RED-LEGGED  LOCUST. 

( Caioptenus  femur-rubrum  Harr.) 

Range  of  the  Species. — This  locust  has  a common  range  with  the 
preceding  species.  It  breeds  from  Florida  to  British  America,  but  is  more 
scarce  in  the  eastern  portion  of  its  range  while  it  becomes  abundant  in 
the  Mississippi  Yalley.  G.  femur-rubrum  is  also  found  with  atlante  on 
the  Pacific  Slope. 


28 


Destructive  Appearances. — Under  this  head  it  can  only  be  said 
that  this  locust,  being  11011-migratory,  causes  only  local  damage,  and  few 


Fig.  5 .—Caloptenus  femur-rubrum— natural  size  (after  Riley). 

cases  of  destructive  appearances  are  to  be  fouud  recorded.  It  often 
increases  so  as  to  cause  local  damage  and  is  yearly  more  or  less  abundant 
throughout  its  range.  In  company  with  the  Differential  and  Two-striped 
Locusts  it  frequently  gives  cause  for  alarm  by  devastating  grass  lands  or 
growing  crops.  In  1885  it  was  abundant,  with  atlanis , spretus , and  local 
species,  about  Glendive  and  in  other  portions  of  eastern  Montana.  In 
August,  1888,  it  had,  with  bivittatus , destroyed  the  oat  crop  about  Sr. 
James,  in  Manitou  County,  Michigan.  Such  isolated  reports  as  these 
come  in  nearly  every  year  and  ouly  show  that  the  species  is  not  capable 
of  concerted  damage  over  any  large  area. 

Life-History  and  Habits. — These  differ  little  from  those  of  the  fore- 
going species.  The  female  has  occasionally  been  noticed  to  lay  four 
different  egg  masses.  The  period  between  hatching  and  maturity  was 
observed  at  St.  Louis  to  be  about  70  days.  The  species  was  observed  to 
become  winged  there  about  the  last  of  August,  and  eggs  were  deposited 
about  the  first  of  October.  It  is  single-brooded. 

THE  CALIFORNIA  DEVASTATING  LOCUST. 

( Caloptenus  devastator  Scudd.) 

Range  of  the  Species. — Scudder  records  this  species  as  found  in 
California,  Nevada,  and  even  sparingly  in  Colorado.  It  is,  however, 
essentially  a Pacific  coast  species  and  is  probably  to  be  held  accounta- 
ble for  much  of  the  damage  attributed  in  this  region  to  other  species. 
Bruner  also  records  it  from  the  Upper  Yellowstone  Valley. 


Fig.  6. — Caloptenus  devastator : a,  large  female  from  California,  1885;  b,  small  female,  Reno,  Ne 
vada,  1880;  c,  male,  Fort  Keogh,  Montana,  1880;  d , same  as  c,  all  natural  size  (after  Riley). 


29 


Destructive  Appearances. — California  has  in  former  years  had  its 
locust,  plague.  Many  devastating  swarms  visited  the  Pacific  coast  region 
during  the  latter  half  of  the  last  century  and  the  first  half  of  the  pres- 
ent, while  for  30  years  after  this  period  no  general  destruction  was  com- 
mitted. But  there  is  no  means  of  positively  identifying  these  devasta- 
tions with  the  species  that  committed  them.  The  accounts  are  old,  and 
no  descriptions  or  specimens  have  been  preserved.  We  can  only  judge 
from  such  later  appearances  as  have  furnished  us  with  exact  data.  It 


Fig.  l.—Caloptenus  devastator : anal  characters  of  male;  a,  from  above ; b,  from  side;  c,  from  below — 
enlarged  (after  Riley). 

is  most  probable  that  G.  devastator,  as  intimated  by  Scudder,  commit- 
ted a large,  if  not  the  larger,  share,  of  these  depredations.  Accord- 
ingly we  will,  under  this  species,  notice  the  destructive  California  ap- 
pearances, which  we  give  in  brief  from  the  first  commission  report. 
Camnula  pellucida , another  destructive  California  species,  which  is 
noticed  further  on,  doubtless  also  assisted  in  many  of  these  invasions. 

In  1722,  1746,  1749,  1753,  1754,  1765,  1767  it  appeared  in  California. 
(Mr.  A.  S.  Taylor,  Smithsonian  Report,  1858.)  The  following,  up  to  1885, 
are  from  the  same  authority  (l.  c.) 

1823.  Franciscan  Missions  of  Upper  California. 

1827  or  1828.  “Ate  up  nearly  all  the  growing  crops.” 

1834  or  1835.  “ Destroyed  the  crops  of  the  rancherosand  missions,  with  the  exception 
of  the  wheat.” 

1838-1840.  For  these  three  years  destroyed  the  crops  and  gardens  about  San  Francisco 
and  San  Rafael. 

1846.  Corn  and  frijoles  completely  consumed  on  the  Salivas  Plains.  This  was  a dry 
year  in  California. 

1852.  Near  Centreville,  Alameda  County,  California,  also  in  Oregon.  They  were  no- 
ticed in  the  same  locality  every  year  since  up  to  1877,  but  in  very  moderate 
numbers.  (Lorenzo  G.  Yates.) 

1855.  The  most  noted  year  for  10  years  on  the  Pacific  coast. — California,  Oregon,  and 

Washington  Territory.  Great  damage  and  many  immense  flights  witnessed 
in  this  region. 

1856.  Lower  California  small  numbers. 

1859.  Pitt  River  Valley,  California. 

1862  or  1863.  Horintos,  California. 

1866  or  1867.  Swarm  15  miles  wide  seen  near  Stockton,  California. 

1869.  Tulare  County,  California. 

1873.  Lower  and  south  California. 

1877.  Fresno  County,  California. 

1885.  San  Joaquin  Valley  of  northern  California;  southern  Oregon. 


30 


This  invasion  is  known  to  be  due  to  C.  devastator , which  outnumbered  all  other  spe- 
cies combined  in  proportion  of  7 to  1.  The  next  in  abundance  was  the  ash- 
colored  locust,  which  was  only  oue-twentieth  as  numerous  as  the  former. 
Mr.  Coquillett’s  account  of  this  year’s  invasion  is  to  be  found  in  Annual 
Department  Report  for  1885.  Mr.  Koebele  also  gives  an  account  in  the  same 
report  on  the  locusts  about  Folsom,  California,  in  1685,  the  greater  part  of 
which  belonged  to  this  species. 

Life-history  and  Habits. — The  habits  of  this  locust  are  much  the 
same  as  those  of  the  preceding  species.  W e have  few  exact  data  on  this 
point.  The  locusts  have  been  found  mature  and  in  force  early  in  June. 
They  are  generally  much  more  abundant  in  the  foothills  along  the  sides 
of  valleys,  and  it  is  probable  that  these  are  their  usual  breeding  places. 
It  seemed  evident  front  the  1885  investigations  that  the  locusts  did  not 
migrate  from  a distance,  but  bred  in  the  vicinity  of  the  plantations; 
for  while  the  edges  of  these  during  the  first  part  of  the  invasion  were 
well  stocked  with  locusts,  there  were  only  a few  in  the  center.  Young 
locusts  which  were  referred  to  this  species  were  found  in  some  num- 
bers upon  uncultivated  lands  bordering  plantations.  These  waste 
places  are  covered  with  water  during  the  winter,  and  sometimes  until 
late  in  summer.  When  seeding  time  arrives,  they  are  too  wet  to  be 
plowed  and  seeded  and  thus  remain  undisturbed.  The  green  vegeta- 
tion of  these  waste  places  furnishes  food  to  the  locusts  late  in  the  sea- 
son, when  other  fields  are  bare,  until  the  egg-laying  season  arrives. 
The  subsequent  submersion  through  winter  does  not  seem  to  affect  the 
vitality  of  the  eggs. 

THE  DIFFERENTIAL  LOCUST. 

( Caloptenus  differentialis  Thos.) 

Range  of  the  Species. — This  locust  ranges  through  Illinois,  Mis- 
souri, Nebraska,  Kansas,  and  Iowa.  It  is  also  found  in  Indiana,  Texas, 
New  Mexico,  and  California. 

Destructive  Appearances.— This  and  the  following  species  are 
much  larger  than  the  preceding  ones,  and  though  like  G.  femur -rubrum 
they  do  not  possess  the  migratory  habit,  they  can  and  occasionally  do 


make  considerable  flights.  We  have  devoted  some  space  in  the  first 
report  of  the  commission  to  accounts  of  damage  by  this  species.  It  was 
abundant  in  1875  in  central  Illinois  and  attracted  considerable  atten- 
tion. It  was  accompanied  by  the  Red-legged  and  Lesser  Migratory 


31 


Locusts.  In  1877  it  became  abundant  in  a restricted  locality  near 
Socorra,  New  Mexico,  and  in  1885  this  species  was  noticed  rather 
abundantly  in  company  with  the  Devastating  Locust  in  the  San  Joaquin 
Valley  in  California,  occuriug  in  about  the  proportion  of  one  Differ- 
ential Locust  to  twenty-five  Devastating  Locusts. 

Life  history  and  Habits. — In  the  vicinity  of  St.  Louis,  Missouri, 
the  first  specimens  of  this  locust  were  observed  to  become  winged  July 
19.  Eggs  were  laid  September  9.  As  a deviation  from  the  usual  egg- 
laying  habits  of  the  genus,  it  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  eggs  are 
sometimes  very  numerously  placed  under  bark  of  logs  that  have  been 
felled  on  low  land.  The  eggs  of  this  species,  unlike  those  of  spretus , 
citlanis,  and  femur-rubrum,  are  not  quadrilinearly  but  irregularly  ar- 
ranged. This  irregular  arrangement  also  occurs  in  the  egg-masses  of 
Schistocera  americana  and  Oedipoda  phancecoptera.  The  head  ends  of 
the  eggs  in  the  pods  point  mostly  outward.  One  hundred  and  seventy- 
one  eggs  have  been  counted  in  a single  mass. 

Mr.  Coquillett  has  made  some  interesting  observations  on  the  life 
history  and  habits  of  this  species,  which  will  be  found  in  the  1885 
report.  They  acquired  wings  from  the  last  week  in  June  to  the  last 
week  in  J uly,  and  began  laying  eggs  July  23.  A single  female  occupied 
75  minutes  in  depositing  an  egg  mass.  The  situation  chosen  for  egg- 
laying  was  invariably  the  edge  of  one  of  the  basin-like  hollows  at  the 
foot  of  a tree.  This  locust  is  not  easily  startled,  and  its  ordinary  flight 
is  rather  heavy,  and  sustained  only  for  a distance  of  12  to  20  feet.  Mr. 
Coquillett  found  it  principally  in  trees,  and  it  seemed  to  be  particularly 
fond  of  the  leaves  of  the  poplar.  He  did  not  find  it  in  grain  fields,  but 
it  was  numerous  in  fields  of  alfalfa.  Mr.  Webster  has  noticed  this  in- 
sect gnawing  the  limb  of  an  apple  tree  at  Princeton,  Ind. 


THE  TWO-STRIPED  LOCUST. 

( Caloptenus  bivittatus  Scudd.) 

Range  of  Species. — This  species  has  a very  extended  range,  being 
found  from  Maine  to  Utah  and  California  and  extending  as  far  South 
as  Carolina,  Mississippi,  and  Texas. 


Fig.  9 .—Caloptenus  bivittatus,  natural  size  (after  Riley.) 


Destructive  Appearances. — This  locust  is  distinguished  from  the 
last-named  species  in  having  two  lateral  yellowish  stripes  from  the  head 


32 


to  the  extremities  of  the  wing  covers.  (Fig.  9.)  Like  the  last,  it  some- 
times assists  in  migratory  flights  with  C.  atlanis  and  C.  femur -rubrum. 
It  often  becomes  locally  abundant  enough  to  do  much  damage  to  crops. 
In  1877  Mr.  Theo.  M. Finley,  writing  from  Niles,  Michigan,  sent  us  speci- 
mens with  the  statement  that  they  did  considerable  damage  near  Ber- 
rien Springs,  Michigan,  though  confined  to  a territory  of  only  a mile 
square.  Grass  and  oats  suffered  most,  the  last  crop  being  entirely  de- 
stroyed. At  Fort  Wallace,  Kansas,  in  July  1877,  this  locust  was  com- 
mon while  G.  spretus  was  rare.  Other  occasional  cases  of  damage  have 
been  reported,  but  these  are  only  local  occurrences.  It  does  not  in- 
crease in  sufficient  force  to  spread  over  any  large  tract  of  country. 

Life  history  and  Habits. — We  have  observed  this  locust  pairing 
in  Missouri  from  the  8th  of  July  to  the  18th  of  August.  The  first  winged 
insects  were  noticed  July  7.  Females  were  confined  in  cages  through 
July  and  August,  but  no  eggs  were  deposited  until  August  31.  Eggs 
kept  indoors  hatched  the  last  of  December. 

Those  kept  outdoors  began  to  hatch  the  middle  of  March.  A gravid 
female  opened  in  September  was  found  to  contain  79  eggs. 


THE  PELLUCID  LOCUST. 

(Camnula  pellucida  Scudd.) 

Range  of  Species. — Synonym:  (Edipoda  atrox.  It  occurs  in  Califor- 
nia, Utah,  Wyoming,  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Montana,  Dakota,  and  in  the 
East  in  Maine,  Massachusetts,  Vermont,  Connecticut.  These  Eastern 

and  Western  forms  were  formerly 
supposed  to  be  two  distinct  species, 
the  name  atrox  being  applied  to 
the  Western  specimens  and  pellu- 
cida to  the  Eastern;  but  they  have 
been  found  to  show  no  appreciable 
differences,  and  must  be  consid- 
ered the  same  species. 

Destructive  Appearances. — 
Some  of  the  destructive  locust  years 
tabulated  under  Caloptenus  devas- 
tator may  have  been  due  to  Camnula 
pellucida , as  the  two  species  have 
doubtless  been  confused  in  these  in- 
vasions. This  species,  however,  is  known  definitely  to  have  occurred  in 
devastating  migratory  swarms  in  California  in  1878,  particularly  in  the 
Sierra  Valley,  and  deposited  its  eggs  by  millions  on  ranches  hitherto 
unvisited  by  them,  thus  menacing  an  immense  area  of  country. 

In  the  previous  year,  1877,  they  ravaged  the  California  coast  from 
Point  Conception  to  Santa  Barbara.  In  1879  they  were  again  abuu- 


Fig.  10.— Camnula  pellucida— natural  size  (Emer- 
ton  del). 


33 


dant,  tbe  numerous  eggs  deposited  in  1878  having  developed  still  greater 
swarms. 

In  1885,  according  to  Bruner,  it  had  become  very  numerous  in  the 
Yellowstone  and  upper  Missouri  Valleys,  having  developed  in  numbers 
very  rapidly  in  the  preceding  5 years.  In  this  year,  in  company  with 
C.  spretus  and  C.  atlanis , it  did  the  principal  injury  in  this  region  to 
vegetables  and  grain,  while  the  other  native  species  attacked  the  grasses. 

Life-history  and  Habits. — This  is  the  only  North  American  locust 
of  the  subfamily  to  which  it  belongs  ((Edipodince)  that  is  migratory.  All 
the  other  locusts  mentioned  in  this  bulletin  belong  to  another  sub- 
family (Acridiince),  This  locust  is  not  a truly  migratory  species,  as  its 
swarms  do  not  rise  to  a great  height  or  remain  long  in  the  air,  but  has 
rather  assumed  the  migratory  habit  in  comparatively  recent  times. 
Eggs  received  from  Galiforuia  hatched  in  large  numbers  the  last  of 
April  and  again  in  May. 

' THE  AMERICAN  AORIDIUM. 

( Schistocerca  americana  Scudd.) 

Range  of  Species. — This  is  much  larger  than  any  of  the  preceding 
species,  being  in  fact  our  largest  locust,  often  measuring  more  than  2J 
inches  in  length.  It  occurs  throughout  the  Southern  States  from  the 
District  of  Columbia  to  Texas,  and  extends  south  through  Mexico  into 
Yucatan  and  Central  America.  It  is  also  found  as  far  north  as  Illinois 
and  Indiana,  and  is  doubtfully  reported  from  New  York. 


Fig.  11. — Schistocerca  americana — natural  size  (after  Riley). 

Destructive  Appearances. — This  species  was  very  abundant  in 
1876  in  Missouri,  Tennessee,  Indiana,  Ohio,  North  Carolina,  Georgia,  and 
swarm  seven  reach  Virginia.  They  caused  much  devastation,  devouring 
in  many  places  every  green  thing,  even  alighting  on  trees,  and  caused 
much  alarm.  They  were  supposed  to  be  the  Western  species  ( spretus ) 
advancing  east.  They  present  a more  imposing  appearance,  from  their 
great  size,  than  the  Rocky  Mountain  species,  but  can  not  cause  such 
great  destruction,  as  they  are  generally  sedentary  within  the  bounds  of 
the  United  States,  while  to  the  south,  in  Yucatan  and  other  parts  of 
Central  America,  they  are  said  to  possess  the  true  migratory  habit. 

26787— No.  25 3 


34 


Life-history  and  Habits. — I have  found  the  eggs  deposited  June 
24,  and  obtained  the  newly  hatched  larvae  July  27.  The  arrangement  of 
the  eggs  is  somewhat  different  from  those  of  other  Acridiiuae  which  have 
come  under  my  observation,  being  arranged  in  such  a manner  that  the 
head  of  all  the  eggs  is  directed  towards  the  inner  or  concave  side  of 
the  pod.  They  have  nearly  the  same  shape  as  those  of  spretus,  are  of 
about  the  same  color,  though  larger  in  size  and  sparsely  covered  with 
a crimson  cement  which  binds  them  together.  The  pod  is  about  1£ 
inches  in  length  by  three  eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter  and  nearly 
straight.  The  spongy  top  of  the  pod  is  yellowish  white.  In  one  of 
these  pods  120  eggs  have  been  counted.  They  are  usually  deposited 
in  grassy  plots  and  the  average  time  between  hatching  and  maturity  is 
about  7 0 days. 

REMEDIES  AND  DEVICES  FOR  THE  DESTRUCTION  OF 

LOCUSTS. 


The  matter  which  follows,  although  originally  prepared  with  ref- 
erence only  to  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locust  ( Caloptenus  spretus ) will 
apply  almost  equally  well  to  the  other  species  mentioned  in  the  preced- 
ing pages.  As  applying  to  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locust  the  means  rec- 
ommended for  its  destruction  will  apply  more  especially  to  the  Tem- 
porary region,  while  the  suggestions  as  to  prevention  apply  to  the  Per- 
manent region,  and  the  reader  will  readily  determine  which  of  the  means 
mentioned  are  applicable  to  the  local  or  non-migratory  species. 

The  means  to  be  employed  fall  very  naturally  into  five  divisions : 
(1)  Encouragement  of  natural  agencies.  (2)  Destruction  of  the  eggs. 
(3)  Destruction  of  the  young  or  unfledged  insects.  (4)  Destruction  of 
the  mature  or  winged  insects.  (5)  Preventive  measures. 

ENCOURAGEMENT  OF  NATURAL  AGENCIES. 

While  little  practically  can  be  done  by  man  to  further  the  multipli- 
cation of  the  more  minute  enemies  of  the  locust,  much  may  be  done  to 
jmotect  and  to  promote  the  multiplication  of  the  larger  animals,  espe- 
cially the  birds.  These  should  be  protected  by  most  stringent  laws, 
firmly  carried  out,  restraining  the  wanton  destruction  too  often  indulged 
in  by  sportsmen  and  others.  Some  of  the  states  interested  in  this 
question  have  of  late  years  passed  good  laws  for  the  protection  of  these 
feathered  friends,  but  the  laws  are,  unfortuuately,  too  often  a dead  let- 
ter for  want  of  enforcement.  One  of  the  most  effectual  and  successful 
ways  of  protecting  and  encouragiugmany  of  the  smaller  birds  is  to  offer 
a reward  for  hawks.  This  has  been  done  with  very  beneficial  results  in 
Colorado,  and  other  states  would  do  well  to  follow  her  example. 


35 


DESTRUCTION  OE  THE  EGGS. 

The  destruction  of  the  eggs  has  been  followed,  in  the  older  countries 
of  the  East,  since  Pliny’s  time,  and  has  long  been  recognized  in  Europe 
and  Asia  as  one  of  the  most  efficacious  means  of  averting  locust  injury. 
These  eggs  are  laid  in  masses,  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
seldom  to  a depth  of  more  than  au  inch ; and  we  have  already  consid- 
ered the  character  of  soil  and  the  sites  preferred  by  the  females  in  lay- 
ing them.  In  years  like  1874  and  1876  we  have  known  favorable  loca- 
tions, for  many  hundreds  of  square  miles,  so  thickly  supplied  with  these 
eggs,  that  scarcely  an  inch  of  the  soil  could  be  stirred  without  exposing 
them.  As  a rule,  the  dead  bodies  of  the  locusts  strewn  about  the  ground 
in  autumn  are  a good  indication  of  the  presence  of  eggs  in  such  ground, 
though  the  eggs  may  often  be  abundant  without  this  indication.  The 
means  to  be  employed  in  destroying  locust  eggs  may  be  considered  un- 
der the  following  divisions:  (1)  Harrowing;  (2)  Plowing  or  spading; 
(3)  Irrigation;  (4)  Tramping;  (5)  Collecting. 

(1)  Harrowing  in  the  Autumn.— Harrowing  in  the  autumn,  or  dur- 
ing dry,  mild  weather  in  early  winter,  will  prove  one  of  the  most  effectual 
modes  of  destroying  the  eggsaud  preventing  future  injury,  wherever  itis 
available.  It  should  be  enforced  by  law  whenever  the  soil  in  any  region 
is  known  to  be  abundantly  stocked  with  eggs.  A revolving  harrow  or 
a cultivator  will  do  excellent  service  in  this  way,  not  only  in  the  field, 
but  along  roadways  and  other  bare  and  uncultivated  places.  The  ob- 
ject should  be,  not  to  stir  deeply,  but  to  scarify  and  pulverize  as  much 
as  possible  the  soil  to  about  the  depth  of  an  inch.  Where  the  cultiva- 
tor is  used,  it  would  be  well  to  pass  over  the  ground  again  with  a drag 
or  a brush  harrow  for  this  purpose.  Some  of  our  correspondents  have 
urged,  and  with  some  reason,  that  wherever  land  can  conveniently  be 
prepared  to  induce  the  females  to  oviposit  in  it,  as  by  plowing  and  then 
rolling  when  the  insects  are  beginning  to  breed,  such  preparations 
should  be  made.  A subsequent  harrowing  will  be  the  more  easy.  In 
practice,  this  method  will  not  often  be  adopted,  because  it  will  pay  only 
under  exceptional  circumstances. 

(2)  Plowing. — Next  to  harrowing  this  is  one  of  the  most  generally 
available  means  possessed  by  the  farmer  of  dealing  with  locust  eggs. 

The  actual  experience  is  somewhat  conflicting,  and  in  some  light,  dry 
soils  a good  number  of  them  will  hatch  late  if  turned  under  afoot;  yet, 
from  our  own  observations,  and  a vast  amount  of  experience  gathered 
together,  we  recommend  it  as  profitable.  If  delayed  till  spring,  it  should 
be  done  just  as  the  young  begin  to  hatch,  as  it  is  then  most  effectual. 
The  plowing  will  be  effectual  according  as  the  soil  is  porous  or  tena- 
cious, and  according  as  the  surface  is  afterward  compressed  by  harrowing 
and  rolling.  From  the  experiments  recorded  in  the  first  report  of  the 
commission,  it  is  obvious  that,  all  other  things  being  equal,  a plowing 
of  4 to  6 inches  will  prove  more  effectual  in  spring,  if  the  ground  be 


36 


subsequently  harrowed  and  rolled,  than  deeper  plowing  with  no  subse- 
quent comminution  and  compression. 

(3)  Irrigation. — This  is  feasible  in  much  of  the  country  subject  to 
locust  ravages,  especially  in  the  mountain  regions,  where,  except  in  ex- 
ceptionally favorable  locations,  agriculture  can  be  successfully  carried 
on  only  by  its  aid,  and  where  means  are  already  extensively  provided 
for  the  artificial  irrigation  of  large  areas.  Where  the  ground  is  light 
and  porous,  prolonged  and  excessive  moisture  will  cause  most  of  the 
eggs  to  perish,  and  irrigation  in  autumn  or  in  spring  may  prove  bene- 
ficial. Yet  the  experiments  recorded  in  the  commission  reports  prove 
that  it  is  by  no  means  as  effectual  as  had  been  generally  believed,  and 
as  most  writers  had  previously  assumed  to  be  the  case. 

In  fact  these  experiments  gave  us  very  little  encouragement  as  to 
the  use  of  water  as  a destructive  agent,  and  we  can  readily  understand 
how  eggs  may  hatch  out,  as  they  have  been  known  to  do,  in  marshy 
soil,  or  soil  too  wet  for  the  plow ; or  even  from  the  bottom  of  ponds  that 
were  overflowed  during  the  winter  and  spring.  While  a certain  pro- 
portion of  the  eggs  may  be  destroyed  by  alternately  soaking  and  dry- 
ing the  soil  at  short-repeated  intervals,  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  do 
this  in  practice  during  the  winter  season  as  effectually  as  it  was  done 
in  the  experiments 5 and  the  only  case  in  which  water  can  be  profita- 
bly used  is  where  the  land  can  be  flooded  for  a few  days  just  at  the 
period  when  the  bulk  of  the  eggs  are  hatching. 

(4)  Tramping. — tn  pastures  or  in  fields  where  hogs,  cattle,  or  horses 
can  be  confined  when  the  ground  is  not  frozen,  many  if  not  most  of  the 
locust  eggs  will  be  destroyed  by  the  rooting  and  tramping. 

(5)  Collecting. — The  eggs  are  frequently  placed  where  none  of  the 
above  means  of  destroying  them  can  be  employed.  In  such  cases  they 
should  be  collected  and  destroyed  by  the  inhabitants,  and  the  State 
should  offer  some  inducement  in  the  way  of  bounty  for  such  collection 
and  destruction.  Every  bushel  of  eggs  destroyed  is  equivalent  to  a 
hundred  acres  of  corn  saved,  and  when  we  consider  the  amount  of 
destruction  caused  by  the  young,  and  that  the  ground  is  often  known 
to  be  filled  with  eggs;  that,  in  other  words,  the  earth  is  sown  with  the 
seeds  of  future  destruction,  it  is  surprising  that  more  legislation  has  not 
been  had  looking  to  their  extermination. 

One  of  the  most  rapid  ways  of  collecting  the  eggs,  especially  where 
they  are  numerous  and  in  light  soils,  is  to  slice  off'  about  an  inch  of  the 
soil  by  trowel  or  spade,  and  then  cart  the  egg-laden  earth  to  some  shel- 
tered place  where  it  may  be  allowed  to  dry,  when  it  may  be  sieved  so 
as  to  separate  the  eggs  and  egg-masses  from  the  dirt.  The  eggs  thus 
collected  may  easily  be  destroyed  by  burying  them  in  deep  pits,  provid- 
ing the  ground  be  packed  hard  on  the  surface.  In  the  thickly  settled 
portions  of  Europe,  where  labor  is  abundant  and  cheap,  this  method 
may  be  adopted  with  some  advantage,  but  it  will  scarcely  be  employed 
in  this  country,  except  as  a means  of  earning  a bounty,  when,  in  the 


37 


more  thickly  settled  sections,  it  will  prove  beneficial  and  give  employ- 
ment to  young  people  and  others  who  have  nothing  else  to  do. 

DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  YOUNG  OR  UNFLEDGED  LOCUSTS. 

In  the  destruction  of  the  young,  no  methods  that  will  not  sweep  them 
away  in  wholesale  fashion  have  any  value  for  our  western  farmers,  how- 
ever valuable  they  may  be  to  the  owner  of  a small  flower  or  truck  gar- 
den. It  is  for  this  reason  that  we  have  been  able  to  profit  so  little  by 
European  methods,  and  have  had  to  invent  means  suitable  to  our  broad 
western  fields  and  the  extensive  nature  of  our  farming  operations.  The 
best  that  most  European  authors  can  advise  is  the  killing  of  the  insects 
with  flattened  implements  or  brush ; while  Gerstacker  and  other  writers 
devote  page  after  page  to  prove  the  superiority  over  other  methods  of 
catching  the  insects  with  hand-nets — a method  which,  while  doubtless 
of  some  utility  in  dense  German  settlements,  would  prove  absolutely 
futile  on  our  large  and  scattered  prairie-farms  and  against  the  excessive 
numbers  of  the  pests  which  our  farmers  have  to  deal  with.  While, 
therefore,  we  shall  mention  all  available  meaus  that  have  been  or  may 
be  employed,  we  shall  devote  more  especial  attention  to  those  which 
are  useful  in  a broad  and  general  way  in  the  field. 

Experience  has  shown  that  the  results  of  any  particular  measure  will 
vary  in  different  regions,  dependent,  to  some  extent,  upon  the  nature 
of  the  soil,  the  condition  of  the  crops,  and  the  general  characteristics  of 
indigenous  vegetation.  Circumstances  may  also  render  some  particu- 
lar measure  available  and  profitable  to  one  farmer  where  it  would  be 
unprofitable  to  another.  For  convenience,  the  means  of  accomplishing 
the  desired  result  may  be  classified  into:  (1)  Burning,  (2)  crushing,  (3) 
trapping,  (4)  catching,  (5)  use  of  destructive  agents. 

(1)  Burning. — This  method  is,  perhaps,  the  best  in  prairie  and  wheat- 
growing regions,  which  compose  the  larger  part  of  the  area  subject  to 
devastation  by  this  locust.  In  such  regions  there  is  usually  more  or 
less  old  straw  or  hay  which  may  be  scattered  over  or  around  the  field 
in  heaps  and  windrows,  and  into  which  the  locusts,  for  some  time  after 
they  hatch,  may  be  driven  and  burned.  During  cold  or  damp  weather 
they  congregate  of  their  own  accord  under  such  shelter,  when  they  may 
be  destroyed  by  burning  without  the  necessity  of  previous  driving. 
Much  has  been  said  for  and  against  the  beneficial  results  of  burning 
the  prairies  in  the  spring.  This  is  chiefly  beneficial  around  cultivated 
fields  or  along  the  roadsides,  from  which  the  locusts  may  be  driven,  or 
from  which  they  will  of  themselves  pass  for  the  shelter  the  prairie  af- 
fords. Scarcely  any  eggs  are  laid  in  rank  prairie,  and  the  general  im- 
pression that  locusts  are  slaughtered  by  myriads  in  burning  extensive 
areas  is  an  erroneous  one,  at  least  in  the  temporary  region. 

In  burning  extensive  prairies  after  the  bulk  of  the  locusts  hatch,  the 
nests  and  eggs  of  many  game  birds  are  destroyed ; but  as  the  birds 
themselves  e/scape  destruction  on  the  wing,  they  may  and  do  return  and 


38 


nest  again,  while,  on  the  contrary,  many  injurious  insects,  like  the 
chinch-bug,  for  iustance,  are  killed  5 so  that,  even  leaving  the  locust 
question  out  of  consideration,  the  burning  proves  beneficial  by  extermi- 
nating other  noxious  insects,  and  has  some  advantages  from  an  agri- 
cultural point  of  view. 

As  locusts  disperse  more  and  more  from  their  hatching  grounds  into 
the  prairie  as  they  develop,  burning  the  grass  in  spring  is  beneficial  in 
proporiion  as  it  is  delayed. 

Machines  for  burning  have  been  used  in  several  localities  with  con- 
siderable success.  Mr.  J.  Hetzel,  of  Longmont,  Colo.,  has  employed  a 
machine  drawn  by  horses.  It  is  12  feet  long,  from  2 to  2£  feet  wide, 
made  of  iron,  and  set  on  runners  4 inches  high.  An  open  grate  on  the 
top  of  the  runners  is  filled  with  pitch-pine  wood,  a metal  sheet  covering 
the  grate  to  keep  the  heat  directed  downward.  The  grate  is  generally 
made  with  a net-work  of  heavy  wire,  such  as  telegraph  wire.  Two  men 
and  a team  can  readily  burn  from  10  to  12  acres  a day  and  kill  two- 
thirds  of  the  insects,  but  for  this  it  requires  a hot  fire. 

Mr.  C.  C.  Horner  gives  a more  detailed  description  in  the  Colorado 
Farmer  of  a machine  of  somewhat  similar  construction : 

It  consists  of  three  runners,  made  of  2 by  4 scantling,  3 feet  in  length,  to  be  placed 
6 feet  apart,  making  the  machine  12  feet  wide  ; runners  to  be  bound  together  by 
three  flat  straps  or  bars  of  iron  (the  base  being  12  feet  long).  Across  the  top,  bars  of 
iron  hold  the  runners  firmly  together,  and  form  a frame  across  which  wire  can  be 
worked  to  make  a grate  to  hold  fire.  The  upper  part  of  the  runners  should  be  hollowed 
out  so  that  the  grate  may  slide  along  within  2 inches  of  the  ground.  A sheet-iron 
arch  should  be  set  over  this  grate  to  drive  the  heat  downward.  This  machine  is  very 
light,  and  can  be  worked  with  one  horse.  Pitch  wood  is  best  adapted  to  burning, 
and  can  be  chopped  the  right  length  and  size  and  left  in  piles  where  most  convenient 
when  needed.  This  machine  is  intended  to  bs  used  when  the  little ’hoppers  just 
make  their  appearance  along  the  edge  of  the  grain,  going  over  the  ground  once  or 
twice  each  day,  or  as  often  as  necessary  to  keep  them  killed  off.  The  scorching  does 
not  kill  the  grain,  but  makes  it  a few  days  later.  This  is  cerainly  the  cheapest  as 
well  as  the  most  effectual  manner  of  getting  rid  of  this  pest. 

Hand  burners,  consisting  of  any  form  of  pan  or  grate,  or  wire  sieves, 
with  handle  attached,  to  hold  combustible  material,  will  do  excellent 
service  in  gardens  and  small  inclosures. 

There  is  another  method  by  which  large  numbers  of  locusts  can  be 
burned,  consisting  merely  of  a bundle  of  rags  or  tow,  which,  after  being 
attached  to  long  wire  or  iron  rods  and  saturated  with  kerosene,  can  be 
ignited  and  carried  over  the  field.  This  method  has  been  quite  satis- 
factorily used  in  Colorado.  A stout  wire,  say  40  feet  long,  is  thoroughly 
enveloped  in  rags  soaked  in  coal  oil.  A small  wire  is  wound  around  the 
rags  to  keep  them  in  place,  and  the  simple  device  is  complete.  Two 
men  carry  this  rope,  after  setting  fire  to  the  rags,  across  the  field  to 
and  fro  until  the  fuel  is  exhausted,  and  as  it  is  not  necessary  to  pass 
over  the  same  ground  more  than  once  or  twice,  a large  field  of  grain 
can  be  thus  protected  during  the  half  hour  or  so  that  the  rags  burn. 
The  effect  is  that  of  a miniature  prairie  fire. 


39 


Under  this  head  may  be  mentioned  a machine  constructed  by  Mr.  Kim- 
ball 0.  Attwood,  of  Syracuse,  New  York  (patent  No.  193,105,  dated  July 
17,  1877),  for  destroying  the  insects  by  sulphur  fumes.  The  machine  is 
too  expensive  and  complicated  to  come  into  general  use,  especially  as  - 
it  is  less  effectual  than  some  of  the  simpler  ones.  The  principle  of  the 
invention  consists  in  attaching  to  the  axle  of  the  machine  a light  stove 
and  connecting  the  same  with  a blower  or  bellows  by  means  of  a tube. 
Surmounting  this  tube,  and  close  to  the  stove,  is  situated  the  hopper 
for  the  reception  of  the  destroying  compound  (sulphur),  while  the  lower 
section  of  the  stove  is  connected  with  an  escape-pipe  having  attached 
thereto  a series  of  flexible  tubes,  by  means  of  which  the  fumes  of  the 
compound  are  carried  to  the  ground.  Attached  by  suitable  means  to 
the  rear  of  the  axle  is  a horizontal  bar,  to  which  is  secured  the  apron  or 
cover  designed  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  fumes  after  being  delivered 
by  the  flexible  tubes. 

Other  machines  have  been  constructed,  having  troughs  or  wire  re- 
ceptacles attached,  in  'which  the  locusts  are  deposited  and  ultimately 
destroyed  by  means  of  sulphur  fumes  or  hot  water.  But  as  these  rem-  - 
edies  are  applied  by  hand,  they  will  be  classed  under  the  head  of  Catch- 
ing, etc. 

(2)  Crushing. — The  satisfactory  destruction  of  locusts  by  this  means 
can  only  be  advantageously  accomplished  where  the  ground  is  smooth 
and  hard.  Where  the  surface  of  the  ground  presents  this  character, 
heavy  rolling  can  be  successfully  employed,  especially  in  the  mornings 
and  evenings  of  the  first  8 or  10  days  after  the  newly  hatched  young 
have  made  their  appearance,  as  they  are  generally  sluggish  during  those 
times,  and  huddle  together  until  after  sunrise.  It  is  also  advantage- 
ously employed  during  cold  weather  at  any  time  of  day,  since  the  young 
when  the  temperature  is  low  seek  shelter  under  clods,  etc.  In  various 
parts  of  Europe  and  Asia  flat,  wooden,  spade-like  implements  are  ex- 
tensively used  for  crushing  young  locusts.  Large  brushes,  weighted 
down  with  stone  and  drawn  by  horses,  were  in  some  instances  used  last 
summer,  but  with  less  success  than  was  anticipated. 

Several  machines,  most  of  them  patented,  were  for  the  first  time  used 
during  the  past  year  to  further  the  crushing  of  the  young,  and  while 
none  of  them  are  likely  to  take  the  place  of  the  more  simple  methods 
of  catching,  to  be  presently  described,  we  nevertheless  feel  that  it  de- 
volves upon  us  to  describe  some  of  them.  That  represented  on  PI.  i was 
invented  by  Mr.  George  B.  Drum,  of  Syracuse,  Nebraska  (patent  No. 
187,258,  dated  February  13,  1877).  Fig.  7 is  a vertical  section  on  line 
x.  Fig.  6 is  a plan  view  with  a part  of  the  top  removed,  showing  the 
mechanism. 

Another  is  that  invented  by  Mr.  Michael  H.  Simpson,  of  Boston,  Mas- 
sachusetts (patent  No.  198,420,  dated  December  18, 1877).  PI.  ii,  Fig.  1, 
represents  a perspective  view  of  the  machine;  PI.  II,  Fig.  2,  a sectional 
view  of  the  same  as  shown  in  the  preceding  ; and  PI.  II,  Fig.  3,  a sec- 
tional view  of  the  same  arranged  for  the  removal  of  the  insects. 


40 


Another  machine  that  may  be  mentioned  in  this  connection  is  that 
invented  by  Mr.  Charles  Hoos,  of  Arago,  Nebraska  (patent  No.  187,155, 
dated  February  27,  1877).  In  the  accompanying  illustrations,  PI.  ii, 
Fig.  4,  represents  a top  view  of  the  machine;  PI.  n,  Fig.  5,  is  a vertical 
section  of  the  same  taken  through  the  line  x x;  and  PI.  in,  Fig.  1,  is  a 
side  view. 

I witnessed  the  working  of  a machine  invented  by  Mr.  T.  K.  Hans- 
berry,  of  Padonia,  Kansas  (patent  No.  188,359,  dated  March  13,  1877), 
intended  to  crush  the  insects  by  means  of  movable  wooden  bars.  It 
does  not  prove  very  successful,  however,  except  on  the  very  smoothest 
ground.  PI.  ill,  Fig.  2,  is  a top  view,  when  mounted  on  wheels  or  run- 
ners ; PI.  hi,  Fig.  4,  represents  the  front.  PI.  in,  Fig.  3,  is  a sectional 
view  of  the  machine  when  on  runners,  with  knives  or  bars  attached ; 
and  PI.  in,  Fig.  5,  shows  the  slide  attached,  close  to  the  axle,  to  close 
the  angle  formed  at  the  side  by  the  ground  and  the  knives  or  bars  when 
the  machine  is  mounted  on  wheels. 

Mr.  Elisha  Kenworthy,  of  Walnut,  Iowa,  has  invented  a machine 
(patent  No.  186,970,  dated  December  5,  1876)  which  can  be  placed  un- 
der this  class  of  machines.  PI.  in,  Fig.  7,  presents  a vertical  section 
of  the  invention,  and  PI.  in,  Fig.  6,  a plan  view  of  the  same. 

Numerous  communications  upon  this  subject  have  been  received, 
some  of  which,  if  not  all,  are  or  may  have  been  successful  on  a small 
scale.  Others,  if  carried  out,  and  the  contrivances  built  and  given  a 
fair  trial,  mi  adit  be  of  especial  benefit. 

Mr.  J.  C.  Melcher,  of  O’Quinu,  Tex.,  constructed  one  which  he  de- 
scribes as  follows: 

It  is  constructed  on  the  haud  lawn-mower  style,  mounted  on  light  wheels,  a disturb- 
ing rim,  8 or  10  feet  long,  passing  low  over  the  ground  to  stir  the  ’hoppers  up.  Just 
behind  the  disturber  are  two  sheet-metal  rollers,  one  of  which  drives  an  endless  band. 
As  soon  as  the  ’hoppers  jump  over  the  disturber,  the  band  catches  them  and  crushes 
them  between  the  rollers.  The  rollers,  being  of  sheet-iron,  are  elastic  enough  to  press 
uniformly  at  any  given  point.  A rack  of  wire  web  or  cloth  ascends  over  the  top  of 
the  machine  to  prevent  the  ’hoppers  from  escaping.  It  is  operated  by  two  men  push- 
ing the  machine  before  them. 

Mr.  John  Wise,  of  Nebo,  Platte  County,  Nebraska,  says  (in  a letter 
dated  May  26, 1877)  “ a good  machine  can  readily  be  made  by  having  two 
revolving  rollers  mounted  on  wheels,  the  rollers  to  be  4 or  6 inches  above 
ground,  so  arranged,  if  need  be,  to  be  adjusted  either  higher  or  lower, 
the  upper  to  revolve  on  the  top  of  the  lower,’7  etc.  To  a contrivance 
of  this  sort  handles  could  be  attached  for  pushing,  and,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  a frame  covered  with  cloth  or  muslin,  projecting  forward  and 
outward. 

In  addition  to  the  preceding  contrivances  for  crushing  locusts  is  one 
invented  by  Mr.  F.  Peteler,  of  Minneapolis,  Minnesota. 

PI.  iv  represents  a front  view,  and  PI.  V,  Fig.  1,  a side  view,  of  the 
same  machine. 

In  a communication  from  the  inventor,  dated  June  8, 1877,  the  follow- 


41 


mg  description  is  given:  The  machine  is  intended  to  be  drawn  by 
horses,  the  drawing  representing  one  to  be  drawn  by  a team.  “ The 
frame  is  mounted  upon  two  wheels.  The  front  is  a sheet-iron  platform, 
over  which  revolves  an  elevator  made  of  slats,  which  carry  the  locusts 
into  boxes,  where  they  pass  between  rollers,  are  crushed,  and  fall  to  the 
ground.  The  sides  and  top  or  back  are  wire  screws,  the  whole  forming 
a scoop  16  feet  long  (on  the  bottom  19  feet),  8 feet  high,  the  top  of 
which  can  be  lowered  or  raised  according  to  the  height  of  the  grain  or 
grass.” 

A more  detailed  description  follows: 

AA,  driving-wheels .;  B,  guiding- wheel ; D,  setting-lever;  d , retaining-post ; G, 
endless  carrier ; H h,  gearing  for  elevator  and  crushing-shaft ; I,  crushing-rollers;  L, 
set  screw  to  spiral  spring ; l,  spiral  spring  to  press  rollers  together  when  necessary ; 
N,  slats  on  endless  chain  with  sheet-iron  projections  to  hold  the  locusts;  M,  drag- 
chain  (or  strips  of  light  wood)  to  stir  the  locusts. 

Mr.  Peteler  believes  that,  with  a single-horse  machine,  40  or  50  acres 
can  be  gone  over  in  a single  day,  and  by  changing  horses  more  can  be 
done;  but  we,  unfortunately,  had  no  opportunity  to  test  the  practical 
working  of  the  machine,  as,  by  the  time  it  was  perfected,  simpler  and 
satisfactory  methods  were  extensively  being  employed  in  Minnesota, 
and  the  inventor  did  not  feel  encouraged  to  manufacture  his  machine. 
Indeed,  its  expense  is  too  great  to  warrant  its  manufacture,  except  to 
order  by  clubs  of  farmers.  To  use  Mr.  Peteler’s  own  words:  “This 
machine  is  intended  for  local  or  State  authorities  to  use  on  uncultivated 
lands  adjoining  farms  and  unsettled  prairies,  in  order  to  destroy  the 
insects  during  the  entire  season ; for  that  purpose  there  should  be 
proper  organization,  with  camp  outfit,  etc.,  to  follow  up  the  swarms, 
loading  the  machines  on  wagons,  and  battle  with  the  ’hoppers  morning 
and  evening,  when  they  are  comparatively  sluggish.  These  machines 
are  not  designed  as  temporary  contrivances,  believing  that  we  shall 
have  the  scourge  several  seasons  in  some  parts  of  the  State,  and  they 
should  be  made  strong  and  durable.”  Instead  of  paying  bounties  from 
the  State  treasury  for  the  locusts,  Mr.  Peteler  would  have  the  State  aid 
the  farmers  by  investing  in  these  machines.  “Fifty  thousand  dollars 
advanced  to  farmers  will  place,  at  $40  each,  1,250  one-horse  machines 
in  their  hands  to  keep  their  grain-fields  clear.  If  they  use  them  only 
60  days  during  the  season,  aud  go  over  only  40  acres  per  day,  destroy- 
ing but  one-half  bushel  per  acre  (frequently  they  would  destroy  8 to  10 
bushels  per  acre),  they  would  send  25,000  bushels  daily,  or  1,500,000  in 
60  days,  where  bad  ’hoppers  go.  That  money  would  be  returned  to  the 
State  in  4 to  6 mouths  by  the  farmers,  provided  the  State  aud  local 
authorities  will  do  their  duty  by  destroying  the  pests  on  uncultivated 
lands.” 

Under  this  head  we  may  mention  the  curious  suction-fanning  ma- 
chine inveuted  by  Mr.  J.  A.  King,  of  Boulder,  Colorado,  and  one  of 
which,  purchased  by  Mr.  T.  C.  Henry,  of  Abilene,  Kansas,  we  had  the 


42 


opportunity  to  fully  test.  It  consists  of  two  large  tin  tubes  (PI.  y,  Fig. 
2,  AA),  about  8 inches  in  diameter,  with  flattened,  expanded,  and  lipped 
mouthpieces,  B,  running  near  the  ground.  This  horizoiftal  opening  or 
mouth  is  about  7 feet  long.  The  tubes  connect  at  the  upper  extremity 
with  a chamber,  0,  in  which  is  a revolving  fan  which  makes  about  1,200 
revolutions  per  minute.  The  tubes  and  fan,  with  the  gearing,  are  placed 
in  a frame,  D,  5 by  10  feet,  mounted  upon  two  large  driving  wheels.  EE 
PI.  Vi  represents  this  machine  in  operation. 

The  air  current  made  by  the  revolving  fan  creates  a suction  at  the 
mouth,  which  draws  the  insects  up  the  tubes  and  into  the  chamber. 
They  are  then  thrown  by  the  fan  upon  a wire  screen,  and  from  thence 
drop  into  a kind  of  hopper  which  conducts  them  to  a bag.  The  wire 
screen  rapidly  chokes  up  and  must  be  frequently  cleaned.  Most  of  the 
locusts  are  crushed  and  mangled  by  the  rapidly  revolving  fan,  so  that 
the  screen  may  be  removed  entirely  and  the  locusts  thrown  out  behind. 
This  allows  a freer  draft  and  causes  a greater  suction.  This  machine 
can  be  made  for  about  $50,  and  it  works  well  on  smooth  ground  or  in  a 
wheat  field  while  the  wheat  is  yet  short.  It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  keep 
the  lips  close  enough  to  the  ground.  The  principle  of  the  machine  is  a 
good  one,  and  we  see  no  reason  why  some  cheaper  modification  of  it 
should  not  be  quite  generally  used  early  in  the  season,  especially  in  Colo- 
rado, where  there  is  so  much  hard,  smooth  ground  around  the  cultivated 
fields.  The  lips  might  be  protected  and  rendered  less  liable  to  bend  and 
get  out  of  order  by  moving  on  runners  made  to  extend  some  distance  in 
front. 

Finally,  a machine  which  we  saw  in  Colorado,  and  which  was  put 
up  by  J.  S.  Flory,  of  Greeley,  Colorado,  is  worthy  of  mention  in  this 
connection;  for,  while  it  may  be  used  with  coal-tar,  it  is  essentially  a 
catching  and  crushing  machine.  The  Colorado  Sun  thus  speaks  of  it: 

The  main  feature  of  this  invention  is  a revolving  platform  of  heavy  canvas  or  wire 
cloth,  which  runs  between  two  horizontal  rollers.  Long  arms  reach  forward,  which 
support  a revolving  reel ; from  these  arms  downward  extend  sheet-iron  sides,  over  the 
top  a canvas  coveriug;  all  so  constructed  as  to  form  a large  wide  mouth,  into  which 
the  ’hoppers  are  driven  by  the  arms  of  the  revolving  reel  and  carried  between  the 
two  rollers  and  crushed.  Horizontal  strips  running  along  the  rollers  serve  to  keep 
the  rollers  aud  platform  clear  of  the  crushed  grasshoppers.  The  whole  machine  is 
supported  on  two  main  wheels  about  the  middle  and  two  smaller  ones  in  front.  Ex- 
tending back  is  a frame  or  cross-bar,  to  which  one  or  two  horses  may  be  hitched  to 
push  the  machine  forward,  or  it  may  be  operated  by  hand.  The  front  of  the  plat- 
form runs  close  to  the  ground,  and  by  bearing  down  at  the  rear  by  the  driver  it  can 
easily  be  lifted  over  any  obstruction  that  may  be  in  the  way.  The  machine  can  be 
raised  or  lowered  in  front  to  suit  the  crop  over  which  it  is  run. 

This  invention  will  destroy  the  grasshoppers  without  the  necessity  and  expense  of 
usiug  oil  or  tar.  The  patent,  we  understand,  also  covers  the  combinations  of  a 
receptacle  immediately  under  the  rollers,  into  which  the  grasshoppers  are  carried,  and 
in  which,  if  need  be,  water  and  oil  may  be  kept,  and  also  a long  narrow  hopper 
(just  over  the  rollers),  into  which  coal-tar  may  be  put  and  allowed  to  run  through 
onto  the  platform,  thus  making  it  a self-tarring  machine.  Either  of  these  combined 
methods  of  destroying  the  ’hoppers  may  be  used  as  the  farmer  may  choose.  The 


43 


machine  is  so  simple  in  construction  that  any  ordinary  workman  can  put  them  up  at 
a comparatively  small  price.  The  machine  may  he  made  of  any -size  desired,  from  a 
small  hand-machine  to  one  a rod  or  more  in  width. 

PI.  ix,  Fig.  2,  represents  a front  view  of  this  machine  when  in  oper- 
ation, and  Fig.  3 a side  view  of  the  frame. 

(3)  Trapping. — This  can  be  easily  accomplished,  especially  when  the 
locusts  are  making  their  way  from  roads  and  hedges.  The  use  of  nets 
or  seines,  or  long  strips  of  muslin,  calico,  or  similar  materials,  converg- 
ing after  the  manner  of  quail  nets,  has  proved  very  satisfactory.  By 
digging  pits  or  holes  3 or  4 feet  deep,  and  then  staking  the  two  wings  so 
that  they  converge  toward  them,  large  numbers  may  be  secured  in 
this  way  after  the  dew  is  off  the  ground,  or  they  may  be  headed  off 
when  marching  in  a given  direction.  Much  good  can  be  accomplished 
by  changing  the  position  of  the  trap  while  the  locusts  are  yet  small  and 
congregate  in  isolated  or  particular  patches. 

Ditching  and  trenching  properly  come  under  this  head $ and  both  plans 
are  very  effectual  in  protecting  crops  against  the  inroads  of  traveling 
schools  of  the  insects.  They  were  found  especially  advantageous  in 
much  of  the  ravaged  country  in  1875,  where  there  was  little  or  no  hay 
or  straw  to  burn.  They  are  the  best  available  means  when  the  crops 
are  advanced,  and  when  most  of  the  other  destructive  methods  so  ad- 
visable early  in  the  season  can  no  longer  be  effectually  used.  Simple 
ditches,  2 feet  wide  and  2 feet  deep,  with  perpendicular  sides,  offer 
effectual  barriers  to  the  ycnng  insects.  They  must,  however,  be  kept  in 
order,  so  that  the  sides  next  the  fields  to  be  protected  are  not  allowed 
to  wash  out  or  become  too  hard.  They  may  be  kept  friable  by  a brush 
or  rake. 

The  young  locusts  tumble  into  such  a ditch  and  accumulate  and  die 
at  the  bottom  in  large  quantities.  In  a few  days  the  stench  becomes 
great,  and  necessitates  the  covering  up  of  the  mass.  In  order  to  keep 
the  main  ditch  open,  therefore,  it  is  best  to  dig  pits  or  deeper  side  ditches 
at  short  intervals,  in  which  the  locusts  will  accumulate  and  may  be 
buried.  If  a trench  is  made  around  a field  about  hatching-time,  but 
few  locusts  will  get  into  that  field  until  they  acquire  wing$,  and  by  that 
time  the  principal  danger  is  over,  and  the  insects  are  fast  disappearing. 
If  any  should  hatch  within  the  inclosure,  they  are  easily  driven  into  the 
ditches  dug  in  different  parts  of  the  field.  The  direction  of  the  appre- 
hended approach  of  the  insects  being  known  from  their  hatching  local- 
ity, ditching  one  or  two  sides  next  to  such  locality  is  generally  suffi- 
cient, and  when  farmers  join  they  can  construct  a long  ditch  which  will 
protect  many  farms. 

Where  the  soil  is  tenacious  and  water  can  be  let  into  the  ditches  so 
as  to  cover  the  bottom,  they  may  be  made  shallower  and  still  be  effec- 
tual. The  width  and  depth  of  the  ditch  is  important,  and  as  experience 
differed  somewhat,  I have  been  at  pains  to  get  the  experience  of  a large 
number  of  correspondents  addressed  by  circular.  Many  have  success- 


44 


fully  used  ditches  2 feet  deep  and  18  inches  wide ; a few  have  made 
them  only  18  inches  by  18  inches.  Those  who  have  used  water  found 
12  inches  by  15  inches  sufficient,  while  the  larger  number  used  a ditch 
such  as  I have  recommended,  viz,  2 feet  deep  by  2 feet  wide,  with  per- 
pendicular sides.  Having  been  the  first  to  recommend  proper  ditching 
in  this  country,  I have  felt  particular  interest  in  its  results,  and  have 
been  in  no  small  degree  amused  at  the  fault  found  with  my  recommenda- 
tion by  those  who,  through  slovenly  made  ditches  or  other  causes,  have 
not  been  successful  in  this  mode  of  warfare.  It  is  less  effectual  against 
the  newly-hatched  young,  which  more  easily  crawl  up  a perpendicular 
bank  than  the  larger  ones,  and  its  efficacy  will  vary  with  the  nature 
of  the  soil  and  other  circumstances ; for,  in  proportion  as  the  soil  is 
loose,  and  the  ditches  hence  apt  to  fill  up  by  the  action  of  strong  winds, 
or  in  proportion  as  strong  winds  carry  the  insects  over,  ditching  will 
necessarily  fail. 

Those  who,  from  theory  rather  than  from  experience,  are  skeptical 
about  the  efficacy  of  ditching,  urge  that  the  locust,  especially  in  the 
pupa  state,  can  hop  more  than  2 feet.  In  truth,  however,  whether 
when  traveling  in  a given  direction  of  their  own  accord,  or  when  being 
driven  or  disturbed,  they  very  seldom  leap  that  distance,  as  all  who 
have  had  experience  well  know.  That,  on  a pinch,  the  pupa  can  leap 
even  farther,  is  true;  but  the  fact  remains  that  in  practice  Caloptenus 
spretus  seldom  does.  So  the  Chinch  Bug,  though  capable  of  flight,  will 
yet  tumble  into  a ditch  by  myriads  rather  than  use  its  wings.  Even 
the  larger  winged  Acridia  andCEdipodse  tumble  into  such  a ditch,  and 
seldom  get  out  again.  I would  remark  in  this  connection,  also,  that  a 
ditch  3 feet  wide,  unless  correspondingly  deep,  will  be  more  apt  to  per- 
mit the  insects  to  escape,  wheu  once  in,  thau  a narrower  one.  In  hop- 
ping, the  more  perpendicular  the  direction  the  insects  must  take,  the 
shorter  will  be  the  distance  reached. 

The  efficacy  of  the  ditch  depends  not  so  much  on  the  inability  of  the 
young  locusts  to  jump  or  scale  it,  as  on  (heir  tendency  not  to  do  so.  In 
the  bottom  of  the  ditch  they  soon  become  demoralized,  crippled,  and 
enfeebled  by,  constant  effort  and  the  trampling  and  crowding  upon  one 
another. 

Protection  by  Barriers. — Where  ditches  are  not  easily  made,  and  where 
lumber  is  plentiful,  a board  fence  2 feet  high  and  with  3-inch  batten 
nailed  to  top  on  side  from  which  the  locusts  are  coming,  the  edge  of  it 
smeared  with  coal  tar,  will  answer  as  an  effectual  barrier  and  prove 
useful  to  protect  fields  or  gardens. 

A modification  of  this  method  was  used  with  great  success  in  1883 
and  subsequent  years  in  the  Isle  of  Cyprus.  The  “ Cypriote  system,” 
as  it  has  been  called,  consists  of  a series  of  traps  and  screens.  The 
screens  are  made  of  light  hemp  canvas,  50  yards  long  and  2 feet  6 
inches  wide.  Near  the  upper  edge  of  the  canvas  is  sewn  a strip  of  oil- 
cloth 4 inches  wide.  The  screens  are  fixed  to  stakes  of  hard  wood  firmly 


45 


driven  into  the  ground  at  intervals  of  13  feet  6 inches,  slightly  inclined 
towards  the  direction  from  which  the  attack  of  locusts  is  expected.  A 
cord  is  stretched  from  stake  to  stake.  The  screens  are  tied  to  the  in- 
side (locust  side)  of  the  stakes  and  to  the  cords  by  tapes.  About  6 inches 
in  width  of  the  lower  edge  of  the  canvas  is  folded  on  the  ground  inside 
the  stakes  and  weighted  with  earth.  Pits  are  dug  at  intervals  of  gen- 
erally from  40  to  50  yards,  and  the  usual  size  of  the  pits  is  6 feet  long? 
2 feet  3 inches  wide,  and  3 feet  deep.  Round  the  edges  of  the  pit  is 
fixed  the  trap,  consisting  of  four  strips  of  zinc  9 inches  wide.  The 
screens  having  been  so  fixed  as  to  head  the  advancing  army  of  locusts, 
they  march  until  their  progress  is  stopped  by  the  screen.  They  climb 
up  the  canvas  until  they  reach  the  oilcloth,  which  they  can  not  pass. 
They  then  descend  and  crawl  to  one  side  or  the  other  until  they  fall  into 
the  pits,  from  which  they  attempt  to  escape  by  climbing  up  the  sides 
until  they  encounter  the  zinc  sheets  which  project  4 inches  from  the 
edge.  They  then  fall  back  into  the  pit  and  when  this  is  full  to  within 
about  9 inches  of  the  brim  earth  is  shoveled  in  to  bury  the  locusts,  a 
new  pit  having  been  excavated  in  the  meanwhile  to  one  side.  The  trap 
is  removed  to  the  new  pit,  and  the  same  thing  is  repeated  until  the 
whole  swarm  has  been  destroyed.  The  use  of  this  system  has  practi- 
cally rid  Cyprus  of  the  locust  plague,  and  has  also  been  of  great  avail 
in  Algeria  after  other  methods  had  failed. 

Coal  Oil. — The  use  of  coal  oil  and  coal  tar  may  best  be  considered  in 
this  connection,  as  both  substances  are  employed  in  various  ways  for 
trapping  and  destroying  the  insects.  As  we  shall  presently  see,  in  con- 
sidering the  different  available  destructive  agents,  coal  oil  is  the  very 
best  and  cheapest  that  can  be  used  against  the  locusts.  It  may  be  used 
in  any  of  its  cruder  forms,  and  various  contrivances  have  been  employed 
to  facilitate  its  practical  application.  The  main  idea  embodied  in  these 
contrivances  is  that  of  a shallow  receptacle  of  any  convenient  size  (vary- 
ing from  about  3 feet  square  to  about  8 or  10  by  2 or  3 feet),  provided 
with  high  back  and  sides,  either  mounted  upon  wheels  or  runners,  or 
carried  (by  means  of  suitable  handles  or  supporting  rods)  by  hand.  If 
the  “pan”  is  larger  than,  say,  3 feet  square,  it  is  provided  with  trans- 
verse partitions  which  serve  to  prevent  any  slopping  of  the  contents  (in 
case  water  and  oil  are  used),  when  the  device  is  subjected  to  any  sudden 
irregular  motion,  such  as  tipping,  or  in  case  of  a wheeled  pan,  when  it 
passes  over  uneven  ground.  The  wheeled  pan  is  pushed  like  a wheel- 
barrow ; the  hand- worked  pan  is  carried  by  long  handles  at  its  ends.  On 
pushing  or  carrying,  as  the  case  may  be,  these  pans,  supplied  with  oil, 
over  the  infested  fields,  and  manipulating  the  shafts  or  handles  so  as  to 
elevate  or  depress  the  front  edge  of  the  pan  as  may  be  desired,  the  locusts 
are  startled  from  their  places  and  spring  into  the  tar  Or  oil,  when  they 
are  either  entangled  by  the  tar  and  die  slowly,  or,  coming  in  contact 
with  the  more  active  portion  of  the  oil,  expire  almost  immediately.  In 
Colorado  they  use  it  to  good  advantage  on  the  water  in  their  irrigating 


46 


ditches,  and  it  may  be  used  anywhere  in  pans  or  in  saturated  cloths, 
stretched  on  frames,  drawn  over  the  field.  The  method  of  using  it  on  the 
irrigating  ditches  in  Colorado  is  thus  reported  by  Prof.  R.  L.  Packard : 

It  consists  essentially  in  pouring,  or,  better,  dropping  coal  tar  or  coal  oil  on  the 
runuing  water  with  which  the  irrigating  ditches  are  supplied.  The  method  of  sup- 
plying these  ditches  with  oil  is  very  simple.  It  is  only  necessary  to  sprinkle  a few 
drops  of  coal  tar  on  the  stream,  when  the  oils  contained  in  the  tar  are  diffused  over 
the  surface  of  the  water,  and  coming  in  contact  with  the  insects  (no  matter  how 
many),  cause  their  speedy  death.  The  toxic  power  of  coal  oil  upon  the  insects  is 
very  remarkable  ; a single  drop  of  it  floating  on  the  water  is  capable  of  causing  the 
death  of  a large  number  of  insects.  A simple  and  ingenious  mode  of  keeping  up  a 
constant  supply  of  the  tar  to  a ditch  I saw  exemplified  upon  the  farm  of  Mr.  Arnett. 
A three-quart  can  is  perforated  on  the  side  close  to  the  bottom,  a chip  loosely  fitting 
the  aperture  is  inserted  therein,  and  the  can  is  then  immersed  (by  a weight  if  neces- 
sary) in  the  ditch.  Three  quarts  or  less  of  tar,  trickling  out  drop  by  drop  from  this 
slight  vent,  are  sufficient  to  keep  a great  length  of  ditch  supplied  with  coal  oil  for 
36  hours.  The  precise  extent  of  ditch  which  may  thus  be  rendered  toxic  to  the 
locusts  can  not,  of  course,  be  exactly  stated.  It  is  in  fact  quite  indefinite,  for  the 
reason  that  the  quantity  of  oil  necessary  to  kill  one  of  the  insects  is  almost  infin- 
itesimal, and  for  the  further  reason  that  a single  drop  of  oil  will  cover  quite  a large 
surface  when  dropped  on  water,  so  that  taking  these  two  facts  together,  it  is  easy  to 
see  that  a very  small  quantity  of  tar  or  oil  will  serve  to  guard  by  means  of  ditches 
a large  tract  of  territory  from  the  ravages  of  the  young  (unwiuged)  locnsts. 

The  pans  that  were  used  in  Kansas  and  Iowa,  but  principally  in  the 
former  State,  were  of  very  simple  construction  and  very  effectual. 

A good  and  cheap  pan  is  made  of  ordinary  sheet-iron,  8 feet  long,  11 
iuches  wide  at  the  bottom,  and  turned  up  a foot  high  at  the  back  and 
an  inch  high  at  the  front.  A runner  at  each  end,  extending  some  dis- 
tance behind,  and  a cord  attached  to  each  front  corner,  complete  the 
pan,  at  a cost  of  about  $1.50.  (PI.  vm,  Fig.  2.) 

We  have  known  from  7 to  10  bushels  of  young  locusts  caught  with 
one  such  pan  in  an  afternoon.  It  is  easily  pulled  by  two  boys,  and  by 
running  several  together  in  a row,  one  boy  to  each  outer  rope,  and  one 
to  each  contiguous  pair,  the  best  work  is  performed  with  the  least  labor. 
Louger  pans,  to  be  drawn  by  horses,  should  have  transverse  partitions 
(PI.  ill,  Fig.  8)  to  avoid  spilling  the  liquid ; also  more  runners.  The 
oil  may  be  used  alone  so  as  just  to  cover  the  bottom,  or  on  the  surface 
of  water,  and  the  insects  strained  through  a wire  ladle.  When  the  in- 
sects are  very  small,  one  may  economize  in  kerosene  by  lining  the  pan 
with  saturated  cloth,  but  this  becomes  less  efficient  afterward,  and  frames 
of  cloth  saturated  with  oil  do  not  equal  the  pans.  Where  oil  has  been 
scarce,  some  persons  have  substituted  concentrated  lye,  but  when  used 
strong  enough  to  kill  it  costs  about  as  much  as  the  oil.  The  oil  pans  can 
be  used  only  when  the  crops  to  be  protected  are  small. 

Small  pans  for  oil,  attached  to  an  obliquing  pole  or  handle,  do  excel- 
lent service  in  gardens. 

Mr.  A.  A.  Price,  of  Rutland,  Humboldt  County,  Iowa,  sends  the  com- 
mission the  following  description  of  a coal-oil  pan  to  be  drawn  on  run- 
ners, and  which  was  used  with  much  success  in  northwestern  Iowa  (PI. 

vm,  Fig.  1) : 


47 


Take  a common  board  from  12  to  16  feet  in  length  for  the  foundation  or  bed  piece. 
Wake  a tin  trough  4 inches  deep,  6 inches  wide,  and  as  long  as  required.  Divide  the 
trough  into  partitions  by  means  of  strips  of  tin,  so  that  each  partition  is  a foot  long, 
thus  avoiding  the  spilling  of  oil.  Back  of  this  place  a strip  of  tin  16  inches  wide  and 
as  long  as  the  trough.  The  back  must  be  firmly  secured  by  braces  running  down  to 
the  front  edge  of  the  board.  Under  all  this  place  3 wooden  runners  3 feet  long  and 
shod  with  iron  for  the  trough  to  ride  on.  Fill  the  pan  half  fall  of  water,  and  then 
add  a small  quantity  of  kerosene— sufficient  to  cover  the  water.  A horse  may  be 
hitched  to  the  machine  by  fastening  a rope  to  the  outside  runners.  * * * The 

lightness  of  the  machine  will  allow  of  its  being  used  on  any  crops.  * # * 

m 

A machine  of  this  sort  was  patented  by  Mr.  Lorenzo  B.  Canfield,  of 
Syracuse,  Nebr.  (Patent  No  187,509,  dated  February  20,  1877).  The 
following  description  and  figures  will  serve  to  illustrate  his  pan  more 
fully.  PL  vii,  Fig.  1,  represents  a perspective  view;  PI.  vii, Fig. 2,  a 
longitudinal  sectional  view  on  the  line  x x in  the  preceding. 

This  pan  was  sold  in  the  West  at  an  exorbitant  price,  $4  being 
charged  for  royalty.  Wherever  we  had  an  opportunity  we  advised 
farmers  not  to  use  it,  but  to  construct  others  such  as  we  have  already 
described,  and  every  bit  as  good,  at  far  less  expense.  The  principle 
can  not  be  patented,  for  since  1875  similar  coal-oil  pans,  virtual  out- 
growths of  the  canvas  frames  originally  employed  for  the  same  purpose, 
have  been  “ known  aud  used  v in  Colorado.  This  fact  is  sufficient  in  law 
to  defeat  any  patent  right  based  upon  any  application  for  a patent  sub- 
sequent to  such  knowledge  and  use. 

The  essential  features  in  all  the  contrivances  are,  in  fact  (1)  A plat- 
form that  runs  on  the  ground,  on  runners  or  wheels;  (2)  A canopy  at 
right  angles  with  it;  (3)  A reservoir  at  the  junction  to  contain  the 
liquid. 

Another  pan,  of  which  we  give  a sketch  (PI.  vii,  Fig.  3),  was  made  by 
Mr.  James  Adams,  of  Abilene,  Kansas.  It  is  10  feet  long,  2 feet  wide ; 
back  (a.)  1 foot  high  ; front  ( b ) about  2 inches  high  at  the  inner  edge; 
ends  (c)  2 feet  high.  The  front  is  made  of  a board  0 inches  wide,  leaning 
inward  at  an  angle  of  about  45°.  A cloth  screen  is  placed  on  the  back 
part,  which  prevents  the  reel  from  knocking  the  locusts  back  over  the 
pan. 

The  whole  is  made  of  pine,  and  it  costs  $8  or  $10.  The  pan  is  painted 
within  with  asphaltum  paint,  which  renders  it  impervious  to  water  or 
oil.  The  pan  rests  in  front  upon  runners,  to  which  ropes  are  attached 
for  drawing,  and  on  wheels  behind  which  carry  belts  to  turn  the  reel. 

The  reel  revolves  just  in  front  of  the  pan,  causing  the  locusts  to  hop, 
and  then  knocking  them  into  the  pan.  A brush  of  cloth  is  sometimes 
fastened  to  one  arm  of  the  reel  to  brush  into  the  pan  any  locusts  that 
may  be  on  the  front  piece.  Several  of  these  pans  were  used  about  Abi- 
lene, aud  did  good  work. 

A contrivance  shown  in  PI.  viii,  Fig.  3,  was  constructed  by  Presi- 
dent John  A.  Anderson  for  use  on  the  Agricultural  College  farm  at  Man- 
hattan, Kansas. 


48 


It  was  found  to  do  very  good  service,  killing  the  young  locusts  in 
considerable  numbers.  The  oil  did  not  evaporate  so  rapidly  as  was 
anticipated.  One  thorough  saturation  was  sufficient  for  fifteen  or 
twenty  minutes,  when  a little  more  could  be  added.  If  the  machine 
be  hauled  against  the  wind,  nearly  all  the  locusts  which  hop  will  touch 
the  oiled  canvas.  They  generally  take  several  hops  upon  the  canvas 
before  leaving  it,  thus  insuring  a thorough  saturation  with  the  oil.  After 
hopping  from  the  apron  they  can  take  two  or  three  hops  upon  the 
ground,  then  lose  all  power  in  their  bind  legs,  stretching  them  straight 
out  behind,  and  finally,  in  one  or  two  minutes  after  being  “oiled,”  they 
are  dead. 

Goal  Tar. — This  may  be  used  with  most  of  the  contrivances  just  de- 
scribed for  the  use  of  kerosene,  and  while  not  equal  to  the  simple  kero- 
sene pan  for  speed  in  trapping  and  destroying,  is  yet  very  useful,  espe- 
cially in  the  neighborhood  of  gasworks  where  the  coal  tar  can  be  obtained 
at  nominal  cost.  It  also  permits  the  use  of  the  simplest  kind  of  pan. 
Enough  tar  is  spread  over  whatever  receptacle  may  be  used  to  cover 
well  the  bottom,  and  when  this  becomes  sufficiently  matted  with  the 
young  locusts  so  as  no  longer  to  destroy  the  new  comers,  another  coat- 
ing is  added,  and  so  on  until  it  becomes  necessary  to  remove  the  whole 
mass,  when  it  is  shoveled  from  the  pan  and  burned;  or,  what  is  far 
preferable,  wherever  there  are  wet  ditches  if  may  be  thrown  into  these, 
when  the  oil  contained  in  it,  spreading  over  the  surface  of  the  water, 
destroys  such  locusts  as  may  jump  into  or  be  driven  into  such  ditches. 
Where  the  tar  is  scarce,  as  a matter  of  economy  it  will  pay  to  melt  the 
accumulated  mass  in  iron  vessels.  By  skimming  off  the  dead  locusts 
that  rise  to  the  surface,  and  thinning  the  residuum  with  a little  coal  oil, 
it  may  be  used  again. 

A simple  pan  extensively  employed,  and  which  was  known  as  the 
Robbins  “ hopperdozer,”*  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration  (PI. 
ix,  Fig.  1),  the  general  plan  being  that  of  the  ordinary  road  scraper.  Its 
simplicity  and  durability  account  for  its  general  use.  It  was  usually" 
drawn  by  hand,  though  several  pans  were  frequently  bound  together 
and  drawn  by  horses;  while,  in  some  instances,  certain  improvements 
in  the  way  of  mounting  on  wheels,  so  as  to  permit  its  being  pushed  from 
behind,  were  also  adopted.  We  saw  some  with  a wire  screen  or  cover 
hinged  to  the  back,  so  that  the  insects  might  be  secured  when  the  pan 
was  not  in  motion ; but  the  cover  seemed  superfluous.  We  also  saw 
lime  and  kerosene  mixed  so  as  to  form  a mortar  substituted  for  the 
coal  tar. 

Another  device  was  used  in  Colorado  last  summer,  but  is  more  com- 
plicated. It  consisted  of  a skeleton  cylinder  of  wood  framework  cov- 
ered with  canvas,  the  interior  of  which  was  to  be  coated  with  coal  tar. 
The  ends  were  opened  and  fans  were  arranged  there,  so  constructed  as 

* A word  that  came  into  very  general  use  last  year  among  farmers  for  coal-oil  and 
coal-tar  machines,  and  which  doubtless  takes  its  origin  from  doze,  in  reference  to  the 
toxic  effect  of  the  coal-tar  on  the  locusts. 


49 


to  throw  the  locust  into  the  interior  of  the  cylinder,  where  they  would 
become  entangled  in  the  tar  and  be  poisoned  by  it.  The  machine  runs 
on  wheels  whose  axle  is  the  axis  of  the  cylinder. 

A correspondent  of  The  Kansas  Farmer , in  the  issue  of  June  6,  1877, 
describes  the  following  contrivance: 

I yesterday  put  together  a machine  which  I do  not  propose  to  patent.  It  is  con- 
structed as  follows:  I had  riveted  together  two  sheets  of  stove-pipe  iron,  each  2 by  7 
feet,  making  a surface  of  4 by  7 feet.  I rolled  up  the  back  side  about  18  inches 
high,  and  held  it  to  its  place  by  nailing  to  it  rounded  inch  boards.  I turned  up  the 
front  a trifle,  and  nailed  to  it  a narrow  strip  of  siding  to  stiffen  the  machine  under  the 
bottom,  well  back,  so  that  it  would  balance.  I flxed  a three-eighths  round  iron  for  an 
axle,  and  fastened  it  by  driving  a staple  over  it  near  the  ends  and  iuto  the  board  end 
X>ieces.  The  wheels  should  be  16  inches  in  diameter,  made  of  inchboards,  three  thick- 
nesses nailed  together,  so  that  the  grain  of  the  wood  will  cross.  I push  my  machine 
with  a handle  made  of  half-inch  iron,  a piece  12  feet  long,  the  ends  flattened,  and 
fastened  to  the  end  board  with  screws,  the  rod  bent  up  and  made  the  proper  shape, 
so  as  to  come  about  to  the  bottom  of  a man’s  vest  when  operating  the  “ dozer.”  I 
cover  the  surface  with  tar  (common),  which  will  burn  and  is  poison  to  the  ’hopper. 
The  machine  tilts  over  the  axle  and  can  be  made  to  scrape  the  ground  or  raised  to 
passover  grain  or  obstructions.  The  “dozer”  is  a perfect  success,  gathers  the  ’hop- 
pers almost  as  clean  as  a reaper  will  cut  grain;  none  get  away.  One  week’s  work 
and  4 gallons  of  pitch  tar  will  clean  the  worst  ’hoppered  160-acre  farm  in  Minnesota. 
At  one  priming  with  tar  yesterday  my  man  caught  in  about  au  hour  a half  bushel, 
estimated  to  make  10  bushels  when  grown. 

(4)  Catching  or  Bagging. — 44  There  are  innumerable  mechanical 
contrivances  for  this  purpose.  The  cheapest  and  most  satisfactory  are 
those  intended  to  bag  the  insects.  A frame  2 feet  high  and  of  varying 
length,  according  as  it  is  to  be  drawn  by  men  or  horses,  with  a bag  of 
sheeting  tapering  behind  and  ending  in  a small  bag  or  tube,  say  1 foot 
in  diameter  and  2 or  3 feet  long,  with  a fine  wire  door  at  the  end  to  ad- 
mit the  light  and  permit  the  dumping  of  the  insects,  will  do  admirable 
work.  The  insects  gravitate  toward  the  wire  screen,  and  when  the 
secondary  bag  is  full  they  may  be  emptied  into  a pit  dug  for  the  pur- 
pose. Those  bagging-machines  will  prove  most  serviceable  when  grain 
is  too  high  for  the  kerosene  pans,  just  described,  and  they  will  be  ren- 
dered more  effectual  by  having  runners  at  distances  of  about  every  2 
feet,  extending  a foot  or  so  in  front  of  the  mouth,  so  as  to  more  thor- 
oughly disturb  the  insects  and  prevent  them  from  getting  underneath; 
also  by  having  wings  of  vertical  teeth,  so  as  to  increase  the  scope  with 
as  little  resistance  to  the  wind  as  possible.” 

Two  important  facts  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  in  using  these 
bagging-machines : First,  that  they  should  always  be  drawn,  as  far  as 
possible,  against  the  wind,  if  this  be  stirring ; second,  that  in  proportion 
as  the  insects  and  the  grain  are  advanced  in  growth,  and  the  former  be- 
come predisposed  to  roost,  in  that  proportion  the  machines  will  prove 
more  serviceable  at  night. 

We  constructed  a machine  embodying  the  features  already  mentioned, 
and  it  answered  the  purpose  very  well  indeed.  The  following  account 
is  from  the  Scientific  American: 

26787— No.  25 4 


50 


Professor  Riley,  of  the  Entomological  Commission,  perfected  last  summer  a grass- 
hopper machine,  which  seems  to  be  just  the  thing.  It  is  intended  to  do  away  with 
all  extra  material,  like  coal-oil,  which  in  the  long  run  is  expensive,  and  to  work  at 
all  seasons,  whether  the  insects  are  just  hatching  or  full  grown.  It  is  not  patented, 
nor  does  the  professor  intend  to  patent  it,  unless  it  should  be  found  necessary  to  pre- 
vent others  from  doing  so.  It  was  worked  at  Manhattan,  Kansas,  and  gave  great 
satisfaction,  and  was  described  in  the  Industrialist , the  organ  of  the  Kansas  State 
Agricultural  College,  as  follows  : (See  PI.  X,  Fig.  1.) 

“The  mechanical  department  has  constructed  a new  locust  exterminator  for  Pro- 
fessor Riley.  The  machine  operates  upon  the  bagging  principle.  It  is,  briefly,  a 
large  canvas  bag  stretched  upon  a light  but  strong  frame,  and  placed  upon  runners, 
which  extend  with  curved  tips  a little  in  front  of  the  mouth.  The  canvas  is  stretched 
upon  the  inside  of  the  frame,  thus  making  the  bag  smooth  and  even  within.  This 
bag  has  a mouth  (A)  10  feet  long  and  2 feet  high,  and  converges  backward  to  a small 
box  or  frame,  1 foot  square,  with  a slide  cut-off  (D).  This  box  forms  the  mouth  to  a 
secondary  bag  (B),  2\  feet  long  and  1 foot  in  diameter,  which  ends  in  a second  frame 
having  two  short  runners  below  it.  There  is  a sliding  door  (E)  of  wire  gauze  in  the 
end  frame,  and  the  secondary  bag  is  strengthened  by  a couple  of  strips  of  leather  con- 
necting the  two  small  frames.  The  machine  is  made  to  “ take  more  land  ” by  means 
of  two  right-angled  triangular  wings  (C)  about  6 feet  long,  that  hinge  to  the  upright 
ends  of  the  large  frame  in  such  manner  that  the  rectangle  joins  tho  upper  cor- 
ner of  the  frame.  From  the  lower  side  of  this  wing  are  suspended  a number  of 
teeth,  or  beaters,  which,  swinging  loosely,  drive  the  locusts  inward.  The  machine 
is  handled  by  means  of  two  ropes  hitched  to  the  outer  runners  or  to  the  outer  and 
lower  side  of  the  mouth  of  the  frame. 

“ On  smooth  ground  the  machine  can  be  easily  hauled  by  two  men,  but  where  tho 
grass  is  tall  and  thick  it  pulls  harder.  The  locusts,  on  hopping  into  the  machine, 
soon  reach  the  small  back  portion,  enter  the  small  bag,  and  are  attracted  to  the  rear 
end  by  the  light  which  enters  by  the  gauze  door.  When  a sufficient  number  are  thus 
captured  the  machine  is  stopped,  the  cut-off  is  slid  down  in  front  of  the  secondary  bag, 
a hole  is  dug  behind  the  machine,  the  bag  tipped  into  it,  andtiie  insects  buried.  A 
strip  of  leather  closes  the  slit  through  which  the  cut-off  slips,  and  the  main  bag  is 
made  of  dark  cloth,  while  the  secondary  bag  is  white,  so  as  by  contrast  to  attract 
more  thoroughly  the  locusts. 

“ The  advantages  of  this  machine  are  that  it  requires  no  additional  expense  to  run 
it,  as  for  oil,  tar,  etc.  It  will  catch  the  winged  locust  as  well  as  the  young,  if  oper- 
ated on  cool  mornings  and  evenings,  and  is  adapted  to  almost  all  conditions  of  grow- 
ing grain.  The  machine  can  be  made  for  about  $10,  and  perhaps  less.” 

In  practice  we  found  it  best  to  draw  the  machine  by  hitching  to  the 
runners,  and  to  brace  the  wings  at  desired  angles,  according  to  the 
strength  of  the  wind,  by  means  of  two  iron  rods,  as  in  the  illustration. 

A net  which  has  done  good  service,  made  by  Maj.  J.  G.  Thompson* 
of  Garden  City,  Minnesota,  is  as  follows  : 

Two  pieces  of  common  batten  about  16  feet  long  were  used  as  framework  for  the 
mouth  of  the  net,  one  for  the  bottom  and  one  for  the  top.  From  the  end  of  the  bottom 
piece  a wooden  shoe  of  the  same  material  ran  back  about  6 feet  to  steady  the  trap, 
and  serve  as  a runner.  To  the  rear  end  of  this  shoe  a similar  piece  was  fastened  by 
a hinge,  and  ran  forward  and  was  fastened  to  the  top  piece  of  the  frame,  so  that 
the  mouth  of  the  trap  would  open  and  shut  like  a jaw.  To  hold  the  mouth  open, 
two  short,  upright  posts  were  fastened  to  the  top  piece  by  a hinge,  and  rested  upright 
upon  the  bed-piece.  The  net  itself  was  made  of  cotton  cloth  for  the  bottom,  and  the 
top  was  made  of  mosquito-netting.  The  mouth  of  the  net  extended  16  feet  from  one 
side  of  the  trap  to  the  other,  and  the  net  ran  back  about  6 feet  to  a point  with  a hole 


51 


at  the  end  to  let  out  the  insects  collected.  A hoy  10  years  old  can  draw  one  end  of 
this  net,  and  by  the  use  of  it,  Major  Thompson  saved  one  piece  of  wheat. 

Mr.  J.  C.  Elliot,  of  Sheldon,  Iowa,  thus  describes  a machine  of  his  own 
devising  that  was  much  liked  in  his  section: 

Take  a strip  of  pine  lumber  1 inch  thick,  2 inches  wide,  and  10  or  12  feet  long; 
about  18  inches  from  each  end  mortise  in  a strip  about  2 feet  long  of  the  same  mate- 
rial as  your  main  piece ; run  a strong  wire  from  one  end  of  the  main  piece  over  the 
ends  of  the  two  upright  pieces  and  fasten  to  the  opposite  ends  of  the  main  strip,  form- 
ing the  framework  to  the  mouth  of  your  dozer.  The  wire  should  be  permanently 
fastened  to  the  top  ends  of  the  upright  pieces  to  form  a brace  to  keep  them  always  in 
place.  Place  the  long  strip  of  lumber  on  the  ground  so  that  the  standards  stand  per- 
pendicular; take  two  widths  of  strong  cotton  cloth  the  length  of  your  main  strip 
sew  them  together  so  you  will  have  double  width,  tack  one  side  of  the  cloth  to  the 
long  wood  strip ; this  forms  the  bottom.  Take  of  mosquito-bar  enough  to  form  a top 
to  the  net,  fastening  one  side  to  the  wire  running  over  the  top  of  the  standards ; put 
in  such  gores  of  cotton  cloth  at  the  ends  as  you  may  need  to  form  a complete  sack  of 
the  cotton  cloth  and  mosquito-bar.  A good  plan  to  facilitate  taking  out  the  ’hoppers 
when  caught  is  to  let  the  back  part  of  the  net  run  to  a point  in  the  center,  and  leave 
a small  opening,  which  can  be  fastened  with  a string  while  at  work,  and  unloosened 
to  empty  out  the  ’hoppers.  The  object  of  the  mosquito-bar  is  to  allow  the  wind  to 
pass  through  and  keep  the  ’hoppers  in  the  net. 

A very  successful  method  of  catching  pupse  was  used  by  Mr.  Lowe 
and  Mr.  Hall,  farmers,  in  McLeod  County,  Minnesota.  It  is  simply 
equivalent  to  a wagon-body  with  one  side  removed,  to  be  drawn  over 
the  grain  after  dark.  The  locusts  roosting  on  the  grain  fall  into  it, 
simply  lie  there  and  become  entangled  in  a mass,  and  may  be  easily 
shoveled  into  a hole.  Mr.  Hall  thinks  he  caught  800  bushels  in  the 
latter  part  of  June ; Mr.  Lowe,  400. 

While  in  Iowa  we  inspected  one  of  the  following  machines,  which 
was  not  in  working  order,  however,  at  the  time,  nor  was  it  much  used, 
even  in  the  locality  where  invented.  It  is  patented  by  Mr.  George  S. 
Wilson,  of  Malvern,  and  Mr.  John  Rhode,  of  Tabor,  Iowa  (patent  No. 
192,553,  dated  June  26,  1877),  and  is  described  below.  (PI.  XI,  Fig.  1.) 

a a represents  two  driving-wheels,  upon  which  the  machine  is  propelled  about  by  a 
person  or  persons  pushing  from  behind  on  the  handle  c.  The  frame  consists,  prefera- 
bly, at  each  end  of  the  two  curved  timbers  d,  as  shown,  between  which  is  clamped  a 
curved  sheet-metal  plate,  e,  which  forms  the  floor  of  the  machine.  Secured  to  the 
inside  edge  of  the  top  timber,  at  each  end,  is  a curved  plate,  g,  which  forms  a flange 
along  each  end  of  the  machine,  in  order  to  prevent  the  insects  from  being  swept  or 
jumping  from  the  floor. 

To  the  rear  edge  of  the  floor  is  secured  a box  or  receptacle,  i,  as  long  as  the  floor  is 
wide,  into  which  the  insects  are  swept  whole  by  the  reel  h.  The  cover  of  this  box 
does  not  quite  reach  to  the  forward  edge,  thus  leaving  the  space  1,  through  which 
the  insects  fall  into  the  box.  The  upper  end  of  the  lid  is  turned  backward  a consid- 
erable distance,  so  as  to  form  the  flange  2,  thereby  preventing  the  insects  from  being 
swept  back  past  the  floor  and  opening  1 upon  the  ground  behind. 

Extending  across  the  front  edge  of  the  machine  is  a board  or  bar,  n,  sharp  at  its 
front  edge,  and  the  ends  of  which  project  beyond  each  side  of  the  frame,  and  serve  as 
a support  for  one  of  the  three  braces  or  standards  3,  upon  the  tops  of  which  the  reel 
is  journaled,  and  operated  by  the  belt  or  chain  8 over  the  pulleys  9.  The  axles  5, 
upon  which  the  wheels  a are  placed,  have  their  inner  ends  made  U shaped,  so  as  to 


52 


straddle  over  the  edges  of  the  timbers  d,  to  which  they  are  secured  by  set-screws. 
By  thus  forming  these  spindles  a heavy  axle  is  dispensed  with,  and  the  wheels  can 
be  adjusted  back  and  forth,  so  as  to  regulate  the  distance  the  edge  of  the  floor  shall 
travel  from  the  ground. 

The  sweeps  of  the  reel  may  consist  either  of  plain  strips  of  wood,  or  the  strips  may 
have  sheets  of  rubber  or  any  other  suitable  material  clamped  in  between  or  secured 
to  them,  as  shown. 

Mr.  Samuel  Godard,  of  Marysville,  Missouri,  invented  a machine  for 
catching  locusts  (patent  No.  191421,  dated  May  29,  1877),  of  which  we 
give  the  accompanying  illustrations. 

PI.  xi,  Fig.  3,  is  apian  view  of  the  invention  ; PI.  xi,  Fig.  4,  is  a ver- 
tical section  of  the  same,  and  PI.  xi,  Fig.  5,  represents  an  eud  view  of 
the  revolving  frame. 

A machine  somewhat  like  the  above  was  invented  by  Mr.  Finley  E. 
Benson,  of  Walnut,  Iowa  (patent  No.  184223,  dated  November  14, 
1876).  PI.  xi,  Fig.  6,  represents  a plan  view  of  the  machine,  and  PI. 
xi,  Fig.  7,  a vertical  section  of  the  same. 

The  machine  invented  by  Mr.  Dexter  H.  Hutchins,  of  Algona,  Iowa 
(patent  No.  187012,  dated  February  6,  1877),  differs  from  all  the  others  in 
having  attached  a contrivance  for  killing  the  insects  by  means  of  sul- 
phur fumes.  PI.  xn,  Fig.  1,  is  a top  view, .and  PI.  xn,  Fig.  2,  shows 
a sectional  view. 

Another  contrivance  was  invented  by  Mr.  Benjamin  Sylvester,  of  St. 
Peter,  Minnesota  (patent  No.  188760,  dated  March  27,  1877),  of  which 
drawings  are  herewith  given. 

The  “ Hero  ’Hopper-catcher,”  constructed  by  John  Carlen,  Berna- 
dotte,  Nicollet  County,  Minnesota,  is  a simple  bag  with  fan  attachment, 
working  somewhat  on  the  same  principle  as  the  above. 

Most  of  these  patent  contrivances  are  open  to  the  objection  of  extra 
cost  and  complication  without  extra  efficiency,  and  the  simpler  devices 
will  always  retain  their  deservedly  greater  popularity. 

Mr.  J.  S.  Belt,  of  the  firm  of  Perkins  & Belt,  St.  Paul,  Minnesota,  con- 
structed a simple  sheet-iron  pan,  intended  to  hold  the  locusts  without 
the  aid  of  coal-tar.  The  machine  consists  of  a sheet-iron  platform  with 
a front  sweep  of  8 feet,  the  back  of  which  is  elevated  7 inches  and  the 
front  If  inches,  in  the  shape  of  a runner.  Over  the  platform  is  a con- 
trivance that  holds  the  locusts  that  hop  upon  the  machine,  and  an 
effective  cover  prevents  any  from  hopping  over  the  grate.  The  imple- 
ment is  easily  pulled  by  ropes,  and,  with  a 3-foot  wing  on  each  side,  it 
sweeps  over  14  feet  of  field.  Its  capacity  is  3 bushels,  and  it  can  be 
emptied  in  10  seconds. 

The  following  letter  from  Mr.  Pennock  Pusey,  private  secretary  to 
Governor  Pillsbury,  expresses  the  opinion  of  those  fully  competent  to 
judge  of  its  value: 

This  will  be  handed  yon  by  Mr.  J.  E.  Belt,  who  will  exhibit  a locust-machine,  which 
strikes  the  governor  and  myself  as  the  best  thing  yet  invented.  It  is  on  the  same 
simple  principle  as  that  of  the  sheet-iron  and  tar  dozer,  but  dispenses  wholly  with 


53 


tlie  tar,  and  thus  saves  cost  and  delay.  It  was  tested  yesterday  by  Mr.  Raney,  of 
Le  Sueur  County,  who  is  probably  the  most  practical  authority  in  the  State,  and  he 
heartily  indorses  it,  as  you  will  see  by  his  letter.  The  inventor  proposes  to  rush 
the  manufacture  of  them  extensively,  and,  all  things  considered,  it  seems  worthy  of 
notice. 

We  requested  Mr.  Whitman,  our  special  assistant  in  Minnesota,  to  see 
the  pan  tried ; lie  did  so,  and  found  it  to  work  well,  though  it  accom- 
plishes nothing  more  than  the  tar  pan,  and,  on  account  of  being  more 
expensive  at  first  cost,  was  not  so  generally  used.  The  pan  has,  we 
believe,  been  patented,  and  can  be  built  for  $6. 

Under  the  present  head  may  be  mentioned  the  method  that  has  been 
and  may  be  in  future  adopted,  under  peculiar  and  favorable  circum- 
stances, of  driving  the  insects  into  streams  and  catching  them,  as  they 
float  down,  in  sacks ; and,  finally,  the  use  of  hand-nets,  such  as  ento- 
mologists ordinarily  use  in  collecting  and  catching  winged  insects.  This 
method  is  strongly  advocated  by  Gerstacker,  Korte,  and  other  European 
writers,  and  may  be  employed  with  advantage  in  a small  way  with  us 
where  special  crops  are  to  be  cleared  that  would  be  injured  by  other 
methods.  A simple  net,  such  as  that  herewith  illustrated  (PI.  XII, 
Fig.  4),  may  be  cheaply  constructed  by  any  tinsmith ; the  only  material 
required  being  a piece  of  stout  wire,  a holiow  tin  tube  in  which  to 
solder  the  two  ends,  and  a piece  of  cotton  or  linen  cloth,  a wooden 
handle  of  any  desired  length  being  inserted  in  the  non-soldered  end  of 
the  tube. 

(5)  Use  of  Destructive  Agents — We  had  a number  of  experiments 
made  with  different  insecticide  mixtures  in  1876  and  1877,  and  the  results 
are  given  in  detail  in  the  first  report  of  the  Commission.  The  only 
substance  which  indicated  possible  results  of  value  was  Paris  green. 
Mixed  with  twenty  to  thirty  parts  of  flour  it  was  sprinkled  on  the  ground, 
and  many  locusts  were  attracted  to  and  destroyed  by  it.  This  mode, 
however,  can  not  be  compared  with  many  of  those  already  described. 
Its  use  against  the  young  locusts  is  practically  of  little  value,  because 
of  the  excessive  numbers  in  which  they  usually  occur.  Broadcast 
spraying  of  any  crop,  using,  to  be  effective,  Paris  green  or  London 
purple  in  the  proportion  of  1 pound  to  150  or  200  gallons  of  water,  will 
be  useful  where  spraying  apparatus  is  at  hand,  but  it  will  hardly  pay 
to  construct  such  an  apparatus  for  this  purpose  alone,  in  view  of  the 
cheaper  remedies  just  described. 

THE  PROTECTION  OF  FRUIT  TREES. 

The  best  means  of  protecting  fruit  and  shade  trees  deserves  separate 
consideration.  Where  the  trunks  are  smooth  and  perpendicular  they 
may  be  protected  by  whitewashing.  The  lime  crumbles  under  the  feet 
of  the  insects  as  they  attempt  to  elimb,  and  prevents  their  getting  up. 
By  their  persistent  efforts,  however,  they  gradually  wear  off  the  lime  and 
reach  a higher  point  each  day,  so  that  the  whitewashing  must  be  often 


54 


repeated.  Trees  with  short,  rough  trunks,  or  which  lean,  are  not  very 
well  protected  in  this  way.  A strip  of  smooth,  bright  tin  answers  even 
better  for  the  same  purpose.  A strip  3 or  4 inches  wide  brought  around 
and  tacked  to  a smooth  tree  will  protect  it,  while  on  rougher  trees  a 
piece  of  old  rope  may  first  be  tacked  around  the  tree  and  the  tin  tacked 
to  it,  so  as  to  leave  a portion  both  above  and  below.  Passages  between 
the  tin  and  rope,  or  the  rope  and  tree  can  then  be  blocked  by  filling  the 
upper  area  between  tin  and  tree  with  earth.  The  tin  must  be  high  enough 
from  the  ground  to  prevent  the  ’hoppers  from  jumping  from  the  latter 
beyond  it,  and  the  trunk  below  the  tin,  where  the  insects  collect,  should 
be  covered  with  some  coal  tar  or  poisonous  substances  to  prevent  gird- 
ling. This  is  more  especially  necessary  with  small  trees,  and  coal  tar 
will  answer  as  such  preventives. 

One  of  the  cheapest  and  simplest  modes  is  to  encircle  the  tree  with 
cotton  batting,  in  which  the  insects  will  entangle  their  feet  and  thus  be 
more  or  less  obstructed.  Strips  of  paper  covered  with  tar ; stiff  paper 
tied  on  so  as  to  slope  roof-fashion ; strips  of  glazed  wall  paper,  and  thick 
coatings  of  soft  soap,  have  been  used  with  varying  success ; but  no  es- 
toppel equals  the  bright  tin.  The  others  require  constant  watching  and 
removal,  and  in  all  cases  coming  under  our  observation  some  insects 
would  get  into  the  trees,  so  as  to  require  the  daily  shaking  of  these  morn- 
ing and  evening.  This  will  sometimes  have  to  be  done,  when  the  bulk 
of  the  insects  have  become  fledged,  even  where  tin  is  used,  for  a certain 
proportion  of  the  insects  will  then  fly  into  the  trees.  They  do  most 
damage  during  the  night,  and  care  should  be  had  that  the  trees  be  un- 
loaded of  their  voracious  freight  just  before  dark. 

Mr.  George  Gibbs,  of  Holden,  Missouri,  found  that  the  whitewash 
was  rendered  still  more  effectual  by  adding  one-half  pint  of  turpentine 
to  the  pailful. 


DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  WINGED  INSECTS. 

The  complete  destruction  of  the  winged  insects,  when  they  swoop 
down  upon  a country  in  prodigious  swarms,  is  impossible.  Man  is  pow- 
erless before  the  mighty  host.  Special  plants,  or  small  tracts  of  vege- 
tation may  be  saved  by  perseveringly  driving  the  insects  off,  or  keeping 
them  off  by  means  of  smudges,  as  the  locusts  avoid  smoke ; or  by  rat- 
tling or  tinkling  noises  constantly  kept  up.  Long  ropes  perseveringly 
dragged  over  a grain  field  have  been  used  to  good  advantage. 

Of  the  different  contrivances  already  described  for  the  destruction  of 
the  unfledged  locusts,  those  intended  for  bagging  and  catching  are  the 
most  effectual  against  the  winged  individuals,  great  numbers  of  which 
may  be  caught,  especially  at  morn  and  eve,  and  late  in  the  autumn.  At 
such  times  many  may  also  be  crushed.  These  winged  insects  are  more 
to  be  dreaded  in  the  northern  than  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  locust 
area,  for  in  this  last  the  small  grains  are  always  harvested  before  the 
advent  of  the  pests,  and  Indian  corn  is  the  staple  that  suffers.  The  ex- 


55 


perience  of  Minnesota  and  Dakota  farmers  teaches  that  the  injury  from 
the  winged  locusts  is  best  avoided  by  growing  such  crops  as  will  mature 
early.  Keports  were  current  in  1876  in  Texas  that  farmers  near  Calvert 
had  destroyed  great  quantities  of  the  winged  insects  by  fires  lighted  at 
night.  We  had  on  several  occasions  witnessed  swarms  of  locusts  driven 
before  a prairie  fire,  and  our  general  experience  of  locust  habits  at  night 
forbade  belief  in  the  reports,  and  we  requested  one  of  our  correspond- 
ents to  inquire  into  the  matter,  with  the  following  result: 

I took  pains  to  trace  up,  while  in  Texas,  the  report  that  the  spretus  was  attracted 
by  a blaze.  I found  it,  of  course,  baseless,  though  it  had  attained  very  respectable 
proportions. — (J.  T.  Moulton,  jr.) 

Moderate  success  has  been  had  with  smudging  as  a means  of  warding 
off  the  winged  swarms.  The  best  method  is  to  start  a fire  which  burns 
with  insufficient  access  of  air,  and  which  is  made,  if  possible,  of  materials 
which,  while  burning,  will  give  off,  besides  the  dense  smoke  due  to  in- 
complete combustion,  unoxidized  products  of  distillation  which  in  them- 
selves are  noxious  (e.  g .,  buffalo  chips,  straw,  and  coal  tar,  etc.).  The 
smoke  and  fumes  from  such  a fire  will  prevent  the  locusts  from  alighting 
and  swerve  them  from  their  course.  Mr.  S.  T.  Kelsey  succeeded  in  sav- 
ing many  of  his  young  forest  trees  in  Kansas,  in  1874,  by  perseveringly 
smudging  and  smoking  them.  He  gives  his  experience  in  the  following 
words,  in  the  Kansas  Farmer , August  26,  1874: 

At  first  we  tried  building  tires  on  the  ground,  but  it  was  not  successful.  The  smoke 
would  not  go  where  we  wanted  it  to.  We  then  tried  taking  a bunch  of  hay  and  hold- 
ing it  between  sticks,  set  fire  to  it,  and  then,  passing  through  the  field  on  the  wind- 
ward side,  held  it  so  that  the  smoke  would  strike  the  grasshoppers.  We  would  soon 
have  a cloud  of ’hoppers  on  the  wing,  and,  by  following  it  up,  would,  in  a short  time, 
clear  the  field.  We  have  thus  far  saved  everything  that  was  not  destroyed  when  we 
commenced  fighting  them;  and  while  I do  not  give  this  as  an  infallible  remedy,  not 
having  tried  it  sufficiently,  yet  it  does  seem  to  me,  from  what  I have  seen  of  it,  that 
one  good,  active  man.  who  would  attend  right  to  it,  could  protect  a 20-acre  field  or  a 
large  orchard.  But  to  be  successful  one  must  attend  strictly  to  business. 

The  great  difficulty  experienced  in  making  the  smudging  successful 
is  in  the  inconstancy  of  the  winds,  as  a sudden  change  in  wind  direction 
may  render  much  previous  labor  unavailing.  Mr.  W.  D.  Arnett,  of  Bear 
Creek,  Colorado,  who  has  given  a good  deal  of  attention  to  the  practical 
means  to  be  employed  against  locusts,  has  endeavored  to  meet  the  diffi- 
culty by  using  a portable  iron  bucket  as  a fire  receptacle.  A large  sheet- 
iron  bucket  is  fitted  with  a perforated  tube,  arranged  across  its  bottom, 
open  at  one  end  to  admit  air,  and  there  provided  with  a valve  to  regulate 
the  admission  of  air.  A perforated  cover,  hinged  to  the  bucket,  and  a 
handle  to  carry  it  by,  complete  the  arrangement.  Filled  with  some  sub- 
stance which  bums  imperfectly,  such  as  buffalo  chips  and  a little  coal 
tar,  and  with  the  cover  shut,  an  amount  of  air  insufficient  for  complete 
combustion  is  admitted  through  the  valved  tube  at  the  bottom,  and  the 
dense  smoke  comes  out  through  the  holes  in  the  cover. 

Theburning  of  old  bones  has  been  tried,  but  found  to  be  no  more  effect- 


56 


ive  than  other  slow  combustibles.  The  use  of  smoke  will  be  effectual 
in  proportion  as  farmers  combine  together  and  produce  it  simultane- 
ously over  extended  areas. 

DIVERSIFIED  AGRICULTURE. 

There  is  nothing  surer  than  that  the  destitution  in  western  Missouri 
and  eastern  Kausas,  in  1874-’75,  was  fully  as  much  owing  to  the  previ- 
ous ravages  of  the  Chinch  Bug  as  to  those  ot  this  locust.  The  Chinch 
Bug  is  an  annual  aud  increasing  trouble;  the  locust  only  a periodical 
one.  Now,  the  regions  indicated  are,  agriculturally,  the  richest  in  those 
two  states,  and,  for  that  matter,  cau  scarcely  be  surpassed  in  the  entire 
country.  Consisting  of  high,  rolling  prairie,  interspersed,  as  a rule, 
with  an  abundance  of  good  timber,  this  area  produces  a very  large 
amount  of  corn  and  stock.  Of  cultivated  crops,  corn  is  the  staple,  and, 
with  a most  generous  soil,  it  has  become  the  fashion  to  plant  and  culti- 
vate little  else,  year  after  year,  on  the  same  ground.  The  corn-fields 
alternate  more  or  less  with  pastures,  and  there  is  just  enough  small 
grain  to  breed  and  nourish  the  first  brood  of  chinch-bugs  which  pass  into 
the  corn  at  harvest  time  and  which  scatter  over  the  country  by  breed- 
ing and  harboring  in  the  corn-fields.  Not  to  mention  the  different  means 
to  be  employed  in  counteracting  the  ravages  of  this  insect,  a diversified 
agriculture  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  effectual.  It  must  necessa- 
rily follow  that  the  more  extensively  any  given  crop  is  cultivated  to  the 
exclusion  of  other  crops  the  more  will  the  peculiar  insects  which  depre- 
date upon  it  become  unduly  and  injuriously  abundant.  The  chinch- 
bug  is  confined  in  its  depredations  to  the  grasses  and  cereals.  Alternate 
your  timothy,  wheat,  barley,  corn,  etc.,  upon  which  it  flourishes,  with 
any  of  the  numerous  crops  on  which  it  can  not  flourish,  and  you  very 
materially  affect  its  power  for  harm.  A crop  of  corn  or  wheat  grown 
on  a piece  of  land  entirely  free  from  chinch-bugs  will  not  suffer  to  the 
same  extent  as  a crop  grown  on  land  where  the  insects  have  been  breed- 
ing and  harboring.  This  fact  is  becoming  partially  recognized,  and 
already  hemp,  flax,  and  castor-beans  are  to  some  extent  cultivated  in 
the  States  mentioned.  But  there  are  many  other  valuable  roots  and 
forage  plants  that  may  yet  be  introduced  and  grown  as  field  crops. 

Governor  Pillsbury,  of  Minnesota,  has  a few  pertinent  remarks  on  this 
subject  in  one  of  his  annual  messages.  He  says  : 

In  my  former  messages  I took  occasion  to  urge  upon  farmers  a greater  diversification 
of  tlieir  crops.  The  present  tendency,  I fear,  is  toward  an  aggravation  rather  than  a 
correction  of  the  evil  referred  to.  Stimulated  hy  recent  heavy  crops,  land  hunters 
have  a passion  for  immense  tracts  and  great  wheat-farms.  While  the  cultivation  of 
our  idle  lands  is  always  desirable,  this  pursuit  of  a single  branch  of  farming  is  to  be 
lamented.  And  I fear  that  the  expectations  of  great  profits  of  many  inexperienced 
persons  who  are  drawn  into  the  movement  by  excitement  is  doomed  to  disappoint- 
ment. A wiser  course  is  to  look  to  many  sources  of  profit  rather  than  to  one.  There 
is  no  better  country  than  ours  for  the  raising  of  stock.  Our  wool,  beef,  butter,  and 
cheese  are  unsurpassed.  With  the  production  of  these,  wheat-growing  alternates 


57 


admirably  to  the  advantage  of  all  the  products.  The  continuous  cultivation  of  a sin- 
gle crop  must  eventually  exhaust  the  soil  of  the  constituents  for  its  profitable  growth, 
while  it  is  well  known  that  the  finest  wheat  crops  were  raised  the  past  year  on  worn- 
out  and  abandoned  grain-fields  which  had  been  resuscitated  by  a couple  of  years’ rest 
in  grass.  It  seems  almost  culpable  to  import  corn,  hogs,  beans,  and  other  products 
which  can  be  grown  here  to  perfection. 

What  Governor  Pillsbury  says  of  Minnesota  is  equally  true  of  a very 
large  portion  of  the  country  subject  to  locust  injury.  The  advantage 
of  growing  more  stock  is  especially  obvious  in  some  sections,  not  only 
as  a means  of  best  utilizing  the  surplus  corn,  but  to  avoid  sweeping 
disaster;  for  when  the  locusts  are  so  thick  as  to  entirely  sweep  off  cul- 
tivated crops,  the  wild  prairie-grass  is  seldom  so  badly  affected  that  it 
will  not  support  stock. 


LEGISLATION. 

Too  much  stress  can  not  be  laid  on  the  advantage  of  cooperation 
and  concert  of  action,  and  legislation  both  to  induce  and  oblige  action 
is  important.  In  every  community  there  are  those  who  persist  in  doing 
nothing  to  prevent  locust  injury.  These  indifferents  frequently  bring 
ruin  not  only  upon  themselves  but  upon  more  persevering  neighbors, 
and  any  law  will  prove  beneficial  that  w ill  oblige  every  able-bodied  man 
to  work  one  or  more  days,  either  in  the  fall  in  destroying  the  eggs,  or  in 
the  spring  in  killing  the  young  insects,  whenever  the  township  trustees, 
at  the  request  of  a given  number  of  citizens  of  the  township,  may  call 
them  to  such  work  under  special  provisions  similar  to  those  of  existing 
road  laws. 

In  reference  to  bounty  laws,  the  experience  of  Minnesota,  where  they 
were  in  force  in  some  counties  in  1875,  is  valuable,  and  the  State  com- 
missioners did  not  hesitate  to  recommend  the  system  after  the  county 
trials,  imperfect  as  they  were  and  commenced  as  they  were,  in  most 
cases,  too  late  in  the  season.  It  was  clearly  shown  that  in  one  township 
$30,000  worth  of  crops  was  saved  by  an  expenditure  ot  $6,000.  Nicollet 
County  paid  $25,053  for  25,053  bushels  of  locusts,  but  the  price  paid  by 
other  counties  was  higher;  in  fact,  much  too  high.  In  1877  the  bounty 
system  was  less  effective,  and  indeed  proved  more  or  less  a failure. 
“As  a means  of  defense,’7  writes  Mr.  Whitman,  “ it  would  have  proved 
useless  in  some  cases  and  needless  in  others ; as  a matter  of  relief  or 
reimbursement  for  injury  it  would  have  gone  in  a large  measure  to  help 
those  who  are  already  repaid  by  an  abundant  harvest.” 

Governor  Pillsbury,  in  his  annual  message  for  1877,  speaks  of  the 
Minnesota  bounty  law,  published  further  on,  in  the  following  rather 
severe  terms : 

These  acts  were  approved  by  me  with  much  reluctance,  and  not  until  I had  stren- 
uously but  unavailingly  endeavored  to  influence  a correction  in  the  act  first  named 
of  what  I deemed  ill-advised  provisions  of  a serious  character.  Prior  to  any  move- 
ment for  the  practical  operation  of  these  laws,  I received  numerous  statements  from 
authoritative  sources  in  all  quarters  of  the  infested  regions,  remonstrating  against 


58 


the  appointment  of  measurers,  as  contemplated,  on  the  ground  that  owing  to  the 
incalculable  numbers  of  the  insects  the  provision  requiring  the  counties  to  pay  all 
bounties  in  excess  of  the  proposed  State  appropriation  of  $100,000  would  virtually 
bankrupt  the  afflicted  counties.  I therefore  deemed  it  proper  to  defer  action  for  fur- 
ther knowledge  and  consideration.  Finding  upon  calculation  that  an  equal  distri- 
bution of  the  available  fund  would  afford  to  each  inhabitant  of  the  infested  localities 
an  average  of  but  forty  cents,  a sum  too  trifling  in  itself  to  induce  additional  efforts 
for  the  extermination  of  the  pests,  I became  convinced  that  the  enforcement  of  the 
bounty  law  would  entail  upon  counties  already  impoverished  by  insect  ravages  a 
burden  of  debt  which  would  prove  more  disastrous  than  the  scourge  it  was  intended 
to  avert.  I therefore,  against  the  wishes  of  a few  localities,  but  in  compliance  with 
a vast  preponderance  of  petitions  from  the  people  directly  interested,  declined  to 
make  the  appointments  requisite  for  the  practical  operation  of  the  law.  The  decis- 
ion was  justified  by  the  result,  for,  in  the  absence  of  that  concerted  defense  against 
the  insects  by  ditches  and  other  protective  means  dictated  by  experience,  all  efforts 
induced  by  the  proposed  State  and  county  expenditures  combined  would  certainly 
have  been  unavailing,  especially  where  the  destructive  swarms  were  most  dense 
and  where  protection  was  most  needed  from  their  ravages.  The  sum  thus  saved  to 
the  State  remains  intact,  or  rather  the  contemplated  loan  was  not  effected,  the  law 
in  express  terms  specifying  the  exclusive  object  for  which  it  was  to  be  effected. 

A good  law,  once  enacted  and  on  the  statute  book,  may  not  be  called 
into  operation  for  many  years,  but  would  beyond  all  doubt  serve  an 
admirable  purpose  in  the  event  of  a locust  invasion.  The  following  are 
what  we  conceive  should  be  the  essential  features  of  an  efficient  bounty 
law : (1)  The  bounty  should  be  paid  out  of  the  State  treasury  ; or  it  should 
be  graded  and  borne  equally , one-third  by  the  local  townships , one  third  by 
the  county , and  one-third  by  the  State.  (2)  The  bounty  should  be  immedi- 
ately available  to  those  earning  it.  (3)  The  act  should , so  far  as  possible , 
tend  to  the  destruction  of  the  eggs.  (4)  After  the  eggs , the  destruction  of 
the  newly-hatched  locusts  should  be  encouraged  by  the  act.  A bushel  of 
the  newly  hatched  insects  will  contain  thirty  or  more  times  as  many  in- 
dividuals as  will  a bushel  of  the  pupse,  and,  moreover,  their  destruction 
prevents  the  subsequent  injury.  It  would  be  folly  to  pay  60  cents  a 
bushel  for  them  later  in  the  season  when  they  are  nearly  full-grown  and 
have  done  most  of  the  harm  they  are  capable  of  doing.  The  price,  there- 
fore, should  vary  with  the  season ; and  while,  in  latitude  39°,  75  cents  or 
$1  should  be  offered  in  March,  the  price  should  diminish  to  50  cents  in 
April,  25  cents  in  May,  and  10  cents  in  June.  As  the  dates  of  hatch- 
ing vary  with  the  latitude,  so  the  law  should  vary  in  the  matter  of 
dates,  according  to  the  requirements  of  each  particular  State.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  foregoing  requirements  of  such  an  act,  every  precaution 
should  be  taken  to  prevent  fraud  and  dishonesty  in  obtaining  the 
money. 

The  laws  obliging  proper  labor  will  prove  more  beneficial  to  a com- 
munity than  the  bounty  laws,  and  the  labor  is  best  performed,  first  in 
destroying  the  eggs  in  the  fall,  and  next  in  destroying  theyo&ng  insects 
after  the  bulk  of  them  have  hatched  out  in  the  spring. 

In  the  more  thinly  settled  parts  of  the  country  laws  may  be  more  or 
less  ineffectual,  so  far  as  the  general  destruction  of  the  insects  is  con- 


59 


cerned,  though  they  will  even  there  be  one  of  the  best  means  of  relieving 
destitution  ; but  iu  more  thickly  settled  portions  they  will  accomplish 
both  results. 


BRAN-ARSENIC  MASH. 

In  1885,  Mr.  Coquillett  experimented  with  a mash  composed  of  bran 
and  arsenic  on  the  devastating  locust  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  Cali- 
fornia, which  was  so  successful  that  we  quote  his  account  in  full. 

A remedy  that  has  been  very  successful  in  destroying  locusts  consists  of  a certain 
proportion  of  bran,  arsenic,  sugar,  and  water.  These  have  been  used  in  different  pro- 
portions, but  the  one  that  appears  to  give  the  best  results  consists  of  one  part  by 
weight  of  arsenic,  one  of  sugar,  and  six  of  bran,  to  which  is  added  a sufficient  quan- 
tity of  water  to  make  a wet  mash. 

This  preparation  is  usually  prepared  in  washtubs  or  half- barrels.  One  of  these  is 
filled  about  three-fourths  full  of  dry  bran,  and  to  this  is  added  about  5 pounds  of 
arsenic,  which  is  thoroughly  stirred  through  the  bran  with  a spade  or  shovel.  Five 
pounds  of  sugar  is  next  thrown  into  a pail,  which  is  then  filled  with  water  and  the 
sugar  stirred  until  it  is  dissolved,  when  this  sugar  water  is  added  to  the  bran  and 
arsenic  and  the  three  well  stirred,  more  water  is  added  and  the  stirring  continued 
until  every  portion  of  the  mash  becomes  thoroughly  saturated. 

About  a teaspoonful  of  this  mash  is  placed  at  the  root  of  each  tree,  shrub,  or  plant 
infested  with  locusts,  dropping  it  in  the  shade  when  this  can  be  done.  In  the  case 
of  low  shrubs  or  plants  nothing  more  need  be  done,  as  the  locusts  will  find  their  way 
to  the  poison,  but  when  large  trees  are  treated  the  locusts  should  be  jarred  out  of 
them,  or  be  driven  out  with  long  poles. 

I have  known  locusts  to  be  killed  by  eating  some  of  this  mash  that  had  been  put 
out  over  a week  previously.  The  poison  works  very  siowly,  and  when  put  out  early 
in  the  morning  will  show  but  little  effect  upon  the  locusts  until  quite  late  in  the  day. 
A Devastating  Locust  that  I saw  eating  the  mash  at  9 o’clock  in  the  forenoon  was 
still  alive  at  6 in  the  evening,  but  was  dead  when  next  examined  early  the  next 
morning. 

Allowing  a teaspoonful  of  this  mash  to  each  grape  vine  in  the  vineyard — the  vines 
being  7 or  8 feet  apart — this  will  require  about  10  pounds  of  the  dry  bran  (and  arsenic 
and  sugar  in  proportion)  to  each  acre.  The  cost  of  the  material  will  vary,  but  should 
not  exceed  50  cents  for  each  acre  of  grapevines,  including  cost  of  labor  for  mixing 
and  applying  it.  For  orchards  the  cost  will  be  much  less  than  this.  r 

The  addition  of  sugar  to  this  mash  is  merely  for  the  purpose  of  causing  the  arsenic 
to  adhere  to  the  particles  of  bran,  and  not  for  the  purpose  of  in  creasing  its  attractive- 
ness, since  bran  is  more  attractive  to  the  locusts  than  sugar.  This  I have  demon- 
strated to  my  own  satisfaction.  A quantity  of  sugar  was  placed  upon  the  ground 
contiguous  to  an  equal  quantity  of  brau  mash ; when  a locust  came  to  the  sugar  he 
would  eat  a little  of  it,  move  on  a short  distance  and  again  take  a few  bites  of  the 
sugar,  and  continue  in  this  manner  until  he  reached  the  mash,  when  he  would  settle 
down,  eat  his  fill,  and  then  move  off.  The  locusts  which  came  to  the  mash  before 
reaching  the  sugar  would,  almost  without  exception,  eat  their  fill  of  the  mash  and 
then  walk  away,  but  occasionally  one  would  leave  the  mash  and  take  a few  bites  of 
the  sugar,  only  to  return  to  the  mash  again.  None  of  them  eat  their  fill  of  the  sugar, 
but  always  manifested  an  evident  preference  for  the  mash. 

This  mash  was  used  upon  about  300  acres  of  orchard  and  vineyard  on  the  Buhach 
plantation,  and  about  2 weeks  later  scarcely  a living  locust  was  to  be  seen  where 
they  could  have  been  counted  by  the  hundred  or  even  thousands  before  the  poison 
had  been  applied,  the  ground  in  many  places  being  literally  covered  with  the  dead 
bodies  of  the  slain. 


60 


Several  other  parties  also  used  this  poisonous  mash,  and  so  far  as  I was  able  to 
learn,  it  gave  entire  satisfaction  in  every  instance. 

By  exercising  only  ordinary  precautions  there  need  be  no  fear  of  endangering  the 
lives  of  either  man  or  any  of  the  domestic  animals  in  using  this  poisonous  prepara- 
tion. It  should  be  mixed  in  a close  room  to  prevent  the  arsenic  from  being  blown 
about  by  the  wind.  There  is  no  need  of  touching  the  arsenic  or  the  mixture  with  the 
hands,  as  the  mixing  and  distributing  is  accomplished  by  means  of  spades,  shovels, 
wooden  paddles,  etc. 

Of  course  this  mixture  should  not  be  put  out  in  places  where  poultry  or  any  of  the 
domestic  animals  can  gain  access  to  it.  Upon  the  Buhach  plantation  were  four  grey- 
hounds and  several  cats  that  were  allowed  to  roam  about  the  plantation  where  this 
mixture  had  been  put  out  for  the  locusts ; still,  at  the  time  that  I left  the  plantation — 
about  4 weeks  after  the  poisonous  mixture  had  been  put  out — not  one  of  them  had 
been  killed  either  by  eating  of  the  mixture  itself  or  of  the  locusts  that  had  been  poi- 
soned by  it. 

There  were  also  several  barnyard  fowls  upon  this  plantation,  but  not  one  of  them 
was  poisoned  from  having  eaten  locusts  that  may  have  found  their  way  to  the  poul- 
try range  after  having  eaten  of  the  poisonous  mixture.  Mr.  Boynton,  whose  farm 
adjoins  the  Buhach  plantation  on  the  west,  stated  to  me  that  many  of  the  locusts 
which  had  eaten  of  the  poisonous  mixture  would  fall  into  an  irrigating  ditch  that 
flowed  through  his  poultry  yard,  and  many  of  the  locusts  were  thus  carried  within 
the  reach  of  his  fowls ; still  he  was  not  aware  that  any  of  the  latter  had  died  from  the 
effects  of  having  eaten  of  the  poisoned  locusts. 

In  fact,  I did  not  learn  of  a single  instance  where  this  mixture  had  caused  the  death 
of  any  person,  nor  of  any  domestic  animal,  although  it  was  used  very  extensively  in 
many  parts  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley.  Neither  were  the  birds  killed  iu  any  consid- 
erable numbers  from  having  eaten  either  of  the  mixture  itself  or  of  the  locusts  that 
had  been  poisoned  by  it.  During  the  4 weeks  following  the  putting  out  of  this  mix- 
ture upon  about  300  acres  of  the  Buhach  plantation,  I found  only  about  half  a dozen 
dead  birds  that  had  evidently  met  their  death  through  the  agency  of  this  mixture; 
these  consisted  of  three  or  four  meadow  larks,  a bee-bird,  and  a field  sparrow. 

Babbits  and  hares,  or  “jack  rabbits,”  as  they  are  commonly  called,  were  destroyed 
in  large  numbers  by  this  mixture.  After  the  greater  number  of  locusts  upon  the 
Buhach  plantation  had  been  destroyed  the  work  of  extermination  was  carried  into  a 
large  patch  of  wild  sunflowers  adjoining  the  plantation  on  the  north,  and  as  one  of 
the  results,  at  least  two  dozen  hares  paid  the  penalty  with  their  lives. 

The  four  greyhounds  belonging  to  the  plantation  were  among  these  poisoned  hares 
almost  every  day ; still  I never  saw  one  of  them  attempt  to  feed  upon  the  poisoned 
hares;  certain  it  is  that  not  one  of  them  met  his  death  from  this  cause. 

As^he  mixture  is  saturated  with  water  before  it  is  put  among  the  plants  infested 
withlocusts,  there  is  no  danger  of  its  being  blown  about  by  the  wind  ; and  there  is 
also  very  little  danger  of  its  being  deposited  upon  the  fruit  by  the  feet  of  birds  and 
insects  that  may  have  alighted  upon  the  mixture  and  afterwards  flown  to  and 
alighted  upon  the  fruit.  As  the  mixture  becomes  dry  its  particles  adhere  together, 
forming  a solid  mass  which  could  not  be  blown  about  by  the  wind. 

I have  never  seen  this  poisonous  mixture  used  in  grain  fields,  but  know  of  no  reason 
why  it  would  not  prove  very  effectual  in  such  fields.  Great  care  should  be  exercised 
in  using  it  in  alfalfa  fields,  but  if  it  were  placed  upon  small  pieces  of  boards  it  could 
doubtless  be  used  with  entire  safety  in  such  fields ; but  of  course  it  would  not  be  safe 
to  pasture  any  animal  in  such  fields,  even  after  the  poison  had  been  removed. 


61 


EXPLANATION  TO  PLATE  I. 

Fig.  1. — Rocky  Mountain  Locust:  a,  a,  a , female  in  different  positions,  oviposit- 
ing; b,  egg-pod  extracted  from  ground,  with  the  end  broken  open;  c,  a few  eggs 
lying  loose  on  the  ground ; d,  e,  show  the  earth  partially  removed,  to  illustrate  an 
egg-mass  already  in  place  and  one  being  placed  ; /,  shows  where  such  a mass  has 
been  covered  up.  (After  Riley.) 

Fig.  2. — Rocky  Mountain  Locust  : Anal  characters  of  female,  showiug  horny  valves. 
(After  Riley.) 

Fig.  3.— Rocky  Mountain  Locust:  Enlarged  end  of  body  of  female,  showing  the 
method  of  oviposition ; j,  the  oviduct;  g,  the  egg-guide,  and  egg  issuing  from  horny 
valves.  (After  Riley.) 

Fig.  4.— Egg  of  Rocky  Mountain  Locust:  a,  showing  sculpture  of  outer  shell; 
b,  the  same,  very  highly  magnified;  c,  the  inner  shell  just  before  hatching.  (After 
Riley). 

Fig.  5.— Egg-mass  of  Rocky  Mountain  Locust:  a , from  the  side,  within  burrow; 

b,  from  beneath  ; c,  from  above,  enlarged.  (After  Riley.) 

Fig.  6. — The  Drum  Locust-crusher  : Plan  view. 

Fig.  7. — The  Drum  Locust-crusher  : Vertical  section. 

EXPLANATION  TO  PLATE  II. 

Fig.  1.— The  Simpson  Locust-crusher:  Perspective  view. 

Fig.  2. — The  Simpson  Locust-crusher  : Sectional  view. 

Fig.  3. — The  Simpson  Locust- crusher  : Sectional  view,  when  ready  to 
remove  the  insects. 

Fig.  4.— The  Hoos  Locust-crusher  : Top  view. 

Fig.  5. — The  Hoos  Locust  crusher  : Vertical  section. 

EXPLANATION  TO  PLATE  III. 

Fig.  1.— The  Hoos  Locust-crusher:  Side  view. 

Fig.  2. — The  Hansberry  Locust-crusher  : Top  view. 

Fig.  3.— The  Hansberry  Locust-crusher:  Front  view. 

Fig.  4.— The  Hansberry  Locust-crusher  : Sectional  view. 

Fig.  5. — The  Hansberry  Locust-crusher:  Slide  attachment. 

Fig.  6. — The  Kenworthy  Locust-machine:  Plan  view. 

Fig.  7. — The  Kenworthy  Locust-machine  : Side  view. 

EXPLANATION  TO  PLATE  IV. 

Fig.  1.  The  Peteler  Locust- crushing  Machine:  Front  view. 

EXPLANATION  TO  PLATE  V. 

Fig.  1.— The  Peteler  Locust-crushing  Machine  : Side  view. 

Fig.  2. — The  King  Suction  Machine:  Front  view. 

EXPLANATION  TO  PLATE  VI. 

Fig.  1. — The  King  Suction  Machine  : Side  view,  in  operation. 

EXPLANATION  TO  PLATE  VII. 

Fig.  1. — The  Canfield  Coal-oil  Pan  : Perspective  view. 

Fig.  2.— The  Canfield  Coal-oil  Pan  : Longitudinal  view. 

Fig.  3. — The  Adams  Locust-pan. 


62 


EXPLANATION  TO  PLATE  VIII. 

Fig.  1. — The  Price  Oil-pan. 

Fig.  2.— Simple  Coal-oil  Pan. 

Fig.  3. — The  Anderson  Coal-oil  Contrivance. 

EXPLANATION  TO  PLATE  IX. 

Fig.  1. — The  Robbins  Coal-taii  Pan. 

Fig.  2. — The  Flory  Locust-machine  : Front  view,  in  operation. 
Fig.  3. — The  Flory  Locust-machine  : Side  view  of  frame. 

EXPLANATION  TO  PLATE  X 

Fig.  1. — The  Riley  Locust-catcher. 

EXPLANATION  TO  PLATE  XI. 

Fig.  1. — The  Wilson-Rhode  Locust-catcher:  Side  view. 

Fig.  2. — The  Wilson-Rhode  Locust-catcher  : Top  view. 

Fig.  3.— The  Godard  Locust-catcher  : Plan  view. 

Fig.  4. — The  Godard  Locust-catcher  : Vertical  section. 

Fig.  5.— The  Godard  Locust-catcher:  End  view  of  frame. 

Fig.  6. — The  Benson  Locust-catcher  : Plan  view. 

Fig.  7.— The  Benson  Locust-catcher:  Vertical  section. 

EXPLANATION  TO  PLATE  XII. 

Fig.  1.— The  Hutchins  Locust-catcher  : Top  view. 

Fig.  2. — The  Hutchins  Locust-catcher  : Sectional  view. 

Fig.  3.— The  Sylvester  Locust-catcher. 


Bulletin  25,  Division  of  Entomology. 


PLATE  I. 


Fig.  5. 


Bulletin  25,  Division  of  Entomology. 


Plate  II. 


-OC 


Bulletin  25,  Division  of  Entomology. 


Plate  III. 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  6. 


MM 

i 


* _ zn 

ji 

- 

s ° 4 

:5 

£ 

. — i. 

pm 

llllll  C 

iiHi 

IB  f 

Fig.  3. 


d. 

Fig.  4. 


Fig.  8. 


I 


Fig.  1. 


Bulletin  25,  Division  of  Entomology. 


PLATE  IV. 


Bulletin  25,  Division  of  Entomology. 


Plate  V, 


Bulletin  25,  Division  of  Entomology. 


Plate  VII 


5 


Bulletin  25  Division  of  Entomology. 


Plate  VIII, 


Plate  IX 


Bulletin  25,  Division  of  Entomology. 

r 


Fig. 


Bulletin  25,  Division  of  Entomology. 


HLATE  X, 


Bulletin  25,  Division  of  Entomology. 


Plate  XI 


Fig.  6. 


Fig.  r. 


mum 


Bulletin  25,  Division  of  Entomology. 


Plate  XII 


■rl  IrZr-j^. 


Fig:  1. 


I 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

DIVISION  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Bulletin  No.  26. 


REPORTS 


OF 


OBSERVATIONS  AND  EXPERIMENTS 


IN 


THE  PRACTICAL  WORK  OF  THE  DIVISION, 


UNDER  THE  DIRECTION  OF  THE  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


(PUBLISHED  BY  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE.) 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 

1892. 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

DIVISION  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Bulletin  No.  26. 


REPORTS 


OF 


OBSERVATIONS  AND  EXPERIMENTS 


THE  PRACTICAL  WORK  OF  THE  DIVISION, 


MADE 


UNDER  THE  DIRECTION  OF  THE  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


(PUBLISHED  BY  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE.) 


WASHINGTON: 


GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 

1892. 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Letter  of  Transmittal 5 

Introduction 7 

Report  upon  Insect  Depredations  in  Nebraska Lawrence  Bruner ..  9 

Report  on  the  Scale-insects  of  California I).  W.  Coquillett..  13 

Entomological  Notes  for  the  Season  of  1891 Mary  F.  Murtfeldt..  36 

Report  of  Progress  in  the  Investigation  of  the  Cotton  boll 

Worm F.  W.Mally..  45 

Insects  of  the  Season  in  Iowa Herbert  Osborn . . 57 

Report  of  Entomological  Work  of  the  Season  of  1891 . . F.  M.  Webster..  63 

Report  upon  the  Gypsy  Moth  in  Massachusetts Samuel  Henshaiv..  75 

Report  of  Apicultural  Experiments  in  1891 A.  J.  Cook..  83 

3 


^ Q,  Wo 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Division  of  Entomology, 
Washington , 1).  G January  3 , 1892. 

Sir:  I have  tlie  lionor  to  submit  for  publication  Bulletin  No.  26  of 
this  Division.  It  comprises  tlie  reports  of  tlie  field  agents  of  tlie  Divi- 
sion for  the  past  year  (1891),  a summary  of  which  has  been  included  in 
your  annual  report. 

Respectfully, 

C.  V.  Riley, 

Entomologist. 


Hon.  J.  M.  Rusk, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture . 


6 


REPORTS  OF  OBSERVATIONS  AND  EXPERIMENTS  IN  THE  PRACTICAL 
WORK  OF  THE  DIVISION. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Mr.  Albert  Koebele,  the  agent  of  the  Division  at  Alameda,  Cal.,  was 
sent  to  New  Zealand  and  Australia  early  in  August,  and  much  of  his 
time  for  a month  or  so  previous  to  his  departure  was  taken  up  with 
preparations  for  the  journey.  The  course  of  experiments  assigned  to 
him  was  therefore  interrupted,  and  there  is  no  formal  report  from  him 
the  present  season.  The  reports  of  the  other  agents  are  included  in 
this  Bulletiu,  including  a report  of  the  season’s  observations  upon  the 
Boll  Worm  by  Mr.  Mally.  These  reports  are  little  more  than  summaries 
of  the  work  performed  by  each  of  these  agents.  Special  investigations 
have,  from  time  to  time,  been  assigned  to  them  and  upon  matters  of 
immediate  importance  reports  have  been  received  at  different  times 
through  the  year  and  summarized  in  short  articles  in  Insect  Life. 

Mr.  Bruner’s  report  includes  only  a brief  account  of  the  injurious  in- 
sects which  have  been  most  prominent  during  the  year  in  Nebraska. 
The  greater  portion  of  his  time  was  devoted  to  the  investigation  of 
destructive  locusts,  a full  account  of  which  will  be  published  in  Bulle- 
tin No.  27. 

Mr.  Coquillett  gives  a full  account  of  his  work  upon  California  scale- 
insects,  and  includes  many  new  facts  and  the  results  of  a number  of 
important  experiments.  His  report  upon  the  work  of  the  destructive 
locusts  of  California  during  1891  will  also  be  published  in  Bulletin 
No.  27. 

Miss  Mary  E.  Murtfeldt  gives  in  her  report  her  usual  summary  of  the 
injurious  insects  of  the  season  in  Missouri  and  of  experiments  with  in- 
secticides. 

Prof.  Osborn,  in  addition  to  a report  upon  the  destructive  locusts  of 
Kansas,  has  submitted  a report  upon  the  insects  of  the  season  in  Iowa, 
and  includes  with  this  an  account  of  some  successful  trials  with  a sin- 


7 


8 

gle  coal-oil  pan  against  leaf-hoppers  and  young  locusts,  and  other  in- 
sects injurious  to  pastures. 

Mr.  F.  M.  Webster  reported  last  year  upon  the  development  of  the 
Hessian  Fly,  indicating  the  desirability  of  late  sowing  as  a means  of 
lessening  the  fall  attack.  He  has  found  the  present  season  that  where 
this  late  sowing  is  practiced  a procrastination  in  preparing  the  ground 
for  seeding  leads  to  the  development  of  other  injurious  insects,  viz,  the 
larvae  of  certain  Crane-flies  upon  which  he  reports  this  year  in  full. 
He  recommends  plowing  in  the  latter  part  of  August  or  the  early  part 
of  September,  and  refraining  from  seeding  until  later. 

Prof.  A.  J.  Cook,  who  was  temporarily  in  charge  of  the  experiments 
in  Apiculture,  reports  upon  a series  of  investigations  which  he  car- 
ried out  during  the  season  with  the  help  of  Mr.  J.  H.  Larrabee. 

Mr.  Samuel  Henshaw  has  been  engaged  chiefly  in  work  on  the  bibli- 
ography of  economic  entomology,  but  was  requested  to  make  some 
observations  on  the  Gypsy  Moth,  and  the  report  on  that  insect  and  on 
the  work  being  done  against  it  by  the  State  of  Massachusetts  is  also 
included. 

c.  v.  b. 


REPOET  UPON  INSECT  DEPREDATIONS  IN  NEBRASKA 

FOR  1891. 


By  Lawrence  Bruner,  Special  Agent. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 

Lincoln,  Nebr.,  October  11 , 1891. 

Sir  : In  accordance  with  past  custom  I submit  herewith  a report  upon  the  results 
of  my  labors  as  special  field  agent  for  Nebraska,  engaged  in  the  studies  of  life-his- 
tories and  habits  of  insects  related  to  agriculture  during  the  past  summer.  In  pre- 
senting this  report  I am  pleased  to  be  able  to  record  a season  of  comparative  free- 
dom from  the  ravages  of  most  of  our  common  insect  pests,  but  wish  that  it  might 
have  been  even  better  in  this  respect  than  it  has,  for  during  years  when  insect  depre- 
dations are  comparatively  light  and  scarcely  noticeable  it  is  safe  to  say  that  fully  as 
much  as  one-tenth  to  one-eighth  of  the  entire  production  of  a country  is  thus  de- 
stroyed. 

While  we  have  had  comparative  immunity  from  insect  ravages  here  in  Nebraska, 
it  has  not  been  so  in  some  other  States.  Even  here  we  have  been  obliged  to  recog- 
nize a few  species  as  being  more  than  ordinarily  abundant  and  destructive.  These 
will  be  mentioned  briefly  in  the  following  pages. 

Very  respectfully  yours, 

Lawrence  Bruner. 

C.  Y.  Riley, 

U.  S.  Entomologist. 


The  present  summer  has  been  an  extraordinary  one  for  Nebraska  as 
far  as  its  agricultural  interests  are  concerned.  We  have  had  abundant 
crops  of  nearly  every  one  of  our  staple  products,  and  our  climatic  condi- 
tions have  been  such  as  to  indicate  even  better  results  for  next  year. 
But  few  insect  enemies  appeared  in  destructive  numbers,  and  these  few 
only  in  limited  areas.  Some  of  these  are  mentioned  below,  along  with 
a few  notes  on  their  occurrence  and  habits. 

MISCELLANEOUS  INSECTS. 

The  Corn -root  Worm,  Diabrotica  longicornis , appears  to  be  alarmingly 
on  the  increase  over  many  of  the  eastern  counties  of  the  State.  During 
the  past  summer  it  has  been  reported  from  a number  of  new  localities, 
and  has  been  noted  as  especially  numerous  in  some  of  the  counties 

9 


10 


along  tlie  Elkliorn  Eiver.  Everywhere  that  it  has  been  reported  as 
uncommonly  destructive  investigations  reveal  the  fact  that  rotation  in 
crops  is  not  practiced,  but  that  corn  is  planted  year  after  year  upon 
the  same  grounds.  This  fact  alone  would  account  for  its  increase  and 
spread,  as  has  been  demonstrated  by  repeated  exjmriments  by  different 
entomologists  as  well  as  by  farmers  themselves.  It  had  been  my  inten- 
tion during  the  past  summer  to  make  special  efforts  to  ascertain  whether 
or  not  this  insect  had  other  food  plants  in  this  region,  but  my  absence 
from  home  for  the  greater  part  of  the  time  when  this  would  have  been 
under  way  made  this  investigation  impossible,  and  it  must  be  under- 
taken next  year. 

The  Green-striped  Maple  Worm. — This  insect  continues  to  strip  our 
silver  maples  of  their  leaves  in  the  cities  and  towns  of  the  State.  Usu- 
ally the  spring  brood  does  not  appear  in  sufficient  numbers  to  entirely 
defoliate  the  trees;  but,  as  a rule,  the  next  brood  is  numerous  enough 
to  do  this.  Thus  far  it  has  been  my  experience  that  it  is  next  to  impos- 
sible to  induce  the  owners  of  property  to  do  anything  toward  protect- 
ing their  shade  trees  from  the  injuries  of  this  and  other  insect  enemies. 
They  will  do  everything  but  the  right  thing,  even  to  bandaging  them 
with  cotton  (medicated)  as  a protection  againt  this  and  similar  moths. 
As  matters  appear  at  present  we  will  have  an  abundant  crop  of  Maple 
Worms  in  this  part  of  the  country  next  year  again;  also  a number  of 
bared  trees  along  the  streets  to  advertise  the  ignorance  of  our  people 
as  to  the  life-history  of  this  insect. 

Lyda  sp. — During  the  month  of  June  specimens  of  the  larvae  of  some 
species  of  sawfly,  belonging  to  the  genus  Lyda,  were  received  from  a 
number  of  correspondents  residing  in  various  portions  of  central  Ne- 
braska. These  u slugs  ” were  said  to  completely  defoliate  the  wild  plum 
trees  of  the  respective  localities  from  which  the  reports  and  specimens 
came.  None  of  the  mature  insects  were  reared  or  received,  hence  I 
can  not  say  to  which  species  they  belonged. 

The  Gooseberry  Span-ivorm. — This  insect  attracted  especial  attention 
during  the  year.  The  larvae  of  this  moth  appeared  in  great  numbers 
in  portions  of  some  of  the  newer  settled  regions  to  the  north  and  west 
of  here,  where  in  many  cases  they  completely  defoliated  currant  and 
gooseberry  bushes.  Over  the  older  settled  portions  of  the  State,  how- 
ever, they  were  not  reported  at  all.  This  fact  is  probably  due  to  the 
presence  of  insectivorous  birds  and  parasitic  insects  in  greater  num- 
bers where  the  country  has  been  settled  for  a longer  time.  Such  is 
evidently  the  reason  for  having  most  of  my  inquiries  come  from  the 
newer  settled  districts. 

SUGAR  BEET  INSECTS. 

A study  of  the  insect  enemies  of  the  Sugar  Beet  has  been  continued 
throughout  the  spring  and  summer,  with  the  results  of  adding  several 
species  to  the  list  as  published  last  year.  Beyond  these  additions  no 


11 


new  facts  of  importance  have  come  to  light;  nor  do  I find  it  neces- 
sary to  change  my  recommendations  of  the  use  of  kerosene  emulsion 
and  the  arsenical  sprays  as  remedies  against  the  attacks  of  insects 
upon  this  plant. 

Monoxia  guttulata  Lee. — This  leaf-beetle  has  been  sent  to  me  from 
the  Oregon  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  by  Prof.  F.  L.  Washburn, 
who  reports  it  as  very  injurious  to  the  Sugar  Beet  in  the  State  of  Ore- 
gon. He  also  stated  that  he  had  found  three  teaspoonfuls  of  Paris 
green  in  4 gallons  of  water,  in  which  4 ounces  of  whale  oil  and  soft  soap 
had  been  dissolved,  to  be  an  effective  remedy  without  injuring  the  foli- 
age. He  suggests  that  probably  the  poison  would  have  been  equally 
effective  without  the  whale  oil  and  soaj). 

Prof.  Washburn  also  reports  that  he  has  taken  Hippodamia  convergent 
and  Diabrotica  vittata  feeding  on  the  leaves  of  the  Sugar  Beet  in  his 
State.  The  latter  insect  has  also  been  taken  here  in  Nebraska  during 
the  present  year  while  feeding  on  leaves  of  both  the  ordinary  and 
the  Sugar  Beet.  Diabrotica  longicornis  has  also  been  collected  upon 
this  plant  two  or  three  times  here  at  Lincoln.  Whether  or  not  it  feeds 
upon  the  beet,  I can  not  say  at  present,  since  the  matter  has  not  been 
verified  by  actual  observation. 

Cutworms . — In  the  early  part  of  the  season  the  larvae  of  several  of 
these  insects  were  very  plentiful  upon  the  experimental  farm  here  at 
Lincoln,  where  they  almost  destroyed  the  entire  crop  of  Sugar  Beets 
growing  upon  two  of  the  plats.  One  noticeable  fact  in  this  connection 
was  that  where  there  had  been  fall  plowing  and  plowing  again  this  year 
but  few  of  the  worms  were  present  and  consequently  little  injury  was 
done  to  the  beets  growing  on  such  portions  of  the  field. 

CABBAGE  INSECTS. 

Cabbage  Butterflies. — These  insects  were  not  especially  numerous  over 
the  State  during  the  year,  but  are  referred  to  here  simply  because  1 
wish  to  call  attention  to  a reported  “new”  remedy  against  them.  To 
say  the  least,  it  is  unique  as  well  as  simple,  if  it  proves  as  effectual 
as  is  claimed  for  it.  This  remedy  was  brought  to  my  notice  about  two 
weeks  ago  (September  29)  while  at  West  Point,  my  old  home,  on  busi- 
ness connected  with  my  work  for  the  Division  of  Entomology.  The 
remedy  is  simply  this:  The  cabbage  plants  are  sprinkled  with  ordi- 
nary corn  meal  while  they  are  wet  with  dew  or  immediately  after  a rain 
so  the  meal  will  cling  to  the  leaves  at  all  points.  My  informant  cer- 
tainly had  nice  cabbages  that  were  free  from  worms,  and  all  he  had  done 
in  the  way  of  a preventive  or  remedy  was  to  use  this  corn  meal  as  above 
directed  or  explained.  He  claimed  that  in  a few  days  after  sprinkling 
on  the  meal  all  the  worms  would  be  found  dead  and  turned  black,  cling- 
ing to  the  leaves  of  the  plants.  Several  cabbages  that  had  purposely 
been  left  untreated  were  rather  full  of  the  caterpillars  of  different  sizes. 
In  order  to  test  the  corn -meal  remedy  for  myself  I treated  these.  On 


12 


the  10th  of  October  I received  the  cabbages  thus  treated  by  express 
just  as  they  were  when  cut  from  the  roots.  The  accompanying  letter 
reads  as  follows : 

The  worms  seem  to  become  torpid  at  first — at  least  inactive,  and  then  seem  to  dry  up. 
How  the  meal  acts  on  the  worms  I can  not  say.  Can  not  say  whether  they  eat  it  by 
itself  or  whether  it  gets  mixed  up  with  the  leaves  they  eat,  or  whether  the  meal  that 
gets  on  them,  by  adhering  to  them,  acts  like  poison  on  them.  The  meal  does  not  seem 
to  do  any  good  unless  there  is  a heavy  dew  on  the  cabbages  and  it  will  adhere  well. 
Perhaps  they  get  killed  by  the  meal  getting  on  them  while  the  dew  is  on  them.  But 
I think  not. 

When  the  cabbages  were  received  by  me  the  worms  were  dead  and 
partly  dried  up,  just  as  they  had  been  described  to  me.  I do  not  know 
what  to  think  of  the  matter,  and  give  the  facts  as  they  appear  here. 

Eleodes  tricost ata. — A cabbage  pest  in  the  shape  of  a rather  active, 
cylindrical,  grayish-brown  Coleopterous  larva  was  noted  for  the  first 
time  during  the  past  spring  here  at  Lincoln.  In  some  of  our  market 
gardens  this  larva  did  even  more  injury  than  was  committed  by  the 
various  cutworms  that  were  quite  plentiful  and  against  which  we  are 
obliged  to  contend  every  spring.  This  larva  not  only  attacked  cab- 
bages, but  also  showed  a decided  inclination  to  feed  upon  various  other 
products  of  the  garden.  It  was  also  found  to  be  a general  feeder  both 
upon  the  prairies  and  in  the  fields  where  it  even  attacked  the  weeds. 
By  placing  specimens  of  nearly  full-grown  larvae  into  a breeding  cage 
it  was  a surprise  to  me  when  i found  that  from  them  developed  the 
common  Eleodes  tricostata.  This  insect  appears  to  be  greatly  on  the 
increase  here  in  Nebraska,  and  especially  does  it  seem  to  be  increasing 
over  the  settled  portions. 

While  speaking  of  this  beetle,  it  might  be  well  to  record  the  fact  that 
I have  very  frequently  observed  attached  to  the  elytra  of  tricostata  and 
opaca  the  eggs  of  some  Tachina  fly.  In  several  instances  as  many  as 
three  or  four  of  such  eggs  were  observed  upon  the  back  of  a single 
beetle.  No  effort  has  been  made  by  me  to  rear  these  Tachinids,  nor 
even  to  ascertain  whether  or  not  the  eggs  had  hatched,  and,  if  so, 
whether  or  not  the  young  maggots  had  succeeded  in  entering  the  bodies 
of  the  beetles. 


REPORT  OK  THE  SCALE  INSECTS  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


By  D.  W.  Coquillett. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 


Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  October  17, 1891. 

Sir  : I herewith  submit  my  annual  report  for  the  year  1891,  consisting  of  notes  on 
the  principal  kinds  of  scale-insects  found  in  this  State,  together  with  the  remedies 
employed  for  their  destruction. 

The  Fluted  or  Cottony-cushion  Scale  (leery a jmrehasi  Mask.)  has  been  kept  in 
subjection  by  the  Australian  Ladybird  ( Vedalia  cardinalis  Muls.)  iirst  imported  into 
southern  California  by  this  Division  under  your  direction.  The  propagating  houses 
erected  at  San  Gabriel  by  our  State  Board  of  Horticulture  at  the  suggestion  of  its 
president,  and  especially  intended  to  preserve  these  Ladybirds  from  being  destroyed 
by  the  inclement  weather  of  the  winter  season,  were  not  stocked  with  the  lady- 
birds until  nearly  half  of  the  winter  season  had  passed  by ; from  these  houses  a great 
many  colonies  of  these  useful  insects  were  distributed  to  various  parts  of  the  State 
during  the  first  half  of  the  year,  but  none  are  in  either  of  the  houses  at  the  present 
time  and  I am  informed  that  none  will  be  on  hand  for  distribution  before  next  March. 
Fortunately,  however,  Mr.  A.  F.  Kercheval,  of  this  city,  formerly  the  President  ol 
our  County  Board  of  Horticulture,  infested  with  the  Iceryas  a large  patch  of  nettles 
growing  in  the  hills,  several  miles  from  any  cultivated  orchard,  and  later,  after  the 
Iceryas  had  become  very  numerous  upon  these  nettles,  he  introduced  a uurnber  of 
the  ladybirds  among  them,  so  that  at  the  present  time  these  ladybirds  can  be  ob- 
tained from  this  source  in  sufiicent  numbers  to  meet  all  local  demands.  In  accord- 
ance with  your  instructions  I had  a tent  erected  over  an  orange  tree  in  this  city  for 
the  purpose  of  breeding  a sufficient  number  of  Iceryas  to  serve  as  food  for  the  Lady- 
birds intended  to  be  sent  to  foreign  countries,  since  I have  heretofore  found  it  quite 
impossible  to  obtain  sufficient  of  these  for  this  purpose  from  other  sources. 

Respectfully  yours, 

D.  W.  Coquillett. 


Prof.  C.  V.  Riley, 

TJ.  S.  Entomologist. 


NOTES  ON  SCALE  INSECTS. 

In  this  State  there  is  no  class  of  insects  more  destructive  to  fruit 
trees  than  those  commonly  known  as  scale  insects.  Other  insects  may 
occasionally  strip  the  tree  of  its  leaves  or  rob  it  of  its  fruit,  but  none 
appear  over  such  wide  areas  and  cause  such  widespread  destruction  to 
the  trees  themselves  as  do  these  insidious,  highly  destructive  pests. 
Up  to  the  present  time  but  little  has  been  written  upon  the  habits  and 

13 


14 


early  stages  of  these  insects.  A few  observations  of  this  nature  are 
given  in  the  Annual  Report  of  this  Department  for  the  year  1880,  fur- 
nished by  the  former  Entomologist,  who  spent  a few  weeks  in  this  State 
during  the  year  above  mentioned.  The  habits  and  natural  history 
of  the  Fluted  or  Cottony  Scale  ( Icerya  purchasi  Mask.)  have  been 
thoroughly  studied  out  and  a complete  account  has  been  published  by 
Prof.  Riley  in  the  former  reports  and  bulletins  of  this  Department.  I 
have  nothing  new  to  add  to  what  has  already  been  written  and  pub- 
lished in  regard  to  this  pest. 

The  following  notes  upon  various  kinds  of  scale-insects  occurring  in 
this  State  were  taken  by  the  writer  during  a residence  of  about  eight 
years  in  various  parts  of  the  State,  and,  although  of  a fragmentary 
nature,  will  still  throw  some  light  upon  the  habits  and  early  stages  of 
these  pests.  To  these  notes  I have  added  my  experience  with  various 
remedies  employed  for  the  destruction  of  these  insects. 

The  Red  Scale. 

(Aspidiotus  aurantii  Mask.) 

This  at  the  present  time  is  the  most  injurious  scale-insect  that  our 
growers  of  citrus  fruits  have  to  contend  with.  As  near  as  I have  been 
able  to  learn  it  was  first  introduced  into  this  State  in  the  year  1879,* 
upon  lemon  trees  brought  from  Australia  and  planted  in  one  of  the 
orange  groves  of  this  city.  Mr.  Alexander  Craw,  who  formerly  had 
charge  of  a large  orange  and  lemon  grove  almost  adjoining  the  one  in 
which  these  infested  trees  were  planted,  informed  me  that  when  he  first 
saw  the  Red  Scales  upon  these  imported  trees  he  feared  that  they  would 
prove  to  be  a great  pest,  and  expressed  his  fears  to  the  owner  of  the 
trees,  advising  him  to  destroy  the  infested  trees  with  fire.  This  he 
promised  to  do,  but  shortly  afterward  was  taken  sick  and  died,  and 
the  property  passed  into  the  hands  of  an  administrator,  who  claimed 
that  he  had  no  legal  right  to  destroy  any  of  the  property  placed  in  his 
care,  and  therefore  the  infested  trees  were  allowed  to  stand  and  the 
scale  spread  from  them  to  the  adjoining  groves  until  it  was  found  im- 
possible to  eradicate  them. 

At  about  the  same  time  that  these  infested  trees  were  brought  to 
Los  Angeles  others  from  the  same  locality,  and  like  them  also  infested 
with  the  Red  Scale,  were  taken  to  Orange  and  planted  in  one  of  the 
groves  there;  and  from  these  trees  almost  every  citrus  grove  in  that 
locality  became  infested  with  these  pests. 

The  number  of  broods  that  this  species  produces  in  one  season  is  not 
definitely  known,  and  doubtless  varies  with  the  character  of  the  sea- 
son, hot  weather  accelerating  their  development,  while  cool  weather 
retards  it.  From  observation  which  I have  made  it  is  quite  evident 
that  in  ordinary  seasons  at  least  four  generations  are  produced  in  one 

* Facts  which  we  have  not  space  to  detail  here  make  it  tolerably  certain  that  the 
Red  Scale  was  introduced  at  least  several  years  prior  to  this  date. — C.  V.  R. 


15 


year.  The  adult  female  deposits  eggs,  but  these  are  in  such  advanced 
stage  of  development  that  they  usually  hatch  out  within  twenty-four 
hours  after  being  deposited.  I find  by  reference  to  my  note  book  that 
on  the  28tli  of  May,  at  4 o’clock  in  the  afternoon,  I found  beneath  an 
adult  female  of  this  species  one  recently  hatched  young  scale-insect  and 
two  eggs,  all  of  them  being  of  a pale  yellow  color  5 one  of  these  eggs 
hatched  out  a few  hours  after  I found  it  and  the  other  hatched  out  the 
day  following  its  discovery.  The  young  scale-insect  from  the  last-men- 
tioned egg  had  formed  a thin  white  scale  over  it  by  8 o’clock  the  next 
morning,  the  scale  being  regularly  hemispherical  in  shape.  This  spe- 
cies evidently  breeds  during  every  month  of  the  year.  I have  found 
adult  males  early  in  the  month  of  March  and  as  late  as  October.  Early 
in  March  I have  seen  the  young  scale-insects  crawling  about,  and  by 
the  latter  part  of  July  adult  females  maybe  found  upon  the  green  fruit, 
which  usually  sets  in  February  or  March.  The  greatest  increase,  how- 
ever, occurs  during  the  three  months  of  July,  August,  and  September. 

While  the  Bed  Scale  prefers  citrus  trees  to  all  others,  and  probably 
could  not  maintain  itself  for  a succession  of  years  upon  any  other  kind 
of  tree  or  plant,  still  I have  frequently  found  adults  of  this  species 
upon  the  following  plants  growing  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  infested 
citrus  trees : 


Castor  Bean, 

Kennedya  rubicunda , 
Passion  Flower, 

Fuchsia, 

Solarium  douglasii , 

Bidens  sp., 

Solidago  californica , 
and  various  other  weeds. 


English  Walnut, 

Eucalyptus, 

Acacia, 

Pear, 

Bose, 

Camphor  Tree, 

Grape, 

California  Palm, 

Date  Palin, 

On  one  occasion  I saw  a young  English  walnut  tree  the  bark  of  which 
was  as  thickly  infested  with  Bed  Scales  as  any  citrus  tree  could  be;  it 
was  growing  only  a few  yards  from  several  orange  trees  on  which  these 
scales  were  extremely  abundant. 

Among  the  insect  enemies  of  the  Bed  Scale  the  Twice- stabbed  Lady- 
bird ( Ghilocorus  bivulnerus  Mills.)  is  perhaps  the  most  common  and 
widespread;  I have  repeatedly  seen  the  larva  of  this  ladybird  tear  off 
the  upper  scale  and  feed  upon  the  scale  insect  itself,  and  in  some  in- 
stances fully  one-half  of  the  scales  on  several  of  the  oranges  and  lem- 
ons had  been  destroyed  by  these  larvrn.  For  some  reason,  at  present 
unknown,  this  ladybird  never  becomes  sufficiently  numerous  to  keep 
these  scale-insects  within  due  limits,  even  in  restricted  localities.  About 
one  year  ago  Mr.  A.  Kercheval,  of  this  city,  at  that  time  president  of 
the  Los  Angeles  County  Board  of  Horticulture,  inclosed  in  a tent  one 
of  his  orange  trees  quite  thickly  infested  with  the  Bed  Scale,  and  then 
introduced  into  this  tent  a large  number  of  these  ladybirds,  for  the 


16 


purpose  of  ascertaining  if  they  were  capable  of  freeing  this  one  tree  of 
the  Keel  Scales ; but  after  waiting  several  months  he  found  that  the 
ladybirds  had  not  made  any  appreciable  headway  against  the  Scales, 
the  latter  being  quite  as  numerous  as  they  were  at  the  time  the  lady- 
birds were  first  confined  in  the  tent  with  them. 

In  the  early  part  of  May,  1890,  I found  two  of  these  ladybirds  to 
the  underside  of  whose  bodies  was  attached  a fungus  growth  of  a yel 
lowish  color  and  very  noticeable  even  to  the  naked  eye.  These  speci- 
mens were  submitted  to  Dr.  Koland  Thaxter,  the  Mycologist  of  the 
Connecticut  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  who  has  made  a special 
study  of  these  low  forms  of  plant  life,  and  he  ascertained  that  this 
yellowish  fungus  belonged  to  a new  genus  and  species  which  he  has 
since  characterized  under  the  name  of  Hesperomyces  virescens.  It  is  not 
probable  that  this  fungus  would  ultimately  have  caused  the  death  of 
the  Ladybirds,  since  Dr.  Thaxter  writes  as  follows  concerning  the 
members  of  the  group  to  which  it  belongs: 

The  Lahoulbeniaceae  constitute  a small  group  of  very  peculiar  and  minute  forms 
which  have  been  placed  by  De  Bary  among  the  doubtful  Ascomycetes.  Their  para- 
sitism is  an  external  one,  which  apparently  results  in  little,  if  any,  inconvenience 
to  the  host,  each  individual  being  fixed  by  a pedicellate  attachment  to  the  legs, 
thorax,  or  other  portion  of  the  affected  insect.  (Memoirs  Boston  Society  Natural 
History,  Vol.  iv,  p.  135.) 

Another  ladybird  whose  larva  I have  found  feeding  upon  the  Red 
Scale  is  an  undetermined  species  of  Scymnus,  closely  related  to  Scym- 
nus  marginicollis  Mann.,  but  having  a distinct  metallic,  somewhat 
brassy  tinge  upon  the  wing  cases.  This  ladybird  measures  less  than 
qn  eighth  of  an  inch  in  length*,  the  head  and  thorax  are  of  a light  red- 
dish color,  the  wing  cases  black,  with  a slight  brassy  tinge  and  thickly 
covered  with  rather  short,  light-colored  hairs.  Its  larva  has  never 
been  described  so  far  as  I am  aware.  It  is  of  the  same  general  form  as 
the  other  ladybird  larvm,  being  broadest  at  the  middle  and  someAvhat 
tapering  toward  each  end.  The  color  varies  from  a brownish  gray  to 
olive  brown,  and  in  the  younger  individuals  even  to  a blackish  brown. 
In  the  middle  of  the  back  on  segments  from  4 to  7 is  a lighter, 
somewhat  pinkish  stripe,  darkest  in  the  middle,  and  on  the  front  part 
of  segment  4 it  is  encroached  upon  by  the  dark  ground  color.  There 
is  sometimes  a whitish  stripe  on  each  side  of  segments  2 and  3. 
Low  down  on  each  side  of  the  body  are  two  rows  of  black  warts  sit- 
uated on  whitish  spots,  each  wart  giving  forth  a cluster  of  several  short 
whitish  bristles.  On  the  back  are  two  rows  of  similar  but  much  smaller 
warts,  those  on  segments  4 to  7 being  light-colored.  The  head  is 
brownish  gray,  with  the  sides  more  blackish.  The  full-grown  larva 
measures  about  one-seventh  of  an  inch  in  length.  When  about  to  as- 
sume the  pupa  form  it  attaches  the  posterior  extremity  of  its  body  to 
some  convenient  object  and  after  a short  time  the  skin  splits  open  at 
the  front  end  and  is  gradually  worked  backwards  until  it  covers  only 


17 


the  last  one  or  two  segments  of  the  abdomen,  where  it  is  allowed  to 
remain.  The  pupa  is  of  the  usual  form  and  of  a very  pale  yellow  color, 
except  that  the  back  and  under  side  of  the  abdomen  is  tinged  with 
orange  yellow.  The  entire  pupa  is  thinly  covered  with  short  light  yel- 
lowish hairs.  It  measures  about  one-ninth  of  an  inch  in  length.  One 
of  these  larva  assumed  the  pupa  form  on  the  14tli  of  July  and  was 
changed  to  a beetle  six  days  later. 

I have  seen  numerous  thickly  infested  oranges  and  lemons  upon  each 
of  which  were  from  two  to  half  a dozen  of  these  larvae,  while  the  scales 
were  so  torn  up  as  to  give  the  infested  fruit  a roughened  appearance 
very  noticeable  upon  a slight  inspection.  I have  also  found  this  larva 
upon  apple  trees  infested  with  the  Woolly  Aphis  ( Schizoneura  lanigera 
Hausm.),  and  in  such  cases  the  larva  frequently  attaches  to  the  bris- 
tles on  various  parts  of  its  body  portions  of  the  woolly  substance  taken 
from  the  bodies  of  its  victims. 

Besides  the  larvae  of  these  two  ladybirds,  I have  also  seen  the  larva  of 
the  California  Lace- wing  ( Chrysopa  calif ornica  Coq.)  feeding  upon  the 
Bed  Scale.  Almost  every  fruit-grower  in  southern  California  is  famil- 
iar with  the  appearance  of  these  active,  pale  gray  larvae  which  have 
somewhat  the  appearance  of  miniature  alligators,  and  provided  with  a 
pair  of  long,  slender,  pincer-like  jaws  projecting  some  distance  in  front 
of  the  head.  In  attacking  a Bed  Stfale  this  larva  inserts  its  right  man- 
dible, or  jaw,  beneath  the  scale,  then  presses  the  tip  of  its  other  mandible 
against  the  upper  side  of  the  scale,  thus  bringing  the  scale-insect  be- 
tween the  tips  of  its  mandibles;  in  this  way  it  extracts  the  juices  of  the 
scale  through  its  right  mandible  which,  being  hollow,  answers  this  pur- 
pose admirably.  These  larvae  feed  upon  a great  variety  of  insects  and 
their  eggs,  and  even  do  not  hesitate  to  attack  each  other,  the  stronger 
attacking  and  devouring  or  rather  extracting  the  juices  of  the  weaker 
ones,  while  the  latter  take  this  proceeding  as  a matter  of  course,  never 
so  much  as  making  the  least  show  at  resistance.  It  is  doubtless  largely 
due  to  this  cannibalistic  propensity  of  theirs  that  these  highly  benefi- 
cial insects  do  not  become  more  numerous  and  render  greater  service  to 
the  horticulturist  by  destroying  the  noxious  insects  that  infest  his  trees 
and  plants.  Their  numbers  are  also  still  further  decimated  by  the  at- 
tacks of  internal  parasites.  From  the  larvae  and  pupae  of  this  Lace- 
wing I have  bred  no  less  than  four  different  kinds  of  these  parasites, 
only  one  of  which,  the  Isodromus  iceryce  Howard,  has  as  yet  been  de- 
scribed. These  parasites  seldom  issue  until  after  the  Lace-wing  larva 
has  spun  its  cocoon.  The  parasitic  larvae  spin  no  cocoons  of  their  own, 
but  assume  the  pupa  form  within  the  cocoons  of  their  hosts,  and,  after 
being  changed  to  the  perfect  or  winged  state,  they  gnaw  irregular 
holes  usually  in  one  end  of  the  cocoon,  out  of  which  they  escape.  I 
have  bred  two  of  the  parasitic  Isodromus  from  a single  pupa  of  the 
Lace-wing,  while  from  another  pupa  issued  sixteen  specimens  of  an 
undetermined  species  of  Tetrastichus,  Of  the  other  two  kinds  of  para- 
24382— Bo.  26 2 


18 


sites  referred  to  above,  one  of  which  is  a Pteromalus  and  the  other  a 
Perilampus,  only  one  specimen  has  thus  far  issued  from  a single  pupa 
of  the  Lace- wing. 

Besides  the  losses  in  their  ranks  occasioned  by  the  attacks  of  these 
internal  parasites,  and  the  losses  sustained  through  the  cannibalistic 
habits  of  their  fellows,  the  Lace-wings  suffer  still  further  from  the  at- 
tacks of  spiders,  which  I have  occasionally  seen  feeding  upon  the  eggs 
of  this  insect  as  well  as  upon  the  adult  Lace-wing  itself.  Notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  the  eggs  of  this  insect  are  elevated  on  the  tip 
of  a slender  pedicel,  an  evident  provision  of  nature  to  protect  them 
from  the  rapacious  jaws  of  the  Lace-wing  larvae,  still  many  of  them, 
as  just  stated,  fall  a prey  to  spiders  and  doubtless  also  to  vaiious  kinds 
of  predaceous  insects,  or  even  to  the  attacks  of  the  Lace- wing  larvae 
themselves,  as  if  nature  were  unable  to  cope  with  the  scheming  and 
cunning  of  her  many  children.  With  all  of  these  drawbacks  to  con- 
tend with,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  these  Lace- wing  larvae  never 
become  more  numerous  than  they  have  at  any  time  in  the  past.  At 
the  same  time  it  is  evidently  not  within  our  power  to  change  the  exist- 
ing conditions  to  such  an  extent  that  these  larvae  would  become  so 
numerous  as  to  free  our  plants  and  trees  of  the  noxious  insects  that 
infest  them. 

Besides  the  above-mentioned  enemies  of  the  Bed  Scale  there  are  also 
other  agencies  not  at  present  clearly  understood,  but  which  occasionally 
very  materially  lessen  the  numbers  of  these  pests.  A few  years  ago 
Mr.  H.  F.  Gardner,  of  Orange,  in  the  adjoining  county  of  the  same 
name,  drew  my  attention  to  the  fact  that  a large  percentage  of  the  Bed 
Scales  of  all  sizes  upon  his  orange  and  lemon  trees,  as  well  as  of  the 
Black  Scales  (Lecanium  olece  Bern.)  upon  his  olive  trees  were  dead, 
although  they  had  not  been  treated  with  any  kind  of  insecticide.  A 
close  inspection  of  his  trees  revealed  the  fact  that  fully  80  per  cent  of 
the  Bed  Scales  upon  these  particular  trees  were  dead,  while  upon  the 
adjoining  olive  trees  we  found  only  a single  colony  of  Black  Scales  still 
alive.  This  latter  colony  was  in  a sheltered  situation  and  contained 
about  a dozen  individuals  of  all  sizes.  All  of  the  other  Black  Scales 
upon  the  trees  that  I examined  were  dead  and  dry.  In  neighboring 
orange  groves  I also  found  several  trees  upon  which  fully  60  per  cent 
of  the  Bed  Scales  of  all  sizes  were  dead.  Thinking  that  perhaps  these 
might  have  been  destroyed  by  some  low  form  of  fungus,  I submitted 
specimens  of  them  to  Mr.  Galloway,  the  Mycologist  of  this  Department, 
with  the  request  that  they  be  examined  for  traces  of  such  fungus,  and 
under  date  of  October  11,  1889,  Miss  E.  A.  Southwortli,  the  Assistant 
Mycologist,  wrote  me  as  follows  concerning  them: 

I have  examined  the  scales  on  the  lemons  and  find  that  the  black  ones  are  covered 
with  a fungus  which  also  spreads  over  the  fruit  to  some  extent.  Whether  or  not 
this  fungus  is  what  kills  the  scales  I can  not  say  positively,  but  I find  a little 
of  the  fungus  on  some  of  the  scales  that  seem  to  be  living,  which  would  indicate 
that  it  does  attack  the  living  ones  and  destroys  them. 


19 


In  reply  to  an  inquiry  for  further  information  upon  this  subject  Miss 
Southworth  wrote  me  as  follows,  under  date  of  November  2,  1889: 

I think  the  fungus  which  I found  on  the  orange  scale  is  a Capnodium,  although 
there  is  an  unusual  absence  of  effused  mycelium,  the  spores  appearing  to  be  borne 
mainly  on  upright  conidiopliores.  It  is  in  the  conidial  stage  and  no  pycnidia  or 
perithecia  are  present.  It  is  accordingly  impossible  to  be  certain  of  the  species, 
although  I incline  to  the  belief  that  it  is  C.  citri.  This  species  has  now,  however, 
been  changed  to  Meliola  citri. 

I do  not  think  I stated  positively  that  I found  the  fungus  on  living  scales.  I found 
it  sparingly  on  Red  Scales,  but  I could  not  be  sure  they  were  living. 

The  fungus  referred  to  as  Capnodium  citri  is  the  same  kind  that 
causes  the  u black-smut v on  citrus  and  other  kinds  of  trees,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  draw  its  nourishment  from  the  excretions  of  various  kinds  of 
insects  that  feed  upon  the  sap  of  these  trees.  It  seems  very  probable, 
therefore,  that  this  fungus  would  also  attack  the  living  insects  them- 
selves, although,  as  Miss  Southworth  states,  we  can  not  say  positively 
that  such  is  really  the  case. 

But,  notwithstanding  the  great  number  of  these  scale-insects  that 
annually  fall  a prey  to  their  various  insect  enemies,  and  the  thousands 
that  perish  from  some  cause  as  yet  not  clearly  understood,  still  these 
pests  manage  to  multiply  at  an  astonishingly  rapid  rate,  making  it 
necessary  for  owners  of  infested  trees  to  employ  artificial  means  in 
order  to  save  their  trees  from  utter  destruction. 

One  of  the  most  successful  remedies  ever  used  for  the  destruction  of 
the  Red  Scale  on  citrus  trees  is  the  treatment  with  hydrocyanic  acid 
gas,  first  used  by  the  writer  in  the  autumn  of  1886.  As  I gave  a full 
account  of  this  treatment  in  my  annual  report  for  the  year  1890,  pub- 
lished in  Bulletin  No.  23,  Division  of  Entomology  of  this  Department, 
(pp.  20  to  27)  it  will  be  needless  to  more  than  refer  to  it  in  this  con- 
nection. 

Among  the  different  kinds  of  washes  that  have  been  used  for  the  de- 
struction of  these  scales,  the  one  giving  the  best  results  is  known  as  the 
resin  wash,  and  is  fully  described  in  my  annual  report  for  the  year  1889, 
published  in  Bulletin  No.  22  of  this  Division  (pp.  10  to  17).  This  wash, 
while  it  does  not  destroy  as  large  a percentage  of  the  Red  Scale  as  the 
gas  treatment,  still  is  fatal  to  the  Red  Spider  (Tetranychus  sp.)  and  also 
to  the  eggs  of  the  Black  Scale  (Lecanium  olece  Bern.),  both  of  which 
are  frequently  found  on  the  same  trees  as  the  Red  Scales,  and  neither 
the  Red  Spider  nor  the  eggs  of  the  Black  Scale  are  destroyed  to  any 
great  extent  by  the  gas.  For  these  reasons  some  of  our  fruit-growers 
have  adopted  the  method  of  using  the  gas  treatment  and  the  resin 
wash  alternately,  first  spraying  the  infested  trees  with  the  wash  in  July 
or  August,  which  destroys  the  greater  portion  of  the  Red  Spiders  and 
Black  Scales,  as  well  as  a large  percentage  of  the  Red  Scales.  Then  in 
November  or  December  the  trees  are  treated  with  the  gas,  which  pretty 
thoroughly  completes  the  destruction  of  the  noxious  insects  infesting 


20 


them.  By  this  method  the  trees  may  be  almost  entirely  freed  of  the 
Red  and  the  Black  Scales,  so  that  when  the  oranges  and  lemons  are 
gathered  the  following  spring  they  will  be  practically  free  of  these  pests. 

The  Convex  Scale. 

( Asjndiotus  convexus  Comst.) 

This  scale  appears  to  confine  itself  wholly  to  the  bark  of  the  trees  it 
attacks.  I do  not  remember  of  a single  instance  where  I have  found  it 
infesting  the  leaves.  Although  usually  attacking  the  Willow,  on  the 
trunk  of  which  it  frequently  occurs  in  immense  numbers,  still  I have 
also  found  it  upon  the  Lombardy  Poplar,  Cottonwood,  Walnut,  and  even 
upon  orange  trees.  By  reference  to  my  note  book  I find  it  stated  that 
on  the  24tli  of  April,  1890,  I found  a branch  of  an  orange  tree  very 
thickly  infested  with  these  scales.  The  branch  at  its  thickest  part 
measured  about  2£  inches  in  diameter  and  was  covered  with  these  scales 
to  a distance  of  about  4 feet  on  its  basal  or  thickest  part. 

This  scale-insect  is  quite  subject  to  the  attacks  of  internal  parasites, 
although  up  to  the  present  time  I have  known  of  only  one  species  thus 
to  attack  it.  This  is  a small  Chalcid  fly  known  as  Aphelinus  fuscipennis 
Howard.  I have  bred  these  parasites  in  June  and  July  from  scales  col- 
lected in  the  preceding  April. 

If  it  is  desired  to  destroy  these  scales  this  can  doubtless  be  most  read- 
ily accomplished  by  the  use  of  the  resin  wash  referred  to  in  the  preced- 
ing article. 

The  Oleander  Scale. 


( Aspidiotus  nerii  Bouch6.) 


This  species,  which  appears  to  be  pretty  generally  distributed  all 
over  the  known  world,  infests  a great  variety  of  plants.  I have  found 
full-grown  specimens  on  the  following- named  plants  and  trees: 


Lilac  ( Syringa  vulgaris). 

Arbor  Vitae  ( Thuja  occidentalis ),  on 
the  cones. 

Century  Plant,  or  Aloe  (Agave 
americana). 

Magnolia  grandi flora. 


Oak  ( Quercus  agrifolia). 
Madrone  (Arbutus  menziesii). 
Nightshade  (Solanum  douglasii). 
China  Tree  (Melia  azedarach). 
Lemon. 


I do  not  find  by  my  notes  that  I ever  found  these  scales  on  citrus 
trees  of  any  kind,  but  I distinctly  remember  having  found  them  upon 
green  lemons  still  hanging  upon  the  trees,  and  my  impression  is  that  I 
also  found  them  upon  the  leaves  of  these  trees.  In  the  Annual  Report 
of  this  Department  for  the  year  1880,  the  Entomologist  also  records  hav- 
ing found  these  scales  on  lemons  received  from  various  sources  (p.  302). 

In  the  above-mentioned  report  it  is  stated  that  the  eggs  of  this  spe- 
cies are  very  light  yellow  in  color,  but  I find  by  reference  to  my  note 
book  that  on  the  14th  of  June,  1883,  while  examining  an  adult  female 


21 


of  this  species  under  a compound  microscope  I saw  her  produce  a living 
young.  It  would  be  interesting  to  ascertain  if  the  same  species  can 
be  both  oviparous  and  viviparous,  but  my  subsequent  notes  on  this 
species  are  silent  on  this  subject. 

Although  I have  repeatedly  inclosed  specimens  of  this  species  in 
boxes  I have  never  succeeded  in  obtaining  any  internal  parasites  from 
them,  nor  can  I find  any  published  reference  to  parasites  having  been 
bred  from  scales  of  this  kind. 


The  San  Josii:  Scale. 


( Aspidiotus  perniciosm  Comst.) 

This  is  by  far  the  most  destructive  scale-insect  with  which  growers 
of  deciduous  fruit  trees  have  to  contend.  Its  origin  is  uncertain,  but 
the  fact  of  its  being  so  frequently  found  upon  plants  imported  from 
Japan  would  seem  to  point  to  that  country  as  the  home  of  this  pest. 
The  name  of  San  Jose  Scale  was  first  applied  to  this  species  by  the  late 
Matthew  Cooke,  from  having  first  received  specimens  of  it  from  the 
neighborhood  of  the  city  by  that  name  in  Santa  Clara  County.  It  is 
to  be  regretted  that  any  locality  should  be  thus  stigmatized  by  having 
its  name  applied  to  a pestiferous  scale-insect,  and  it  would  have  been 
far  better  had  the  later  name  of  Pernicious  Scale,  first  applied  to  this 
species  by  the  former  entomologist  of  this  Department,  been  adopted. 
However,  with  the  late  Asa  Gray,  I do  not  consider  it  advisable  to 
change  old  names. 

This  scale  insect  never  attacks  citrus  nor  coniferous  trees  so  far  as  I 
am  aware.  I have  examined  full-grown  specimens  upon  the  following 
trees : 

Pear,  Prune, 

Peach,  English  Walnut, 

Almond,  Euonymus, 

Apple,  And  other  ornamental  shrubs. 

The  specimens  from  English  walnut  were  received  from  Mr.  Henry  H. 
Wheeler,  a prominent  fruit-grower  of  Pomona,  who  writes  me  that  he 
has  also  found  specimens  of  this  species  on  almond  trees. 

This  is  the  only  scale-insect  known  to  me  that  causes  a red  spot  to 
appear  upon  the  fruit  or  green  bark  which  it  infests.  This  discolora- 
tion is  usually  attributed  to  the  saliva  with  which  the  scale-iusect 
dilutes  the  sap  of  the  infested  tree  or  fruit,  but  why  this  should  pro- 
duce such  a discoloration  in  the  case  of  the  present  species  but  not  in 
that  of  any  other  species  is  no  easy  matter  to  explain.  It  need  not  be 
taken  for  granted,  however,  that  the  saliva  of  all  the  different  species 
is  identical  in  its  composition.  That  of  the  present  species  may  pos- 
sess some  peculiar,  irritating  principal  which  does  not  exist  in  the 
saliva  of  any  of  the  other  species,  and  therefore  the  effects  of  the 
attacks  would  not  be  the  same  in  the  different  species. 


22 


Young  branches  thickly  infested  by  this  species  soon  present  a 
gnarled,  knotted,  and  stunted  appearance,  and  if  everything  is  favorable 
to  the  rapid  increase  of  these  scales  the  tree  is  finally  killed  by  them. 
They  appear  to  have  a discrimination  in  relation  to  their  food  plants 
that  is  difficult  to  account  for.  I have  on  more  than  one  occasion  seen 
Leconte  pear  trees  growing  in  the  midst  of  other  varieties  of  pear  trees 
which  were  thickly  infested  with  these  scales,  and  yet  it  was  impossible 
to  find  even  half  a dozen  specimens  of  these  scales  on  the  Leconte  pear 
trees.  I have  also  been  informed  that  the  Black  Tartarian  Cherry  tree 
enjoys  the  same  immunity  from  the  attacks  of  these  pests,  even  when 
completely  surrounded  with  badly  infested  cherry  trees. 

Among  insect  enemies  the  most  common  and  widely  distributed 
species  is,  perhaps,  the  Twice-stabbed  Ladybird  referred  to  above  in 
the  chapter  treating  of  the  Bed  Scale.  I have  frequently  seen  infested 
pear  trees  upon  which  these  ladybirds  occurred  in  large  numbers, 
still  I never  knew  of  an  instance  where  even  a single  tree  had  been  en- 
tirely or  even  very  nearly  freed  of  the  scales  by  these  ladybirds. 
Another  ladybird  which  also  attacks  the  San  Jose  Scale  is  the  small 
Scymnus  referred  to  in  the  chapter  above  mentioned,  but  this  species, 
like  the  preceding  one  never  occurs  in  sufficient  numbers  to  entirely 
exterminate  the  scales. 

Of  internal  parasites  I have  bred  from  these  scales  large  numbers  of 
small,  four- winged  Chalcid  flies  known  as  Aphelinus fuscipennis  Howard, 
a parasite  that  appears  to  be  quite  a general  feeder,  as  it  has  been  bred 
from  at  least  half  a dozen  different  kinds  of  scale-insects  belonging  to 
sx>ecies  which  are  protected  by  a shell  or  scale.  Although  occurring  in 
such  large  numbers,  still  this  parasite  is  not  able  to  keep  the  scales  in 
check.  It  doubtless  breeds  throughout  the  year,  as  I have  bred  speci- 
mens as  late  as  the  10th  of  November.  Although  I have  never  bred 
any  other  kind  of  internal  parasite  from  the  San  Jose  Scale,  still  it 
would  appear  that  other  kinds  attack  it  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
State.  On  the  31st  of  March  of  the  present  year  I received  from  E. 
M.  Elirliorn,  of  Santa  Clara  County,  two  different  kinds  of  Chalcid 
fiies  for  naming,  and  in  the  accompanying  letter  occurred  the  state- 
ment that  both  of  these  parasites  had  been  bred  from  San  Jose  Scales. 
These  parasites  proved  to  be  the  Chalcid  flies,  known  as  Aphelinus 
mytilaspidis  Le  B.  and  Coccophagus  citrinus  Craw. 

It  appears  that  certain  conditions  of  the  climate  affect  these  scales  in 
an  injurious  manner,  just  as  is  the  case  with  several  other  kinds  of 
scale-insects.  A few  weeks  ago  Mr.  C.  H.  Richardson,  of  Pasadena, 
one  of*  the  county  inspectors  of  fruit  pests,  showed  me  several  pear 
trees  in  that  locality  which  a year  ago  were  very  thickly  infested  with 
these  scales,  as  was  evidenced  by  the  gnarled  appearance  of  the  branches 
as  well  as  by  the  dry  scales  still  adhering  to  the  trees.  After  a care- 
ful examination  of  these  scales  scarcely  a live  one  could  be  found.  Mr. 
Richardson  assured  me  that  these  trees  had  not  been  treated  with  any 


23 


kind  of  insecticide,  and  they  certainly  gave  no  evidence  of  such  treat- 
ment. The  dead  scales  showed  no  indications  of  having  been  destroyed 
by  ladybirds  nor  yet  by  internal  parasites.  Wishing  to  ascertain  if 
this  singular  mortality  was  general  among  these  scales  in  other  locali- 
ties, I examined  several  infested  pear  trees  in  this  city,  but  found  that 
the  fruit  and  new  growth  upon  them  were  thickly  infested  with  these 
scales,  which  were  alive  and  to  all  appearance  in  a very  thriving  con- 
dition. It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  this  mortality  among  the  San 
Jose  Scales  was  entirely  due  to  certain  climatic  influences,  unless  it 
can  be  shown  to  have  been  due  to  some  low  form  of  fungus  growth. 

The  remedy  most  extensively  used  in  this  State  for  the  destruction 
of  the  San  Jose  Scale  on  dormant  trees  is  the  one  containing  lime,  salt, 
and  sulphur,  described  in  my  annual  report  to  Prof,  liiley  for  the  year 
1890  and  published  in  Bulletin  No.  23,  Division  of  Entomology,  of  this 
Department  (pp.  30  to  34).  I there  gave  an  account  of  a series  of  ex- 
periments which  I had  made  with  the  above  mentioned  substances, 
both  when  used  singly  and  also  when  used  in  various  combinations, 
and  expressed  my  intention  of  pursuing  this  subject  still  further  the 
following  winter  with  a view  of  improving  upon  the  insecticidal  proper- 
ties of  the  wash  used  at  that  time.  Accordingly,  on  the  10th  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1891,  I made  a number  of  experiments  with  the  above-mentioned 
ingredients,  and  give  herewith  a brief  account  of  the  principal  ones: 

Experiment  260. — Sulphur,  30  pounds;  lime,  43  pounds;  water  sufficient  to  make 
100  gallons.  The  sulphur  and  lime  were  placed  in  the  kettle  together  and  water 
added;  the  whole  was  then  hoiled  for  two  hours  without  first  allowing  the  lime  to 
slake;  the  solution  did  not  assume  an  orange-yellow  color  as  soon  as  in  other  experi- 
ments where  the  lime  was  first  slaked  before  being  hoiled  with  the  sulphur.  Strained 
the  solution  and  sprayed  two  pear  trees  with  it  at  about  2:20  p.  m. ; sun  shining; 
light  breeze.  Examined  these  trees  March  26  and  found  a great  many  living  San 
Jos6  Scales  upon  them. 

Experiment  261. — Same  as  in  the  preceding  experiment,  except  that  before  spray- 
ing it  upon  the  trees  I added  23  pounds  of  salt  to  the  diluted  solution  and  stirred  it 
until  the  salt  was  dissolved,  then  sprayed  a peach  tree  with  it  at  about  2 o’clock  in 
the  afternoon.  Examined  this  tree  March  25  and  found  upon  it  many  living  San 
Jos6  Scales.  Still,  these  were  not  as  numerous  as  upon  the  trees  treated  in  the  pre- 
ceding experiment,  where  no  salt  had  been  used. 

Experiment  258. — Sulphur,  45  pounds ; lime,  65  pounds,  water  sufficient  to  make  100 
gallons.  The  sulphur  and  lime  were  first  placed  in  the  kettle;  water  was  then  added 
and  the  lime  allowed  to  slake,  after  which  more  water  was  added  and  the  whole  then 
hoiled  for  two  hours.  At  first  the  solution  was  of  a pale  yellow  color,  hut  it  soon 
became  dark  orange  yellow,  assuming  this  color  much  sooner  than  was  the  case  in 
experiment  260,  where  the  lime  was  covered  with  water  and  boiled  without  first  be- 
ing allowed  to  slake.  The  solution  when  properly  diluted  was  strained  and  two 
apx>le  trees  were  sprayed  with  it  at  about  2:40  p.  m.  I examined  these  trees  March 
26,  and  found  quite  a large  number  of  living  San  Jos6  Scales  upon  them. 

Experiment  259. — Same  as  in  258  except  that  when  diluted  ready  for  use  I added  34 
pounds  of  salt  to  the  solution  and  stirred  it  until  dissolved,  then  sprayed  a prune 
tree  with  it  at  3 o’clock  in  the  afternoon.  I examined  this  tree  March  26  and  found 
a few  living  San  Jos6  Scales  upon  it,  much  less  than  in  experiment  258,  or  any  of 
the  preceding  ones. 


24 


In  experiments  258  and  260  the  bisulphide  of  lime  (OaS2)  was 
formed,  but  this  did  not  prove  as  destructive  to  the  scale-insects 
sprayed  witli  it  as  was  the  case  where  a certain  amount  of  salt  had 
been  added  to  it.  From  this  it  would  appear  that  the  bisulphide  does 
not  of  itself  and  alone  constitute  the  insecticidal  property  of  this  wash; 
at  the  same  time,  my  previous  experiments  prove  that  salt  alone  simply 
dissolved  in  water  possesses  very  little  value  as  an  insecticide.  Still, 
when  these  two  substances  are  combined,  the  resulting  solution  pos- 
sesses much  greater  insecticidal  properties  than  does  either  of  them 
when  used  separately. 

In  making  the  above  experiments  I was  aided  in  the  mechanical  part 
of  the  work  by  Mr.  0.  H.  Richardson,  of  Pasadena,  who  kindly  placed 
his  infested  fruit  trees  at  my  disposal. 

The  first  rain  which  occurred  after  the  above  experiments  were  made 
began  on  the  morning  of  February  15,  and  continued  almost  incessantly 
for  the  space  of  two  days  and  one  night.  Two  days  later  this  was  fol- 
lowed by  a long-continued  rain.  Since  the  solution  was  upon  the  trees 
for  the  space  of  about  four  days  and  five  nights  before  the  rain  began, 
it  would  appear  that  it  had  sufficient  time  in  which  to  act  upon  the 
scales  before  being  washed  off  by  the  rain,  and  that  its  effects  upon  the 
scales  would  have  been  about  the  same  had  no  rain  occurred  for  several 
months  after  the  various  solutions  were  applied  to  the  trees. 

The  wash  used  in  experiment  261  is  practically  the  same  as  the  one 
in  common  use  all  over  this  State  for  the  destruction  of  the  San  Jos6 
Scale  on  dormant  deciduous  trees.  Still,  as  stated  above,  it  did  not 
prove  fatal  to  all  of  the  scales  sprayed  with  it.  Even  when  used  one- 
half  stronger  than  this,  as  it  was  in  experiment  259,  it  did  not  destroy 
all  of  the  scales  sprayed  with  it.  These  and  other  experiments  which 
I made  with  this  wash  during  the  past  winter  confirm  the  opinion  ex- 
pressed in  my  preceding  report,  to  the  effect  that  this  wash  is  not  as 
effectual  as  the  resin  wash  made  one  half  stronger  than  when  used  on 
citrus  trees.  I have  given  a full  account  of  this  resin  wash  of  the  above 
strength  on  pages  27  to  30  of  Bulletin  No.  23,  referred  to  above;  so  it 
will  be  unnecessary  to  more  than  give  the  formula  in  this  place: 


Resin pounds . . 30 

Caustic  soda  (70  per  cent  strong) do 9 

Fish  oil pints..  43- 

Water,  sufficient  to  make  gallons 100 


This  wash  can  only  be  used  upon  dormant  trees.  Owing  to  the  fact 
that  in  some  portions  of  the  State  the  winter  rains  interfere  to  a great 
degree  with  the  spraying  of  the  trees  at  that  season  of  the  year,  fre- 
quently rendering  wholly  ineffectual  the  labor  of  a whole  day  and  mate- 
rially lessening  the  insecticidal  effect  of  the  wash  used  during  the 
preceding  week,  it  is  the  custom  with  some  growers  to  confine  their 
spraying  operations  entirely  to  the  rainless  summer  season.  At  this 
season,  of  course,  it  would  be  impossible  to  use  as  strong  a wash  as 


25 


could  be  employed  during  the  winter  season,  owing  to  the  injury  it  would 
occasion  to  the  foliage  and  blossoms  or  fruit.  For  the  purpose  of  ascer- 
taining how  strong  a wash  could  be  used  on  various  kinds  of  deciduous 
fruit  trees  during  the  summer  season,  I made,  a series  of  experiments 
with  resin  washes  of  various  strengths  on  the  4th  of  September  of  the 
present  year.  I used  a wash  two-fifths  and  also  one  three-fifths  as 
strong  as  in  the  formula  given  above;  these  I sprayed  upon  apple, 
pear,  peach,  and  prune  trees  a short  time  before  the  noon  hour,  and  at 
a time  when  the  sun  was  shining  brightly,  but  none  of  the  leaves  on 
any  of  these  trees  were  injured  even  by  the  strongest  wash.  Only  the 
apple  trees  contained  any  fruit,  but  this  was  not  injured  by  the  wash. 
The  stronger  wash  is  of  the  same  strength  as  that  commonly  used  for 
the  destruction  of  various  kinds  of  scale-insects  ujjon  citrus  trees  in 
the  hottest  part  of  the  summer  season,  and  the  above  experiments  in- 
dicate that  it  can  also  be  safely  used  upon  growing  deciduous  trees. 

I also  sprayed  some  of  the  stronger  wash  upon  a rose  bush,  but  the 
leaves  on  this  bush  were  slightly  injured  by  it ; on  these  bushes,  there- 
fore, it  would  be  necessary  to  use  a somewhat  weaker  wash. 


The  Greedy  Scale. 

( Aspidiotus  rap  ax  Comst.) 

This  scale-insect  received  its  name  not  from  a voracious  nature  and 
consequent  destructiveness,  but  rather  from  the  fact  that  it  infests  such 
a great  variety  of  different  kinds  of  trees  and  plants.  The  following  is 
a list  of  those  upon  which  I have  found  full-grown  specimens  of  this 
species : 

Apple,  Pear,  Loquat,  Myosporum,  Birch,  English  Laurel,  Maple,  Sil- 
vertree  from  South  Africa  ( Leucadendron  argenteum ),  Rliamnus  croceus , 
California  Walnut  ( Juglans  calif ornicus),  English  Holly,  Fuchsia,  Cot- 
tonwood, Camellias  from  Japan,  also  on  oranges  and  lemons. 

The  last  two  fruits  sometimes  become  very  thickly  infested  with  these 
scales,  but  this  seldom  happens,  except  in  the  case  of  those  allowed  to 
remain  on  the  trees  for  several  months  after  they  are  ripe;  in  such 
cases  I have  never  found  one  of  these  scales  upon  any  other  portion  of 
the  tree. 

This  insect  was  evidently  imported  into  this  State  from  some  other 
country,  although  I can  not  find  any  reference  to  it  in  foreign  countries 
in  any  work  to  which  I have  access.  It  is  possible,  however,  that  this 
is  the  same  insect  previously  described  by  Boisduval  under  the  name 
of  Kermes  camelliw , and  which  has  been  referred  to  the  genus  Aspidiotus 
by  later  authors.  This  latter  species  also  infests  Camellias,  Euonymus, 
and  various  other  kinds  of  ornamental  shrubs  and  trees  in  Europe,  New 
Zealand,  and  perhaps  also  in  other  countries. 


26 


The  Soft  or  Brown  Scale. 

(Lecaniim  hesperidum  Linn.) 

This  is  perhaps  the  most  common  and  widely  distributed  of  the  scale- 
insects,  being  found  in  the  four  quarters  of  the  globe,  and  although  not 
infrequently  occurring  in  large  numbers,  still  I have  never  known  of  a 
single  instance  where  a tree  or  plant  has  ever  been  destroyed  by  it. 
Its  general  effect  is  to  weaken  or  stunt  the  infested  plant  and  to  ren- 
der it  black  and  unsightly  by  reason  of  the  black  fungus  which  always 
accompanies  its  attacks. 

This  scale-insect  is  quite  a general  feeder,  infesting  wild  trees  and 
plants  as  well  as  cultivated  ones.  I have  found  full-grown  specimens 
on  the  following  trees  and  plants: 

Lombardy  Poplar,  Grape,  Loquat,  Rubber  Tree  [Ficus  macrophylla ), 
Ash,  Euonymus,  Maple  (Acer  dasycarpum ),  Rhamnus  crocea , Heteromeles 
arbutifolia , Rhus  integrifolia , Pepper  Tree  ( Schinus  molle ),  Willow,  Apri- 
cot, Citrus  trees,  Fig,  Locust,  English  Ivy,  English  Holly,  Rose,  Calla 
Lily,  Oleander,  and  Pittosporum.  It  infests  the  leaves  and  green  bark, 
but  is  very  seldom  found  upon  the  fruit. 

This  species  brings  forth  its  young  alive,  although  when  first  ex- 
cluded they  are  still  enveloped  in  a very  thin  sac,  which  in  a short 
time  is  cast  off.  They  remain  for  several  days  beneath  the  parent  and 
then  start  out  for  themselves.  The  greatest  number  of  larvae  and 
pseudo-ova  that  I ever  found  at  one  time  beneath  a scale  of  this  spe- 
cies was  twenty-four,  of  which  number  twenty-one  or  twenty-two  were 
fully  developed  young  ones.  This  was  in  the  month  of  May,  and  dur- 
ing the  same  month  I repeatedly  found  from  eighteen  to  twenty  of  these 
larvae  beneath  an  adult  scale. 

This  species  is  very  subject  to  the  attacks  of  internal  parasites,  of 
which  no  less  than  five  different  kinds  are  known  to  attack  it  in  this 
country  alone.  Of  this  number  I have  bred  Encyrtus  flavus  Howard, 
and  Coccophagus  lecanii  Fitch  from  specimens  of  this  scale-insect  col- 
lected in  this  city.  The  Encyrtus  attacks  principally  the  larger  scales, 
each  of  which  frequently  contains  three  or  four  of  the  parasites  lying 
transversely  to  the  longest  diameter  of  the  scale,  and  readily  distin- 
guishable by  their  lighter  yellow  color.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Cocco- 
phagus  principally  attacks  the  younger  scales,  only  one  of  the  parasites 
infesting  a single  scale,  which  it  causes  to  swell  up  and  assume  a black- 
ish color.  1 have  frequently  found  whole  colonies  of  these  scales  every 
member  of  which  had  been  destroyed  by  one  or  the  other  of  these  par- 
asites. 

On  the  11th  of  October,  1890,  I collected  several  of  these  parasitized 
scales,  all  of  which  had  been  killed  by  having  been  subjected  to  the 
treatment  with  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  referred  to  in  the  chapter  on  the 
Red  Scale,  and  three  days  later  an  apparently  healthy  specimen  of  Coc- 
cophagus lecanii  issued  from  one  of  them.  This  parasite  being  in  the 


27 


pupa  state  at  the  time  its  host  was  subjected  to  the  poisonous  gas,  was 
not  affected  by  the  gas  to  the  same  degree  it  would  have  been  if  in  the 
perfect  or  adult  state,  since  I have  repeatedly  proven  it  to  be  a fact  that 
larvae  and  pupae  of  insects  are  not  affected  by  this  gas  to  the  same  de- 
gree that  the  adult  insects  are.  At  the  same  time,  when  a scale  is  in- 
fested with  one  of  these  parasites  and  is  sprayed  with  a resin  wash 
sufficiently  strong  to  kill  the  scale,  this  also  proves  fatal  to  the  included 
parasite.  This  is  one  of  the  many  advantages  which  the  gas  treatment 
possesses  over  any  kind  of  a wash  for  destroying  scale-insects. 

Besides  the  gas  treatment  and  the  resin  wash,  both  of  which  are  re- 
ferred to  above  in  the  article  treating  of  the  lied  Scale,  another  remedy, 
which  has  the  advantage  of  being  very  simple  and  nearly  always  at 
hand,  consists  of  spraying  the  trees  with  a solution  of  common  brown 
laundry  soap — 1 pound  dissolved  in  3 gallons  of  water.  I have  seen  all 
of  these  scales  on  small  orange  trees  entirely  destroyed  by  a single  ap- 
plication of  this  remedy. 

Tiie  Hemispherical  Scale. 

( Lecanium  hemisphcericum  Targ-Tozz.) 

My  collection  contains  three  different  forms  of  Lecanium  which  are 
here  commonly  known  under  the  name  of  L.  hemisphcericum.  The 
largest  individuals  of  the  largest  form  measure  5mm  long  by  4 wide 
and  3 high;  these  I have  found  upon  pear  and  orange  trees,  and  also  on 
Sycamore  (Platanus  racemosus ),  Wild  Lilac  ( Geanothus  divaricatus)  and 
on  California  Holly  (Heteromeles  arbutifolia).  The  largest  individuals 
of  the  medium  form  measure  only  3Jmra  long  by  3 wide  and  2 high; 
these  I have  found  only  on  orange  trees.  The  third  and  smallest  form 
I have  found  only  upon  the  Hare’s-foot  Fern  (Davalliacanariensis),  where 
they  occurred  in  such  large  numbers  as  to  kill  the  plant  infested  by 
them.  The  largest  individuals  measured  only  3mm  long  by  2 wide  and 
1£  high.  The  largest  form  is  evidently  the  Lecanium  hibernaculorum  of 
Boisduval  (originally  described  as  a Ohermes),  since  it  agrees  very  well 
with  the  description  of  this  species  given  in  The  Entomologist's  Monthly 
Magazine , V ol.  xxii,  p.  7 8.  This  description  is  by  Dr.  J.  W.  Douglas,  who 
has  made  this  group  of  insects  his  special  study,  and  who  had  before  him 
specimens  identified  by  Dr.  Signoret,  the  highest  authority  upon  scale- 
insects.  The  medium  form  found  upon  orange  trees  is  evidently  the 
true  hemisphcericum , while  the  smallest  one  is  just  as  certainly  the  Le- 
canium jilicum  of  Boisduval  (also  originally  described  as  a Chernies). 
Mr.  Maskell,  of  New  Zealand,  another  well-known  authority  upon  scale- 
insects,  considers  hemisphcericum  and  jilicum  as  belonging  to  one  and 
the  same  species,  and  is  inclined  to  consider  hibernaculorum  as  being 
only  a larger  variety  of  the  above  species;  it  is  very  doubtful,  however, 
that  he  had  the  true  hibernaculorum  before  him  when  making  his  ob- 
servation, since  the  measurement  he  gives  (one-ninth  of  an  inch  in  di- 


28 


ameter,  being  less  than  3mm)  is  much  too  small  for  my  specimens  and 
those  described  by  Dr.  Douglas.  The  latter  author  considers  these 
three  froms  as  belonging  to  three  distinct  species.  The  specimens  in 
my  own  collections  indicate  that  hibernaculorum  is  undoubtedly  distinct 
from  the  other  two  forms,  being  larger,  destitute  of  distinct  lateral  ca- 
rinse,  and  the  flattened  margin  is  much  narrower  than  in  either  of  the 
other  forms.  I incline  to  the  belief,  with  Maskell,  that  hemisplieerieum 
and  filicum  are  but  forms  of  one  species,  but  to  settle  this  point  defi- 
nitely it  would  be  necessary  to  compare  the  larvie  of  these  various  forms 
which  as  yet  I have  not  had  the  opportunity  of  doing.  Neither  of  these 
three  forms  are  at  all  common  in  this  portion  of  the  State. 


The  Black  Scale. 


(Lecanium  olece  Bern.) 


This  scale-insect  is  widely  distributed,  being  found  in  nearly  every 
portion  of  the  civilized  world,  living  in  greenhouses  in  the  colder  coun- 
tries and  in  the  open  air  in  the  warmer  climates.  It  is  not  so  destruc- 
tive to  plants  as  some  of  the  other  species  are,  and  I have  never  known 
of  a single  instance  where  a tree  or  plant  has  been  killed  by  them,  al- 
though they  sometimes  occur  upon  certain  trees  in  immense  numbers. 
The  injury  caused  by  them  is  seen  in  a general  weakening  of  the  entire 
tree,  which,  if  badly  infested,  is  rendered  unsightly  by  reason  of  the 
black  fungus  which  exists  upon  the  liquid  exudations  of  these  insects. 

Citrus  trees  are  very  subject  to  the  attacks  of  these  scales,  and  the 
fruit  of  trees  infested  by  them  is  rendered  so  unattractive  in  appear- 
ance on  account  of  the  black  fungus  above  referred  to  that  its  market 
value  is  much  less  than  it  otherwise  would  be.  Among  deciduous  trees 
the  Olive  and  Apricot  appear  to  be  more  subject  to  the  attacks  of  these 
scales  than  any  of  the  other  kinds.  The  Black  Scale,  however,  does 
not  appear  to  be  very  particular  as  to  the  kind  of  plants  upon  which  to 
gain  a sustenance,  as  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  following  list  of 
plants  and  trees  upon  which  I have  found  full-grown  specimens  of  this 
scale- in  sect: 


Citrus  trees. 

Apricot. 

Almond. 

Sycamore. 

Rhus  integrifolia. 
lleteromeles  arbutifolia. 
Oleander. 

Baccharis  viminalis. 
Ficus  macrophylla. 
Habrotliamnus  elegans. 
Guava. 

Irish  Juniper. 


Lombardy  Poplar. 
Myosporum. 
Melaleuca  purpurea. 
English  Laurel. 
English  Holly. 

Beech. 

Ash. 

Acer  dasycarpum . 
Rliamnus  crocea. 
Pepper  Tree. 
Grevillea  robusta. 
Ligustrum  japonicum. 


29 


Indian  Cedar. 


Sonchus  olcraccus. 
Cycas  revoluta. 
Artemisia  californica. 
Solanum  douglasii. 
Abutilon. 


Cedar  of  Lebanon. 


Euonymus. 
Red  Pepper. 
Castor  Bean. 


Quite  a large  number  of  these  plants  and  trees  in  this  list  are  wild 
ones,  and  in  several  instances  they  were  situated  several  miles  from 
cultivated  plants  of  any  kind.  There  can  be  little  room  for  doubting 
that  in  these  instances  the  scales  were  carried  to  them  by  birds  which 
had  visited  the  infested  cultivated  plants,  and  afterwards  flown  to  and 
alighted  upon  the  wild  ones. 

The  observations  which  I have  made  upon  these  scales  indicate  that 
there  is  but  a single  generation  produced  each  year.  I give  herewith 
my  notes  upon  this  subject  as  I find  them  recorded  in  my  note  books; 
these  notes  cover  a period  of  several  years,  but  were  mostly  made  in 
Los  Angeles  County. 

February  4. — Found  a great  many  empty  scales  of  Lecanium  olece  on  orange  trees 
on  the  green  twigs  near  the  terminal  ends  of  the  branches ; also  found  a great  many 
young  ones  from  1 to  II  mm.  long,  some  of  which  show  the  dorsal  and  two  transverse 
carinae  quite  distinctly. 

February  8. — Found  several  Lecanium  olece  about  one-half  grown  on  Baccharis  vimi - 
nails. 

February  10. — Found  empty  scales  and  a great  many  young  of  Lecanium  olece  on  an 
Oleander. 

March  11. — In  an  extended  search  for  the  eggs  of  the  Black  Scale  today  none  were 
found. 

March  30.  — Found  Black  Scales  about  one-third  grown  on  Indian  Cedar  and  Cedar 
of  Lebanon. 

March  31. — Found  several  eggs  of  the  Black  Scale. 

April  1. — Found  a living  Black  Scale,  beneath  which  were  about  fifty  eggs,  the  first 
I have  found  this  year;  found  no  other  eggs  of  this  species  after  an  extended  search, 
the  majority  of  the  scales  being  not  more  than  half  grown. 

April  3. — Found  a Black  Scale,  beneath  which  were  about  a dozen  eggs,  but  the 
most  of  the  other  specimens  were  not  yet  fully  grown. 

April  16. — Found  a few  eggs  of  the  Black  Scale. 

May  21. — Eggs  of  the  Black  Scale  just  beginning  to  hatch. 

June  2. — The  Black  Scales  have  deposited  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  their  eggs. 

June  3. — Beneath  the  largest  Lecanium  olece  I could  find  on  an  orange  tree  were  a 
trifle  over  2,200  eggs  and  young  larvae. 

June  22. — Received  many  Black  Scales  on  Oleander  from  Santa  Clara  County ; they 
were  from  one-lialf  to  fully  grown,  and  several  of  the  latter  individuals  covered 


eggs. 


August  10. — Under  some  adult  Black  Scales  all  of  the  eggs  have  hatched  out, 
while  beneath  others  from  one-sixth  to  one-third  of  the  eggs  are  still  unhatched. 

September  22. — Found  no  eggs  of  the  Black  Scale  after  an  extended  search. 

These  observations  were  made  upon  scales  living  in  the  open  air,  and 
indicate  that  the  greater  number  of  the  eggs  are  deposited  during  the 
months  of  May  and  June,  although  a few  may  be  found  as  early  as  the 
last  week  in  March  and  as  late  as  the  first  week  in  September;  outside 
of  this  period  but  few  eggs  of  this  species  will  be  found.  Although  this 


30 


species  is  quite  generally  known  as  the  Black  Scale,  still  this  term  is 
an  evident  misnomer,  at  least  as  far  as  some  specimens  of  this  scale  are 
concerned.  On  the  16th  of  April,  1890,  Mr.  F.  O.  Cass,  of  this  city, 
brought  me  several  leaves  and  twigs  of  Oleander  upon  which  (para- 
doxical as  this  may  seem)  were  three  Black  Scales  of  a uniform  white 
color  j some  of  the  other  scales  were  dark  brown,  while  the  remaining 
ones  were  of  the  normal  brownish-black  color.  I submitted  them  to 
Prof.  Riley,  and  under  date  of  April  23,  1890,  he  wrote  me  as  follows 
in  regard  to  them : 

I have  received  a box  containing  white  u Black  Scale.”  I feel  sure  that  this  is 
Lecanium  olece,  hut  do  not  recollect  that  I have  seen  anything  like  it  before.  It  is 
more  probably  to  he  accounted  for  as  a case  of  albinism,  which  is  the  only  case  I 
know  of  in  Coccids.  Lecanium  does  not  molt  in  this  way. 

I have  never  observed  this  characteristic  in  any  other  kind  of  scale- 
insect,  and  it  appears  to  be  of  rare  occurrence  among  the  individuals 
of  the  present  species. 

The  young  of  Black  Scale  after  issuing  from  the  eggs  usually  remain 
beneath  the  body  of  the  parent  for  several  hours,  finally  crawling  out 
and  taking  up  a position  on  solne  other  portion  of  the  plant;  they  do 
not  settle  down  in  one  place  permanently,  but  change  about  as  circum- 
stances may  make  it  necessary.  1 have  seen  half- grown  individuals 
thus  crawling  about.  As  a rule  they  infest  only  the  leaves  and  bark; 
only  in  rare  instances  do  they  attack  the  fruit.  The  eggs  first  laid  are 
hatched  out  before  the  last  egg  is  deposited,  and  thus  the  processes  of 
deposition  and  hatching  proceed  simultaneously  until  the  last  egg 
has  been  deposited.  The  number  of  eggs  deposited  by  a single  female 
is  simply  enormous;  as  stated  above,  I counted  beneath  one  of  them 
over  2,200  eggs  and  young  larvae,  all  of  which  were  undoubtedly  the 
progeny  of  this  female. 

Among  the  insect  enemies  of  the  Black  Scale  may  be  mentioned  the 
Twice- stabbed  Ladybird  ( Chilocorus  bivulnerus  Muls.),  the  larva  of 
which  I have  repeatedly  caught  in  the  act  of  feeding  upon  these  scales. 
I have  also  seen  the  larva  of  the  Tineid  moth,  Blastobasis  iceryceella  Riley, 
feeding  upon  these  scales.  I find  by  reference  to  my  note  book  that  on 
the  11th  of  March,  1887,  1 found  a larva  of  this  species  beneath  three 
empty  full-grown  Black  Scales  on  an  olive  tree;  this  I transferred  to 
one  of  my  breeding  cages,  in  which  I placed  a branch  of  an  olive  tree 
upon  which  were  Black  Scales  of  all  sizes.  A few  days  later  I examined 
this  cage  and  found  that  the  larva  had  spun  a thin,  loose  silken  web 
over  some  of  the  Black  Scales  and  had  partially  devoured  several  of  the 
half-grown  ones.  This  larva  had  changed  to  a chrysalis  when  examined 
on  the  4th  of  May  following  and  the  moth  issued  May  28.  A full  de- 
scription of  this  insect  will  be  found  in  the  Annual  Report  of  this  De- 
partment for  1886  (pp.  484-486),  and  a figure  of  the  moth  is  also  given 
at  Fig.  3,  PI.  hi,  of  the  above-mentioned  report. 

By  far  the  most  effectual  destroyer  of  the  Black  Scale,  however,  is  a 


31 


small,  four- winged  Ctialcid  fly  known  as  Dilophogaster  calif ornica 
Howard.  A description  and  figures  of  both  the  male  and  female  of 
this  useful  parasite  will  be  found  in  the  Annual  Report  of  this  Depart- 
ment for  the  year  1880,  p.  3G8,  and  PI.  xxiv,  Figs.  3 and  4.  The  name 
Tomocera,  under  which  this  insect  was  described  in  the  above-men- 
tioned report,  was  found  to  have  been  previously  used  for  another  group 
of  insects  belonging  to  the  order  Thysanura,  and  the  name  Dilophogas- 
ter was  therefore  substituted  for  it.  I have  quite  frequently  found 
orange  trees  upon  which  fully  80  per  cent  of  the  adult  Black  Scales 
had  been  destroyed  by  these  parasites.  I find  by  reference  to  my  note 
book  that  I bred  parasites  of  this  kind  on  the  14th  and  again  on  the 
27tli  of  June  from  Black  Scales  collected  on  the  25th  of  the  preceding 
April ; and  that  on  the  22d  of  September  I found  a full-grown  larva 
of  this  parasite  under  an  adult  Black  Scale.  I also  captured  specimens 
of  this  Clialcid  on  the  following  dates:  January  17,  July  2,  August  31, 
September  21,  and  October  12.  This  would  seem  to  indicate  that  at 
least  two  and  perhaps  even  three  generations  of  these  parasites  are 
produced  in  one  year. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  these  useful  parasites  sometimes  fall  a prey 
to  other  insects,  but  such  is  the  case.  I find  by  reference  to  my  note 
book  that  on  the  21st  of  September  I saw  a larva  of  a slender  greenish 
bug  known  as  Diplodus  renardii  Hoi.  engaged  in  feeding  upon  one  of 
these  parasites ; the  beak  of  the  larva  was  inserted  into  the  body  of  the 
Chalcid  fly  and  the  juices  of  the  latter  had  been  nearly  extracted  by 
the  voracious  captor.  Fortunately,  these  predaceous  insects  are  not 
abundant.  I have  occasionally  seen  them  preying  upon  other  kinds  of 
Chalcid  flies  besides  the  Dilophogasters;  on  the  1st  of  September  I 
captured  one  of  the  adults  which  had  its  beak  inserted  into  a Perilam- 
pus  sp.,  one  of  the  Chalcid  parasites  of  the  Lace-wing  referred  to  abo ve- 
in the  chapter  treating  of  the  Red  Scale;  the  Diplodus  held  the  Chalcid 
beneath  his  front  feet,  somewhat  as  a dog  holds  a bone  while  gnawing 
it.  I have  occasionally  found  the  square  or  roundish  egg  masses  of  this 
Diplodus  attached  to  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves  of  orange  trees; 
each  mass  contains  from  thirty  to  forty  eggs  which  are  regularly  ar- 
ranged in  rows,  the  eggs  in  one  row  alternating  with  those  on  either 
side  of  it.  Each  individual  egg  is  nearly  cylindrical  in  form,  of  a honey- 
brown  color,  except  the  top,  which  is  white,  and  near  its  center  is  a 
small  puncture  as  if  made  with  the  point  of  a needle.  The  mass  is 
fastened  to  the  leaf  by  a very  sticky  substance,  which,  however,  does 
not  hold  it  firmly,  and  the  egg  mass  may  be  easily  removed  from  the 
leaf  with  the  thumb  and  fingers  of  one  hand.  The  adult  Diplodus 
measures  nearly  half  an  inch  in  length,  is  rather  slender,  and  of  a 
yellowish -green  color  variously  marked  with  black  and  yellow. 

Notwithstanding  the  immense  numbers  of  Black  Scales  and  their 
eggs  which  are  annually  destroyed  by  the  Dilopliogasters,  still  these 
.scales  frequently  become  so  abundant  as  to  render  it  necessary  to  em- 


32 


ploy  artificial  means  in  order  to  rid  tlie  trees  of  these  pests.  For  this 
purpose  the  treatment  with  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  and  the  resin  wash, 
both  of  which  are  referred  to  above  in  the  articles  treating  of  the  Bed 
Scale,  are  also  employed  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  the  Black  Scale. 
The  gas  treatment  proves  fatal  to  the  scales,  but  does  not  destroy  all 
of  the  eggs.  The  resin  wash  destroys  the  greater  number  of  the  eggs 
and  also  of  the  younger  scales  that  it  reaches,  but  it  does  not  always 
destroy  the  larger  individuals.  On  the  6th  of  November,  1890,  I had 
eleven  olive  trees  sprayed  with  the  resin  wash  made  according  to  the 


following  formula: 

Resin pounds..  18 

Caustic  soda  (70  per  cent  strong) do 5 

Fish  oil pints.. 

Water,  sufficient  to  make gallons..  100 


The  Black  Scales  infesting  these  trees  were  less  than  one-tliird  grown. 
I examined  them  on  the  13th  of  December,  and  found  that  nearly  all 
of  the  scales  were  dead,  those  still  alive  having  to  all  appearance  es- 
caped being  sprayed  with  the  wash;  the  leaves  and  fruit  upon  these 
trees  had  not  in  the  least  been  injured  by  the  wash. 

On  the  22d  of  September  of  the  above-named  year  I sprayed  a small 
olive  tree  with  a wash  made  in  accordance  with  the  above  formula,  and 
after  carefully  examining  the  Black  Scales  upon  it  on  the  21st  of  the 
following  month  I found  only  a single  living  scale,  while  the  leaves  on 
the  tree  were  uninjured.  On  the  6tli  of  January  of  the  present  year  I 
was  shown  an  Abutilon  plant  thickly  infested  with  Black  Scales,  and 
was  informed  that  it  had  been  quite  recently  sprayed  with  a wash 
practical1  y the  same  as  that  described  above;  still  quite  a large  per- 
centage of  the  oldest  scales  had  not  been  destroyed  by  the  wash.  It 
would  therefore  be  advisable  to  spray  the  trees  at  a time  when  the 
scales  are  very  young;  this  period  in  ordinary  seasons  extends  from 
about  the  first  of  October  to  the  beginning  of  the  new  year. 

In  place  of  the  above  wash,  some  of  our  fruit  growers  use  one  which 
contains  no  fish  oil,  being  composed  simply  of  resin,  caustic*  soda,  and 
water.  This,  besides  being  cheaper  than  the  preceding  wash,  is  also 
less  troublesome  to  make,  and  while  it  is  not  so  effectual  as  the  former 
wash,  still  it  proves  fatal  to  a large  percentage  of  the  younger  Black 
Scales.  One  of  my  correspondents,  Mr.  0.  B.  Messenger,  of  Pomona, 
in  a letter  to  me  bearing  date  of  March  31,  1890,  gives  his  experience 
with  a wash  of  this  kind  as  follows: 

Last  year  some  of  the  trees  I sprayed  in  midsummer  with  a wash  consisting  of  resin, 
25  pounds;  caustic  soda,  6 pounds,  in  100  gallons  of  the  wash,  were  almost  perfectly 
cleaned  of  Black  Scales,  but  I now  find  that  the  fruit,  or  rather  a small  portion  of  it, 
was  made  unsalable  by  the  solution  giving  the  oranges  a russety  appearance.  Some- 
times the  whole  orange  is  thus  affected,  but  usually  only  in  streaks  where  the  solu- 
tion collected  and  ran  around  to  the  under  side,  where  it  was  the  worst.  The  spray- 
ing did  not  act  in  the  same  way  on  the  fruit  in  the  other  orchards,  although  the 
same  strength  of  wash  was  used  throughout  the  season.  The  present  work  was  fol- 
lowed by  very  hot  weather.  Was  this  the  cause  of  it  If 


33 


I have  often  noticed,  and  in  my  writings  have  frequently  called  at- 
tention to  the  fact,  that  when  used  in  very  hot  weather  all  washes  arc 
more  liable  to  injure  the  tree  or  fruit  than  would  be  the  case  if  used  in 
cooler  weather.  For  use  on  bearing  citrus  trees  in  very  hot  weather 
no  wash  should  contain  over  5 pounds  of  70  per  cent  caustic  soda  in 
100  gallons  of  the  wash;  if  a greater  quantity  than  this  is  used  at  such 
times  there  is  great  danger  of  marking  the  fruit  in  the  manner  above 
described.  When  only  resin  and  caustic  soda  are  to  be  used,  5 pounds 
of  the  latter  and  18  pounds  of  the  former  in  100  gallons  of  the  wash  is 
as  much  as  should  be  used  in  very  hot  weather  on  bearing  citrus  trees. 
I have  never  known  of  a single  instance  where  a wash  of  this  strength 
has  marked  the  fruit  even  when  used  in  the  very  hottest  part  of  the 
summer  season. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  wash  used  by  Mr.  Messenger  is  pre- 
cisely the  same  as  the  one  I used  on  the  7th  of  August,  1889,  in  my 
experiments  199  and  200,  an  account  of  which  I gave  on  page  15  of 
Bulletin  22,  referred  to  above.  I there  recorded  the  fact  that  the  wash 
had  produced  rusty,  brownish  spots  upon  the  young  oranges,  j ust  as 
Mr.  Messenger  also  found  that  it  would  do. 

In  traveling  about  over  the  southern  portion  of  the  State  I have 
frequently  noticed  that  the  Black  Scale  thrives  best  near  the  coast, 
and  that  in  the  hot,  dry  interior  valleys  a large  percentage  of  them  are 
destroyed  by  the  extreme  heat.  Even  in  localities  not  far  from  the 
coast,  large  numbers  of  the  younger  scales  perish  during  the  excessively 
hot  weather  that  sometimes  occurs  during  the  months  of  J uly  and  Aug- 
ust. In  fact,  in  almost  any  locality  these  scales  will  be  found  in  the 
greatest  numbers  upon  trees  having  a dense  foliage,  or  which  are  so 
situated  as  to  be  more  or  less  shaded  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 
For  this  reason  a judicious  use  of  the  pruning  knife  will  accomplish 
much  in  the  way  of  preventing  trees  from  becoming  unduly  infested 
with  these  scales,  while  at  the  same  time  it  will  cause  the  tree  to  be  in 
a better  condition  for  being  treated  with  artificial  remedies. 

The  Frosted  Scale. 

(Lecanium  pruinosum  Coq.) 

Since  writing  up  the  account  of  this  species  which  appeared  in  In- 
sect Life,  vol.  m,  pp.  382-384  I have  made  but  few  additional  notes 
on  this  species.  One  new  food-plant  must  be  added  to  the  list  given 
in  the  above-mentioned  account ; this  is  the  common  Cork  Elm,  quite 
largely  grown  for  ornamental  purposes,  especially  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  State.  On  the  24th  of  May  I received  twigs  of  this  tree  thickly 
infested  with  Frosted  Scales  ; these  were  sent  by  Mr.  G.  W.  Harney, 
President  of  the  Yuba  County  Horticultural  Commission;  and  during 
a recent  visit  to  Marysville  Mr.  Harney  showed  me  the  original  tree 
from  which  these  scales  had  been  taken.  Several  of  the  branches  on 


21382— No.  26 3 


34 


this  tree  were  very  thickly  infested  by  the  scales,  indicating  that  the 
tree  is  perfectly  congenial  to  their  tastes  and  requirements. 

In  the  above-mentioned  account  I stated  the  fact  that  at  that  time 
no  insect  was  known  to  attack  these  scales,  but  since  this  was  written 
I have  bred  from  them  numerous  specimens  of  a small  Chalcid  fly, 
known  as  Coccophagus  lecanii  Fitch.  These  attack  only  the  younger 
scales,  and  only  one  of  the  parasites  infests  each  scale,  causing  the  lat- 
ter to  assume  a more  convex,  much  smoother  form  than  when  not  para- 
sitized, and  the  entire  upper  portion  of  the  parasitized  scale  becomes 
black. 

The  Brown  Apricot  Scale. 

(Lccanium  sp.) 

In  the  Santa  Clara  Valley,  south  of  San  Francisco,  occurs  a species 
of  Lecanium  which  is  sometimes  very  destructive  to  various  kinds  of 
deciduous  trees.  On  the  21st  of  March  of  the  present  year  I received 
specimens  of  these  scales  from  Mr.  F.  M.  Fighter,  an  extensive  grower 
of  deciduous  fruits  located  in  the  above-mentioned  valley.  The  scales 
were  of  two  sizes,  representing  two  different  generations,  the  old  dead 
and  dry  females  and  the  nearly  half-grown  young  ones.  A careful  ex- 
amination of  these  specimens  convinced  me  that  while  they  were  evi- 
dently closely  related  to  the  Frosted  Scale  of  the  preceding  chapter, 
still  they  evidently  belonged  to  a distinct  species.  The  more  marked 
differences  consisted  in  the  smaller  size  of  the  adult  females,  the  fact 
that  they  never  became  covered  with  a whitish  powder,  and  the  further 
fact  that  the  younger  ones  are  destitute  of  the  submarginal  row  of  long 
bristles  which  occur  in  the  young  of  the  Frosted  Scale. 

In  the  letter  which  accompanied  these  specimens  Mr.  Fighter  writes 
as  follows  concerning  them : 

I send  you  by  today’s  mail  specimens  of  tlie  Brown  Apricot  Scale,  so  called,  not- 
-withstanding  they  infest  prune  trees  as  much  or  more  than  apricot.  They  are  also 
found  on  peach,  pear,  apple,  and  cherry,  but  principally  on  Apricot  and  prune. 
* * * I think  they  are  not  the  same  as  the  Brown  Scale  you  mention ; they  are 

never  covered  with  a white  powder. 

Thinking  that  perhaps  the  submarginal  bristles  may  have  existed  in 
perfect  specimens  of  the  young  scales  but  had  been  accidently  broken 
off  of  the  specimens  sent  me  through  the  mails,  I requested  Mr.  Fighter 
to  examine  the  young  scales  fresh  from  the  tree  and  ascertain  if  these 
submarginal  bristles  existed  upon  them;  and  under  date  of  April  18, 
1891,  he  writes  me  as  follows: 

I have  a microscope  of  very  high  magnifying  power,  and  have  carefully  examined 
both  the  young  and  the  full-grown  scales,  and  find  that  neither  of  them  are  pro- 
vided  with  bristles  around  the  edge  of  the  body.  Nor  can  I find  any  as  large  as  you 
mention,  i.  e.,  seven  twenty-fifths  of  an  inch  in  length;  the  largest  I can  find  meas- 
ure seven  thirty-seconds  of  an  inch  in  length. 

Again,  under  date  of  May  12,  he  writes  as  follows: 

The  Brown  Apricot  Scale  seems  to  have  completed  its  work.  Its  eggs  are  laid, 
and  it  is  seemingly  wholly  inactive. 


35 


The  largest  adult  specimens  received  from  Mr.  Righter  are  4mm  long 
by  3 wide  and  If  high,  and  the  smallest  adult  specimens  are  3mm  long, 

2 wide,  and  1 high;  the  color  is  a light  yellowish  brown,  the  outline  oval, 
narrowing  anteriorly;  the  sides  are  rugose  and  transversely  carinate, 
the  dorsum  much  smoother,  and  with  indications  of  a medium  carina 
most  distinct  anteriorly;  the  edges  are  thin  and  spread  out. 

My  library  contains  references  to  upwards  of  fifty  descriptions  of  as 
many  different  kinds  of  Lecanium,  and  it  is  quite  impossible  to  decide 
to  which  of  these  numerous  species  the  Brown  Apricot  Scale  belongs. 

As  a remedy,  the  stronger  resin  wash  described  in  the  chapter  on 
the  San  Jose  Scale  will  doubtless  be  found  effectual  when  used  against 
the  present  species;  it  should  only  be  used  while  the  trees  are  dor- 
mant, and  at  that  time  none  but  the  younger  scales  will  be  found  alive, 
there  being  but  a single  generation  each  year.  Common  brown  laun- 
dry soap,  1 pound  dissolved  in  3 gallons  of  water,  will  doubtless  prove 
fatal  to  these  scales,  as  I have  known  it  to  do  when  applied  to  the  com- 
mon soft  Brown  Scale. 

THYMO-CRESOL  AS  AN  INSECTICIDE. 

Some  time  during  the  past  summer  I received  a can  of  thymo-cresol 
for  experimental  purposes.  No  opportunity  occurred  for  testing  this 
insecticide  until  on  the  4th  of  September,  at  which  date  I sprayed  some 
of  the  diluted  liquid  on  an  orange  tree  infested  with  the  Yellow  Scale 
( Aspidiotus  citrinus)  and  with  the  Soft  Scale  ( Lecanium  hesperidum). 
I used  it  in  the  proportions  of  1 gallon  to  1,000  gallons,  and  also  to  2,000 
gallons,  of  the  wash,  these  being  the  proportions  recommended  for  de- 
stroying scale  insects  on  orange  trees  as  given  in  the  circular  which 
accompanied  the  can  of  insecticide.  The  weaker  wash  did  not  prove 
fatal  to  a very  large  percentage  of  the  scales,  but  the  stronger  one  de- 
stroyed about  00  per  cent  of  them;  there  were  very  few  of  the  soft  scales 
on  this  tree,  but  all  of  them  were  destroyed  by  the  wash,  while  the 
fruit  and  leaves  were  not  injured.  In  the  printed  directions  it  is  rec- 
ommended to  syringe  the  trees  with  pure  water  fifteen  minutes  after 
applying  the  wash,  but  this  I did  not  do,  since  it  would  occasion  too 
much  labor  to  carry  out  this  plan  in  the  case  of  large  orange  groves. 

According  to  a schedule  of  prices  which  accompanied  the  can,  a 
3-gallon  can  of  the  thymo-cresol  costs  $5.25;  at  this  rate,  each  gallon  of 
the  stronger  wash  used  above  would  cost  somewhat  less  than  one-fifth 
of  a cent  per  gallon,  which  would  make  this  an  extremely  cheap  insecti- 
cide. 

In  the  printed  directions  it  is  recommended  to  make  three  applications 
of  this  wash,  at  intervals  of  eight  or  nine  days,  each  application  to  be 
followed  by  a spraying  with  pure  water  fifteen  minutes  after  the  appli- 
cation is  made;  this  plan  might  be  followed  in  regard  to  a few  plants 
or  small  trees,  but  it  is  altogether  too  expensive  for  adopting  in  the 
case  of  large  orange  groves. 


ENTOMOLOGICAL  NOTES  FOR  THE  SEASON  OF  1891. 


By  Mary  E.  Murtfeldt. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 


Kirkwood,  Mo.,  October  31,  1801. 

Sir  : I herewith  inclose  a record  of  some  of  my  observations  and  experiments  for  the 
past  year  relating  to  economic  entomology. 

Respectfully  yours, 

Mary  E.  Murtfeldt. 

Dr.  C.  Y.  Riley, 

Entomologist, 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


Taking  one  locality  with  another,  this  State  may  be  said  to  have 
suffered  less  from  the  ravages  of  insects  during  the  season  of  1891  than 
for  many  years  previous.  The  climatic  conditions  from  early  spring 
until  the  middle  of  August,  a period  covering  the  growing  season  of  the 
most  important  crops,  was  exceedingly  favorable  to  the  perfection  of 
vegetation.  As  a consequence,  the  yield  of  grain,  hay,  fruits,  and  many 
sorts  of  vegetables  has  been  abundant  and  the  quality  unsurpassed. 

In  certain  localities  there  were  irruptions  of  injurious  insects  which 
for  a time  caused  anxiety,  but  these  were,  as  a rule,  over  limited  areas, 
and  the  aggregate  of  loss  occasioned  by  them  was  less  than  had  been 
anticipated. 

The  most  annoying  pests  of  the  spring  and  early  summer  were  Aphi- 
didse  of  numerous  species.  The  punctures  of  the  fruit-infesting  forms 
produced  on  the  new  growth  of  grapes,  peaches,  and  plums  consider- 
able blight  and  deformity. 

The  Woolly  Aphis  of  the  Apple  (Schizoneura  lanigera)  is  an  almost 
invincible  enemy  of  young  orchards  in  some  sections  of  the  State,  es- 
pecially on  gravelly  soils.  On  such  specimens  of  diseased  roots  as  were 
sent  to  me  I could  find  no  trace  of  parasites  or  other  natural  enemies. 
Drenching  with  strong,  hot  soapsuds  was  recommended,  and  was  re- 
ported as  quite  successful  in  checking  the  work  of  the  insect,  but  in 
some  of  the  orchards  the  roots  were  so  warty  and  diseased  that  recupera* 
36 


37 

tion  was  impossible,  and  uprooting  and  burning  tiie  trees  seemed  the 
only  advisable  plan  to  pursue. 

The  Grain  Aphis  (Siphonophora  avence)  was  sent  to  me  from  several 
localities,  but  its  appearance  was  by  no  means  general,  and  the  oat  crop, 
which  in  Missouri  suiters  most  from  this  insect,  was  good  in  almost  all 
parts  of  the  State. 

The  Chinch  Bug  ( Blissus  leucopterus)  appeared  in  considerable  num- 
bers in  the  western  and  southwestern  parts  of  the  State,  first  on  wheat, 
which  it  did  not  materially  injure,  and  later  on  corn,  some  fields  of 
which  were  seriously  damaged.  The  dissemination  of  the  germs  of  so- 
called  u chincli-bug  cholera,”  by  Prof.  Snow,  of  Kansas,  and  Prof. 
Forbes,  of  Illinois,  was  actively  carried  on,  and  the  confidence  of  farmers 
in  this  natural  remedy  for  the  most  serious  pest  of  their  grain  fields  was 
proved  by  the  extent  of  the  demand  for  the  diseased  bugs.  Probably 
not  all  made  use  of  the  latter  in  a way  to  accomplish  the  ridding  of  their 
fields  of  the  bugs,  but  so  far  as  I have  been  able  to  learn  a very  encour- 
aging measure  of  success  attended  the  introduction  of  the  disease  germs 
into  infested  wheat  and  corn  fields. 

The  Joint- worm  ( Isosoma  grande  Riley)  appeared  in  several  sections 
of  the  State  about  the  first  of  June  and  excited  much  apprehension  for 
the  safety  ol  the  wheat  crop.  In  the  samples  of  grain  sent  me  the  larvae 
were  invariably  working  in  the  heads,  then  just  in  bloom.  None  were 
found  in  any  of  the  lower  joints.  Infested  heads  were,  of  course,  utterly 
destroyed,  as  from  three  to  six  worms  were  often  found  in  one  head. 
Mr.  J.  F.  lies,  of  Lexington,  found  about  80  per  cent  of  the  heads 
injured  in  a certain  field,  and  anticipated  the  loss  of  his  crop,  but  later 
he  informed  me  that  the  damage  was  mainly  confined  to  a portion  of  a 
field  that  had  been  planted  on  wheat  stubble  of  the  previous  year. 
The  specimens  reared  from  larvae  sent  me  were  all  females,  and  but  one 
head  contained  pupae  that  had  the  appearance  of  beiug  parasitized,  but 
I was  not  able  to  obtain  the  flies  of  the  latter. 

The  Plum  Curculio  (Conotrachelus  nenuphar). — Notwithstanding  the 
almost  total  failure  in  this  locality  of  all  cultivated  and  most  of  the 
native  stone  fruits,  for  the  two  preceding  years,  this  hardy  and  adapt- 
ive insect  presented  itself  this  season  in  sufficient  numbers  to  inflict 
considerable  damage  upon  the  sweet  cherries,  early  plums,  and  free- 
stone peaches.  On  the  latter,  however,  its  work  was  not  disastrous, 
and  the  later  varieties  escaped  with  very  few  punctures.  The  fruit 
that  tided  it  over  last  year  was  probably  the  Wild  Black  Cherry  (Pru- 
nus  serotina)  and  possibly  some  of  the  pi])  fruits,  although  I have  never 
reared  it  from  any  of  the  latter.  I have,  however,  repeatedly  bred  it 
from  larvae  in  gooseberries. 

The  Harlequin  Cabbage  Bug  ( Murgantia  liistrionica)  was  not  only 
unusually  destructive  to  cabbage,  cauliflower,  and  other  cultivated 
Cruciferae,  but  in  the  southern  counties  attacked  beans,  peas,  and  sev- 
eral other  sorts  of  vegetables.  This  pest  seems  to  be  steadily  advanc- 


38 


ing  northward  and  lias  now  readied  about  the  middle  of  the  State, 
having  been  sent  to  me  from  Phelps,  Washington,  and  Boone  counties. 
The  mature  bugs  are  long-lived,  and  my  correspondents  claim  that 
eggs,  young  larvse,  nymphse,  and  perfect  insects  are  contemporaneous 
throughout  the  season,  and  that  wherever  they  abounded  the  cabbage 
crop  was  almost,  or  quite,  a failure.  With  a view  to  test  insecticides 
upon  them,  I obtained  in  July,  from  Phillipsburg  and  elsewhere,  several 
lots  of  the  mature  insects.  Many  of  these  had  deposited  their  beauti- 
ful egg-clusters  in  the  boxes  by  the  time  they  reached  me.  There  was 
considerable  variation  in  the  intensity  of  the  markings  of  these  eggs, 
some  being  very  dark,  while  others  had  the  black  lines  but  faintly  in- 
dicated, and  one  set  of  about  a dozen  was  entirely  pearl  white.  The 
young  bugs  hatched  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  days,  emerging 
through  the  lids  of  the  little  u barrels,”  which  were  lifted  on  one  edge, 
the  sliell  retaining  its  form  and  ornamentation  after  giving  up  its  in- 
mate. 

Part  of  the  young  bugs  were  transferred  to  plants  in  the  garden  con- 
fined under  wire  screens,  while  others  were  retained  in  the  breeding 
cages. 

The  insecticides  experimented  with  were  X.  O.  dust  and  Pyrethrum, 
neither  of  which  made  much  impression,  and  arsenites  of  ammonia  in 
the  proportions  of  two  tablespoonfuls  to  a gallon  of  water.  This  killed 
some  of  the  young  bugs,  but  also  severely  burned  the  plants,  and 
would  not,  in  any  case,  be  safe  to  use  on  such  a vegetable  as  cabbage. 
Kerosene  emulsion  killed  the  yotmg  bugs  but  did  not  affect  those  that 
were  full-grown.  Thymo-cresol — one  part  to  thirty  of  water — a very 
strong  solution,  was  also  of  no  avail.  Hot  water  was  then  used,  taken 
boiling  from  the  range,  carried  about  100  yards  to  the  garden,  trans- 
ferred to  the  sprinkling  can  and  immediately  applied  to  the  infested 
plants.  The  temperature  was  not  taken,  but  it  could  not  have  been 
much  below  150°  Fahr.  The  plants  were  but  slightly  wilted,  and  the 
bugs  were  all  killed.  In  this  experience  all  my  correspondents  who 
have  tried  the  remedy  concur.  The  only  difficulty  is  to  bring  this,  or 
any  other  application  in  contact  with  all  the  insects,  as  they  seem  to  pre- 
fer feeding  on  the  undersides  of  the  leaves.  But  if  the  drenching  with  hot 
water  be  supplemented  by  careful  hand-picking,  two  or  three  times 
during  the  season,  the  pest  may  be  temporarily  eradicated. 

Cutworms  this  season  gave  far  less  trouble  than  usual.  I am  con- 
vinced that  warm,  wet  winters  do  not  agree  with  them.  NepheJodes 
violans  was  the  only  abundant  species.  This  was  found  in  hay  fields 
eating  the  stalks  and  blades  of  timothy  grass. 

Orsodachna  atra  Ahr. — This  Chrysomelidwas  observed  early  in  April, 
on  the  grounds  of  a neighbor,  swarming  on  the  blossoms  of  the  peach. 
It  would  crowd  into  the  unfolding  buds,  tear  open  the  anthers,  and 
devour  the  pollen  proceeding  from  blossom  to  blossom  with  great  ra- 
pidity, destroying  every  anther  in  its  progress.  In  their  haste  and 


39 


greed  these  beetles  would  accumulate  considerable  pollen  on  their  heads 
and  fore  tarsi,  and  it  is  probable  that  some  of  this  was  brought  in  con- 
tact with  the  stigmas,  but  there  was  every  reason  to  fear  that  they  would 
devour  the  lion’s  share  of  the  golden  grains  and  that  the  ovules  would 
not  receive  enough  to  fertilize  them.  A few  days  later  I found  a con- 
siderable number  of  the  same  beetles  at  work  on  an  isolated  tree  on  our 
own  place,  and  as  the  variety  of  peach  was  not  very  choice,  it  afforded 
a good  opportunity  to  test  the  result  of  the  insect  attack.  They  were 
accordingly  sulfered  to  cut  as  many  authers  as  they  would.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  this  tree,  though  young,  vigorous,  and  favorably  situated, 
and  covered  with  blossoms  in  the  spring,  bore  very  little  fruit,  while 
others  of  the  same  variety,  on  which  Orsodachna  had  not  been  seen, 
produced  abundantly.  Should  it  become  a pest  in  future  years,  its 
habit  of  dropping  to  the  ground  when  disturbed  would  enable  fruit- 
growers to  destroy  it  by  jarring  it  down  upon  cloths  or  trays  moistened 
with  kerosene. 

The  Cottony  Maple  Scale  ( Pulvinaria  innumerabilis). — The  vanguard 
of  the  hosts  of  this  pernicious  Coccid  appeared  again  in  St.  Louis  dur- 
ing the  past  summer  upon  the  trunks  and  branches  of  various  trees 
and  shrubs  in  the  parks,  and  in  many  private  grounds,  and  unless 
timely  attention  is  given  to  the  matter  it  will  next  year  i>rove  as  annoy- 
ing and  destructive  as  it  was  six  or  seven  years  ago. 

The  Post  Oak  Coccid  ( Chernies  sp?). — The  clusters  of  globular  female 
scales  of  this  insect  were  to  be  found  in  the  axils  of  almost  every  twig 
and  leaf  of  the  Post  Oak  ( Q.  obtusiloba)  during  the  past  summer.  These, 
in  connection  with  an  undetermined  fungous  disease,  produced  a re- 
markable blighting  of  the  new  growth,  and  in  a number  of  cases  seemed 
to  be  the  cause  of  the  death  of  the  tree.  So  noticeable  was  the  effect 
in  the  forests  around  Kirkwood  that  many  people  contended  that  it 
was  u locust  year,”  and  wondered  why  we  had  not  noted  the  shrilling 
of  the  Cicada.  It  was  with  difficulty  that  I could  make  them  believe 
the  contrary. 

My  attention  was  not  attracted  to  this  insect  sufficiently  early  in  the 
season  to  enable  me  to  observe  its  development,  and  at  present  the 
scales  contain  only  a mass  of  empty  shells  or  skins.  No  guest  insects 
were  bred  from  them  during  the  season. 

The  White-marked  Tussuck-moth  ( Orgyia  leucostigma). — The  larvae  of 
this  insect  were  very  destructive  to  the  foliage  of  Willow,  Walnut,  Chest- 
nut, Maple,  and  some  other  shade  trees  of  the  streets  and  parks  of  St. 
Louis,  as  well  as  to  Apple  and  Plum  in  private  grounds,  but  I noted  in 
it  a habit  which  will  (or  might)  enable  those  suffering  from  its  ravages 
to  destroy  a large  proportion  of  the  eggs,  namely,  the  trapping  of  a 
great  number  of  the  caterpillars  as  they  were  seeking  a hiding  place 
in  which  to  spin,  by  the  cotton  bands  with  which  so  many  of  the  trees 
that  shade  the  sidewalks  are  encircled.  Some  of  these  bands  that  I 
have  examined  have  been  quite  crowded  with  the  chrysalids  and  egg- 


40 


masses  of  the  insect,  aud,  if  removed  and  burned  before  spring,  will 
certainly  prevent  the  development  of  myriads  of  the  pest.  From  young 
larvae  sent  to  me  last  spring  I reared  several  parasites  ( Limneria  flavi- 
cincta , Ashm.),  but  these  were  not  sufficiently  numerous  to  materially 
reduce  the  numbers  of  the  host  insect.  If  the  infested  trees  be  sprayed 
with  Paris  green,  in  the  proportion  of  1 pound  to  300  gallons  of 
water,  or  a very  dilute  solution  of  arsenites  of  ammonia,  1 pint  to  100 
gallons  of  water,  the  insects  will  be  killed  without  injury  to  the  foliage 
of  any  tree. 

Chamyris  cerintha  Treat. — The  singular  larvae  of  this  beautiful  moth 
were  taken  this  summer  feeding  on  the  foliage  of  the  Damson  Plum. 
They  devour  the  leaf  on  both  sides  to  the  mid  rib,  leaving  the  latter. 
I think  they  have  not  heretofore  been  recorded  among  insects  that  dep- 
redate on  the  foliage  of  fruit  trees. 

Catocala  grynea  is  becoming  with  us  quite  a serious  orchard  pest 
during  the  latter  part  of  May  and  June.  The  larvae  rest  during  the 
day,  closely  appressed  to  the  trunk  and  larger  branches,  and  feed  at 
night.  Spraying  with  Paris  green  is  an  effectual  remedy. 

Edema  albifrons , which  has  not  been  found  here  for  a number  of  years, 
made  a serious  attack  on  the  white  and  post  oaks  early  in  the  summer, 
inflicting  considerable  injury  on  the  foliage.  No  experiments  were 
made  in  the  application  of  artificial  remedies. 

SOME  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  FOREST  TENT-CATERPILLAR. 

While  on  a visit  to  Minnesota  in  May  I had  an  opportunity  of  wit- 
nessing a remarkable  outbreak  of  the  above-named  insect  ( Clisiocampa 
disstria  Hbn.).  In  all  the  forests  around  Minneapolis,  and  especially 
on  the  fine  trees  along  the  shores  of  Lake  Minnetonka,  the  oaks,  elms, 
lindens  ( Tilia ),  and  ash  trees  were  entirely  stripped  of  their  young 
leaves,  the  larvae  migrating  from  tree  to  tree  as  fast  as  the  latter 
were  defoliated.  Many  would  descend  by  the  trunk,  but  a large  pro- 
portion preferred  to  leave  the  tree  by  means  of  silken  ropes,  often 
stretched  from  the  highest  branches  to  the  ground,  and  which,  by 
the  thread  contributed  by  each  descending  worm,  became  eventually 
as  thick  as  packing  cord  and  very  strong.  Down  this  the  worms 
crawled  in  single  file.  In  driving  along  the  woodland  roads  these  long 
swaying  strings  of  worms  presented  a most  singular  spectacle.  Occa- 
sionally one  of  these  ladders  would  be  carried  by  the  wind  (or  possibly 
by  the  accidental  impact  of  a bird)  from  one  tree  to  another,  and  even 
across  the  roads,  forming  festoons  of  crawling  worms  through  which  it 
was  anything  but  agreeable  for  nervous  people  to  drive. 

The  few  orchards  of  that  part  of  the  country  were  also  badly  infested 
by  the  same  species. 

I could  not  observe  much  of  the  tent-making  habit.  Even  when 
molting  in  companies  the  larvse  merely  spun  mats  of  silk  against  the 


41 


bark  of  the  tree  and  in  very  few  cases  was  there  any  attempt  at  a 
shelter. 

From  accounts  in  the  papers  of  that  date  it  would  seem  that  the  in- 
sect prevailed  throughout  the  forests  of  the  Northwest,  and  in  some 
instances,  while  moving  in  armies  from  one  locality  to  another,  they 
were  so  numerous  on  railroad  tracks  as  to  occasion  delays  and  stoppage 
of  trains.  Poultry  refused  to  feed  upon  them,  and,  so  far  as  I was  able 
to  observe,  very  few  birds  attacked  them.  My  stay  was  not  sufficiently 
prolonged  to  enable  me  to  ascertain  what  proportion  of  the  larvae  were 
destroyed  by  parasites.  1 was  informed  by  friends  who  were  summer- 
ing at  Lake  Minnetonka  that  one  still,  warm  evening  early  in  July  all 
the  moths  seemed  to  issue  at  once  and  were  so  numerous  that  the  flut- 
tering of  their  wings  up  and  down  the  trunks  of  the  trees  and  among 
the  branches  filled  the  air  with  a distinct  and  peculiar  humming  sound 
that  attracted  very  general  attention  and  curiosity. 

On  the  succeeding  evening  scarcely  a moth  could  be  seen,  and  it  was 
supposed  that  the  brisk  wind  that  blew  during  the  day  had  carried 
them  into  the  lake.  So  far  as  I could  judge  by  their  behavior  in  the 
rearing  cage,  they  develop  with  remarkable  regularity,  hatching,  molt- 
ing, and  transforming  simultaneously,  so  it  is  probable  that  in  one  or 
two  evenings  of  winged  existence  they  had  fulfilled  their  mission  of 
providing  for  the  continuance  of  their  kind. 

NOTES  ON  SOME  NATURAL  ENEMIES  OF  PERNICIOUS  INSECTS. 

The  Web-worm  Tiger  ( Plochionus  timidus)  (if  I may  be  permitted  to 
give  it  a popular  name)  realized  all  that  was  anticipated  of  it  this  sea- 
son in  its  work  of  exterminating  the  insect  it  has  selected  for  its  special 
prey. 

June  6 I found  two  colonies  of  Hyphantria  cunea , one  on  a young  tree 
of  Box  Elder  and  the  other  on  a vigorous  sprout  of  Laurel  Oak,  both  in 
excellent  position  for  observation  in  situ.  The  larvae  in  each  case  had 
inclosed  but  two  or  three  leaves  and  seemed  to  be  about  ready  for  the 

first  molt. 

On  the  10th  a single  specimen  of  Plochionus  was  observed  running 
up  and  down  in  each  of  these  webs.  On  the  16th  a close  examination 
of  the  nest  revealed  a dozen  or  more  of  the  slender  white  eggs  attached 
to  the  twigs  and  petioles  of  the  leaves  and  a few  laid  loosely  in  the 
web.  On  the  20th  larvae  about  3mm  in  length  were  seen  in  the  web  and 
probably  others  had  attached  themselves  to  the  Web  Worms,  now  about 
llmm,  or  one-half  inch  in  length. 

When  next  visited,  June  23,  the  colony  on  Box  Elder  had  migrated 
and  separated  into  three  companies  on  different  parts  of  the  tree. 
They  had  not,  however,  in  this  way  escaped  their  relentless  foe,  for  a 
number  of  the  active  little  Carabids  were  running  about  among  them 
apparently  quite  at  home  wherever  the  worms  were.  Two  were  seen 


42 

with  their  jaws  buried  in  the  bodies  of  the  Hyphantria  larvae  just  bach: 
of  the  head. 

June  27,  the  presence  of  this  savage  and  persistent  enemy  seemed 
to  utterly  u demoralize”  the  web  worms,  causing  them  to  repeatedly 
u break  up  housekeeping”  and  seek  new  locations,  separating  into 
smaller  and  smaller  groups  in  the  instinctive  search  for  safety.  But 
the  attempt  is  vain;  for  no  sooner  are  they  established  than  Plochionus 
is  on  the  trail,  and  is  not  long  in  discovering  their  whereabouts  and 
biting  into  them  whenever  it  is  hungry. 

By  the  end  of  June  the  colonies  on  both  trees,  though  not  nearly  full- 
grown  and  greatly  reduced  in  numbers,  had  dispersed,  the  gregarious 
instinct  having  evidently  been  lost  much  sooner  than  usual.  A few 
Plochionus  larvae  about  one-half  size  were  to  be  seen  in  the  deserted 
webs  for  a day  or  two  after  the  web  worms  had  disappeared,  after  which 
they,  too,  departed,  and  I presume  descended  to  the  ground,  where  they 
preyed  upon  such  larvae  as  could  be  found  there.  A few  were  placed 
in  a rearing  jar  and  supplied  with  Spilosoma,  Orgyia  and  other  hairy 
larvae,  but  these  were  not  attacked,  nor  was  I able  at  the  time  to  find 
any  other  species  upon  which  they  would  feed,  and  all  perished  without 
completing  their  development. 

The  second  brood  of  Hyphantria,  which  with  us  has  always  been 
most  numerous  and  injurious,  was  very  sparsely  represented  in  this 
locality.  Upon  my  return  from  the  East  I made  diligent  search  in 
Kirkwood  and  vicinity  for  the  remains  of  webs  or  other  evidence  of  the 
worms,  but  could  find  very  few.  To  my  mind  there  is  no  question 
that  this  happy  immunity  is  due  primarily  to  the  agency  of  the  little 
Carabid,  which  has  in  some  way  suddenly  acquired  the  habit  of  prey- 
ing upon  them. 

Uropoda  americana. — About  the  middle  of  July  I received  from  Mr. 
F.  M.  Webster  a few  specimens  of  the  Striped  Cucumber  Beetle  (Dia- 
brotica  vittatci ),  thickly  infested  with  the  above-named  large  brown 
mite,  with  the  request  that  I attempt  to  colonize  it  on  the  same  or  allied 
species  of  beetles  here.  Just  at  that  season  I could  find  but  very  few 
examples  of  D.  vittata , but  as  D.  12-punctata  was  abundant  I hoped  the 
mites  would  accept  the  latter  as  a substitute.  In  this  I was  disappointed, 
the  parasites  refusing  to  leave  their  original  hosts.  After  a few  days 
two  or  three  specimens  of  vittata  and  several  each  of  Colaspis  i)rw- 
texta , C.  tristis , Lema  trilineata , and  Doryphora  10-lineata  were  intro- 
duced into  the  jar  and  each  supplied  with  its  preferred  food.  The  jar — a 
large  one  of  clear  glass — was  kept  on  my  desk  under  constant  observa- 
tion, and  in  two  days  I noticed  a few  of  the  mites  on  each  species  of 
Colaspis,  with  a very  evident  preference  for  the  pretty  blue  tristis.  In  the 
course  of  a week  all  the  specimens  of  the  latter  were  thickly  covered  and 
much  weakened,  while  only  a few  were  found  on  prcetexta  and  none  at 
all  on  any  of  the  other  species,  not  even  on  the  fresh  specimens  of  their 
original  host.  In  accordance  with  a suggestion,  the  attempt  was  made 


43 

to  colonize  tliem  upon  Anasa  tristis  and  other  Hemiptera,  but  without 
success. 

A few  of  the  mites  had,  when  first  received,  been  introduced  into  the 
cucumber  bed,  and  upon  leaving  home  in  August  I transferred  all  the 
beetles  to  the  garden  in  the  hope  that  they  would  disseminate  the  para- 
site. To  what  extent  this  has  been  done  I can  not  now  say.  Upon  my 
return  home,  after  an  absence  of  a month,  I found  the  garden  suffering 
from  heat  and  drought,  the  cucumber  plants  nearly  all  dead,  and  no 
mite-infested  beetles  to  be  seen.  I hope,  however,  that  Uropoda  may 
reappear  next  season  in  time  to  save  us,  in  a measure,  from  the  attacks 
not  only  of  the  cucumber  beetle,  but  from  those  of  Colaspis  on  flowers 
and  grape  foliage,  on  which  both  the  bronze  and  the  blue  species  have 
for  several  years  inflicted  much  damage. 

The  Cabbage- worm  Parasite  (Apanteles  glomeratus). — It  is  with  great 
satisfaction  that  I announce  the  advent  into  Missouri  of  this  valuable 
natural  check  to  the  ravages  of  Pieris  rapce.  It  was  observed  about 
the  1st  of  August  in  the  gardens  of  Kirkwood,  and  about  the  same 
time  was  reported  to  me  by  Mr.  C.  P.  Fox,  of  the  experiment  station  at 
Columbia,  in  this  State.  Mr.  Fox  claimed  that  in  his  locality  it  had 
destroyed  about  80  per  cent  of  the  worms.  Unfortunately  many  of  the 
cocoons  received  from  this  gentleman  were  infested  with  a secondary 
parasite  ( Tetrastichus  sp.  ?)  which  may  interfere  somewhat  with  its  future 
abundance.  In  this  vicinity  the  primary  parasite  was  unmolested,  but 
was  not  so  numerous  as  at  Columbia,  not  more  than  one  in  five  or  six 
of  the  worms  being  affected.  It  was  found,  also,  upon  two  larvae  of  P. 
protodice , which  in  our  garden  were  feeding  upon  Sweet  Alyssum.  It 
has  been  several  years  since  I found  the  latter  larvae  upon  cabbage. 
In  some  unexplained  way  P.  rapce  seems  to  have  driven  them  from  the 
field. 

I have  not  yet  learned  how  general  the  appearance  of  the  cabbage- 
worm  parasite  was  during  the  past  summer  in  this  State,  but,  judging 
from  the  fine  crop  of  cabbages  sent  to  our  city  markets  from  the  north- 
ern and  western  counties,  the  vegetable  must  have  been  rescued  by 
some  natural  agency  from  its  most  serious  enemy,  and  this  agency,  I 
strongly  suspect,  was  the  little  Apanteles  under  consideration. 

INSECTICIDES. 

The  only  new  preparation  experimented  with  this  summer  was 
u Thymo-cresol,”  Lawford  Bros.,  importers,  Baltimore,  Md.  This  fluid 
is  offered  to  the  public  more  especially  as  a u cold-water  dip”  for  sheep 
and  for  use  on  poultry  and  other  animals  in  the  case  of  vermin.  It  is 
also  claimed  to  be  a valuable  disinfectant  and  antiseptic.  In  accord- 
ance with  instructions  from  the  Department  it  was  tried  as  an  insecti- 
cide in  the  place  of  kerosene  emulsion.  Added  to  50  parts  of  water  it 
forms  a milk-white,  soapy  fluid  that  distributes  readily  through  the 
Lewis  hand  sprayer.  It  has  no  disagreeable  odor,  a point  that  counts 


44 

in  its  favor,  and  is  not  irritating  to  the  skin,  nor  in  any  degree  poison- 
ous. 

The  first  use  made  of  it  was  against  that  worst  of  all  poultry  pests, 
the  Chicken  Louse  ( Goniocotes  hologaster).  This  is  a minute  creature, 
much  resembling  the  Bed  Spider  so  injurious  to  plants.  It  is  often 
found  in  birds’  nests  and  is  probably  in  this  way  communicated  to 
chickens.  In  the  case  in  question  these  lice  not  only  appeared  in  the 
chicken  house,  but  invaded  the  adjacent  stable,  where  they  proved  ex- 
tremely irritating  to  not  only  the  horse,  but  to  the  person  in  charge.  As 
soon  as  the  matter  was  mentioned  at  the  house  measures  were  taken  to 
exterminate  the  pest.  The  chickens  and  other  animals  were  excluded 
from  their  usual  quarters  and  the  buildings  fumigated  with  burning 
sulphur.  This  was  followed  by  a thorough  dusting  with  air-slaked 
lime,  usually  a dependable  remedy.  In  this  instance,  however,  these 
measures  did  not  suffice  to  expel  all  the  lice,  and  complaints  of  the  nuis- 
ance continued.  As  a last  resort  the  Thymo-cresol,  a package  of  which 
had  just  been  received,  was  recommended,  and  a large  quantity  ot 
water  was  prepared  with  the  proportions  of  the  remedy  according  to 
instructions.  With  this  the  chicken  house,  inside  and  out,  and  the  en- 
tire stable  was  thoroughly  drenched  by  the  aid  of  the  appliance  men- 
tioned above,  and  there  was  no  further  trouble  with  the  louse. 

As  a disinfectant  its  use  was  continued  throughout  the  season  in  the 
barn  and  outbuildings. 

As  an  insecticide  my  experiments  would  not  justify  me  in  recommending 
it  for  general  use.  It  was  tried  upon  the  beetles  and  larvae  of  the  Pota  to- 
beetle;  upon  the  Squash  Bug  (Anasa  tristis );  upon  the  Twelve-spotted 
Cucumber  Beetle  (Diabrotica  12-punctata) ; upon  the  Harlequin  Cabbage 
Bug  ( Murgantia  histrionica ),  and  upon  a number  of  other  Coleoptera 
and  Hemiptera  without  appreciable  effect.  Various  A phi  did  te  were 
destroyed  by  repeated  applications;  the  larvae  of  the  Cabbage  Butter- 
fly were  also  sickened  by  two  or  three  doses,  but  a single  wetting  did 
not  suffice  to  do  much  good;  a strong  solution — 1 part  to  30  of  water — 
was  used  upon  Harris’s  Apple  Scale  ( Chionaspis  furfur  us)  and  upon  the 
Bose  Scale  and  seemed  to  penetrate  to  and  destroy  the  eggs;  but  on 
the  whole  it  is  not  sufficiently  drastic  to  kill  at  once  by  contact,  and  is 
not  speedily  poisonous  to  vegetable-feeding  insects  if  taken  in  with  the 
food.  Its  effects  on  vegetation  are  not  injurious,  except  when  a num- 
ber of  applications  are  made  in  succession  without  spraying  with  pure 
water  to  rinse  it  off.  I hope  to  repeat  and  extend  experiments  with  it 
another  year,  especially  to  give  it  a thorough  trial  on  animal  parasites, 
for  which  but  little  opportunity  offered  the  present  season. 


REPOET  OF  PROGRESS  IN  THE  INVESTIGATION  OF  THE 
COTTON  BOLL  WORM. 


By  F.  W.  Mally. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 


Shreveport,  La.,  October  9,  1891. 


Sir:  At  your  request  I have  hastily  prepared  a very  brief  and  condensed  summary 
of  this  season’s  work,  carried  on  under  your  direction,  upon  the  Cotton  Boll  Worm 
( Heliothis  armigera  Htibn.). 

All  details  as  to  experiments,  observations,  and  special  notes  have  been  omitted, 
as  the  summary  was  only  to  give  an  adequate  idea  of  the  present  condition  of  the 
investigation. 

Very  respectfully,  yours, 


Dr.  C.  V.  Riley, 

Entomologist. 


F.  W.  Mally, 

Assistant. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  AND  DESTRUCTIVENESS. 

The  Boll  W orm  is  found  throughout  the  whole  cotton  region.  Over  the 
greater  port  ion  of  this  area  its  injury  is  only  slight  and  not  worthy  of  spe- 
cial economic  consideration.  The  regions  where  special  remedial  or  pre- 
ventive measures  are  practicable  comprise  that  portion  of  Texas  included 
by  an  irregular  line  drawn  from  Paris  to  Tyler,  to  Cameron,  to  Temple, 
to  Gainesville,  to  Paris.  For  Arkansas  a narrow  belt  from  Fort  Smith 
to  Morrillton,  to  Little  Rock,  to  the  southeastern  portion  of  the  State 
For  the  Indian  Territory  a strip  running  from  Gainesville,  Tex.,  to  Fort 
Smith,  Ark.  These  are  the  areas  of  greatest  destructiveness,  and  for 
the  whole  area  the  injury  may  range  from  10  to  15  per  cent  of  the  whole 
crop.  For  certain  counties  the  percentage  of  injury  is  greater.  Again, 
individual  plantations  may  be  almost  wholly  destroyed  while  a dozen 
others  adjoining  may  escape  with  only  slight  injury.  The  sensational 
reports  of  damage  are  nearly  always  based  upon  these  individual  ex- 
amples, and  an  accurate  scientific  estimate  of  the  average  for  a county 
or  district  is  seldom  made.  The  worst  infested  fields  are,  in  most  cases, 
those  which  for  some  of  many  reasons  which  could  be  given  in  a de- 
tailed report  behind  the  others  j that  is,  late  cotton.  This  makes  them 

45 


46 


more  attractive  10  the  moths  and  accounts,  in  part,  for  the  fact  that 
one  field  is  badly  injured  while  surrounding  ones  are  not.  The  injury 
in  other  portions  of  the  cotton  region  not  specially  outlined  above 
amounts  to  less  than  2 per  cent,  and  is  so  scattering  as  not  to  demand 
serious  attention,  unless,  perhaps,  in  a few  isolated  exceptional  locali- 
ties. 

FOOD-PLANTS. 

Corn  is  well  known  as  its  choice  food-plant.  Cow-peas  rank  next, 
and  cotton  probably  third,  though  there  is  evidence  that  if  the  tomato 
crop  were  in  as  prime  a condition  later  in  the  season  when  corn  matures 
the  tomato  would  rank  third,  and  cotton,  at  best,  about  fourth.  This 
accounts  in  part  for  the  slight  injury  to  cotton  over  most  of  the  cot- 
ton belt,  where  many  of  the  crops  just  mentioned  are  planted  a second 
time  later  in  the  season,  and  which,  therefore,  divides  the  attack  of  the 
Boll  W orm  on  cotton.  Experience  has  abundantly  shown  that  cotton  as 
a food-plant  is  more  a compulsion  than  a choice.  More  stress  should 
be  placed  upon  the  importance  from  an  economic,  entomological  stand- 
point upon  the  many  host  plants  already  on  record  for  this  species.  In 
localities  where  the  cultivation  of  tobacco  is  being  introduced  it  is  to  be 
noted  that  the  Boll  Worm  abundantly  attacks  the  crop,  and  care  must 
be  exercised  in  order  that  its  ravages  may  not  attain  serious  propor- 
tions and  endanger  the  progress  of  the  introduction  of  this  crop.  In 
large  cities  even  flower  gardens  entirely  isolated  from  corn  or  cotton 
fields,  have  been  frequently  found  to  be  infested  with  Boll  Worm.  This 
can  not  be  accidental,  as  might  be  urged,  if  these  gardens  were  exposed 
to  badly  infested  fields,  and  it  simply  illustrates  the  reckless,  apparently 
Indifferent  habit  of  the  female  as  to  the  host  plant  upon  which  she  de- 
posits. Special  mention  in  city  flower  gardens  should  be  given  the 
Verbena,  Geranium,  Abutilon,  rosebuds,  and  Jack  Beans. 

CHARACTERS  AND  TRANSFORMATIONS. 

These  have  been  so  fully  described  heretofore  that  nothing  further 
deserves  special  mention  in  this  connection,  except  the  habit  of  can- 
nibalism among  the  worms.  As  for  the  imagos,  former  observations  as 
to  their  diurnal  habits  have  been  fully  verified  the  present  season.  At 
Arlington,  Tex.,  last  August,  hundreds  were  seen  flying  and  feeding 
freely  on  cow-peas  from  9:30  to  about  11  a.  m.  Though  carefully 
watched,  deposition  at  this  time  was  not  observed,  and  it  appeared  that 
they  were  only  breakfasting.  Deposition,  however,  could  be  frequently 
noted  in  the  afternoon  several  hours  before  sundown. 

NUMBER  OF  BROODS  AND  HIBERNATION. 

As  to  the  number  of  broods  nothing  additional  need  be  mentioned 
at  this  time.  The  question  of  hibernation,  however,  demands  special 
consideration,  and  steps  must  yet  be  taken  to  determine  more  definitely 


47 


the  facts.  Your  agent,  unfortunately,  has  been  located  in  regions  not 
especially  infested,  and  it  transpires  that  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  adults 
at  any  season  in  the  localities  under  observation  that  hibernating  speci- 
mens would  be  rarely  found. 

There  is  no  question  but  that  many  pupae  do  not  issue  in  the  fall,  but 
remain  as  such  over  winter.  Many  of  these  even  enter  the  pupa  state 
as  early  as  the  middle  or  latter  part  of  September  and  remain  quiescent 
until  April  or  May.  The  decided  overlapping  of  the  broods  from  the 
beginning  of  the  season  is  thus  easily  explained,  for  doubtless  the 
hibernating  moths  appear  earlier  than  those  issuing  from  the  pupae  in 
spring. 

Observation  proves  beyond  a doubt  that  a great  majority  of  the 
destructive  brood  on  cotton  in  August  and  September  issue  as  imagos 
before  the  close  of  the  season.  The  facts  also  prove  that  instead  of  the 
number  of  worms  which  might  rightfully  be  expected  from  these  imagos 
to  appear  in  greatly  increased  numbers  absolutely  appear  in  decreased 
numbers.  This  indicated  that  some  of  the  moths  of  this  brood  were 
bent  upon  hibernation  and  refrained  from  depositing  at  this  time.  In- 
deed, the  facts  disclosed  by  the  latest  observations  warrant  the  asser- 
tion that  many  of  the  imagos  resulting  from  this  destructive  brood 
hibernate.  The  majority  of  the  worms  spoken  of  in  previous  reports 
as  found  so  late  in  the  season  are  mostly  those  from  the  eggs  of  belated 
females  of  the  preceding  brood  and  worms  whose  most  rapid  develop- 
ment has  been  hindered  by  various,  perhaps  accidental,  unfavorable 
environments.  Furthermore,  as  previously  stated,  the  broods  from  the 
very  first  of  the  season  overlap*.  Doubtless,  therefore,  a great  portion 
of  the  worms  found  during  the  latter  part  of  September  and  later  con- 
sist also  of  the  lap,  so  to  speak,  of  the  last  brood,  and  should  not  be 
counted  as  a separate  brood  or  even  a partial  one. 

NATURAL  ENEMIES. 

The  cannibalistic  habit  of  the  Boll  Worm  makes  it  its  own  greatest 
enemy,  as  will  be  shown  under  the  head  of  remedial  measures.  All  the 
enemies  noted  in  Bulletin  No.  24  of  the  Division  have  been  observed 
again.  The  same  special  stress  and  importance  must  again  be  repeated 
in  speaking  of  the  egg  parasite  ( Trichogramma  pretiosa).  Its  value  can 
not  be  overestimated.  Among  birds  the  Sapsucker,  Crow  Blackbird, 
and  Crows  deserve  special  mention.  Another  species  of  Bobber  Fly 
was  noted  catching  the  imagos.  Observations  upon  the  habit  of  ants 
( Solenopsis  geminata)  earlier  in  the  season  makes  it  absolutely  certain 
that  at  that  season  they  frequently  capture  a Boll  Worm.  They  do  so 
mostly  when  the  worm  travels  or  comes  out  of  the  ear  of  corn  to  molt. 
They  seldom  enter  an  ear  of  corn  for  a deliberate  search  after  their  vic- 
tim. Later  in  the  season,  when  there  is  a greater  diversity  of  insect 
life  and  also  vegetable  growth,  the  ant  loses  special  interest  in  the  Boll 
Worm. 


48 


A small  Capsid  ( Triphleps  insidiosus)  is  found  abundantly  on  corn 
silks.  It  punctures  and  feeds  upon  the  eggs  of  Heliotliis  and  probably 
very  young  Boll  Worms.  Many  beneficial  insects,  especially  the  small 
Scymnid  beetles,  are  also  abundantly  found  on  corn  silks.  This  sub- 
ject will,  however,  be  treated  more  fully  in  a subsequent  report. 

INSECT  RAVAGES  EASILY  MISTAKEN  FOR  THOSE  OF  BOLL  WORM. 

All  of  those  noted  in  Bulletin  No.  24  of  the  Division  have  been  ob- 
served again,  with  the  additional  one  of  Thecla  pceas , which,  however, 
had  been  previously  recorded.  Among  the  Tortricidae,  a number  of 
species  have  been  reared  on  cotton.  The  habits  of  the  larvae  are  well 
known  to  be  such  that  it  is  reasonable  to  expect  that  those  species  of 
Pyralidae  and  Tortricidae  which  feed  on  cotton  at  all  may  occasionally 
in  doing  so  bore  a stem  or  peduncle,  or  even  the  bolls,  forms,  and 
squares  themselves. 

Many  Hemipterous  insects  puncture  very  young  forms  and  squares, 
or  their  peduncles,  causing  the  prospective  fruit  to  fall.  The  mark  re- 
sulting from  the  puncture  closely  resembles  the  working  of  very  young 
Boll  Worms,  and  by  many  planters  the  latter  are  held  responsible  for 
the  injury.  To  Hemipterous  insects  is  due  much  of  the  shedding  of 
cotton  in  August  and  September,  and  ravages  are  popularly  called 
u sharpshooter”  work.  The  most  injurious,  and  perhaps  also  the  most 
abundant  of  the  sharpshooters  is  a large  leaf-hopper  ( Aulacizes  sp.). 
Calocoris  rapidus , Largus  cinctus  are  among  those  also  which  do  much 
damage.  The  life-history  and  ravages  of  these  insects  must  be  re- 
served for  more  complete  discussion  in  a subsequent  report. 

REMEDIES. 

The  great  range  of  food-plants  of  the  Boll  Worm,  its  habit  and  method 
of  feeding  upon  special  portions  of  these  host  plants,  together  with  the 
isolation  of  individuals  which  necessarily  follow  such  food-habits,  make 
all  insecticidal  measures  of  any  nature  little  of  or  no  practcial  utility. 
In  the  regions  designated  heretofore  as  injured  probably  about  2 per 
cent  or  less,  the  attack  by  the  Boll  Worm  is  divided  between  so  many 
different  crops  that  the  application  of  any  insecticide  upon  one  crop  be- 
comes much  more  expensive  for  that  crop  than  the  injury  done  by  the 
worm.  Furthermore,  such  measures  are  inadequate  unless  applied  to 
all  the  crops  attacked  at  any  specified  time  in  any  given  locality.  For 
these  regions  it  is  evident,  therefore,  that  insecticidal  measures  are 
entirely  impractical,  even  though  the  insecticide  be  a perfectly  efficient 
one  and  can  be  applied  with  the  greatest  effect.  The  same  can  be  said 
for  localities  worse  infested,  though  the  difference  in  destructiveness 
partly  mitigates  the  excess  of  expense.  In  any  case,  the  vast  areas  of 
cotton  to  be  treated  in  addition  to  other  crops  still  make  such  measures 
questionable  as  to  expense,  aside  from  the  time  required  during  the 


49 


busy  season  when  such  remedies  must  be  applied.  It  is  the  opinion, 
therefore,  of  your  agent  that  no  insecticidal  measures,  even  though 
efficient  as  such,  are  to  be  recommended,  because  from  the  nature  of  the 
case  they  are  burdensome  and  impracticable.  The  whole  work  must 
be  accomplished  by  preventive  measures,  such  as  are  hereinafter  dis- 
cussed, and  which  have  been  suggested  by  the  food-habits  of  the  species 
in  question,  and  which  by  experiment  have  been  found  adequate.  In 
this  way  it  was  determined  that  the  Boll  Worm  has  a choice  food-plant 
among  the  long  list  recorded,  and,  as  will  be  seen,  it  has  been  the  effort 
of  your  agent  to  demonstrate  the  practicability  of  manipulating  this 
food-plant  so  as  to  concentrate  the  attack  upon  it,  first  trapping  the 
worms  and  then  destroying  them. 

PLOWING. 

Fall  plowing,  as  a preventive  measure  against  Boll  Worm  in  slightly 
infested  regions,  is  not  practical  as  a purely  boll  worm  measure.  In 
badly  infested  regions  it  is  to  be  done  Avheii  possible.  The  great  diffi- 
culty with  this  measure  is  that  the  toil  crop  of  cotton  is  seldom  all  picked 
timely  enough  to  make  fall  plowing  possible  before  the  rainy,  wintry 
season  begins.  Due  to  this  fact,  it  must  be  urged  that  plowing  be  done 
in  spring,  as  early  as  it  is  possible  to  plow  and  pulverize  the  soil.  This 
early  plowing,  with  the  cold,  rainy  weather  and  occasional  frosts,  which 
occur  as  late  as  April  1,  will  insure  the  destruction  of  many  of  the 
chrysalids.  The  after-preparation  of  the  soil  at  planting  time  will 
doubtless  destroy  a small  percentage  of  the  surviving  pupae. 

Early  plowing,  in  addition  to  being  a boll  worm  preventive,  has  its 
strong  advocates  among  leading  agricultural  men,  who  insist  that  it 
should  be  followed  as  an  invproved  method  or  practice  of  farming,  since 
larger  and  better  crops  are  produced  when  done. 

COHN. 

Corn  is  beyond  doubt  the  choice  food-plant  of  the  Boll  Worm.  From 
about  the  middle  of  April,  when  the  corn  becomes  large  enough  for  the 
Boll  Worm  to  work  in  it,  this  worm  may  be  found,  and  continuously  so 
on  through  the  season  so  long  as  green  corn  in  suitable  condition  for 
food  is  found.  Until  about  the  middle  of  May  or  first  of  June,  Boll 
Worms  are  rarely  found  on  any  other  plants  than  young  corn.  This 
being  true  it  is  surprising  to  find  that  the  first  brood  is  so  small.  From 
numerous  accurate  accounts  in  May  and  early  June,  at  Shreveport,  La., 
it  was  found  that  about  2 per  cent  of  the  young  corn  plants  showed 
signs  of  Boll  Worm  ravage,  while  (due  to  the  change  of  plants  by  the 
worms)  less  than  2 per  cent  actually  contained  worms. 

At  this  time  there  is  presented  the  first  and  most  important  opportu- 
nity for  inaugurating  preventive  measures,  namely:  to  cut  out  the  in- 
tested  plants  and  burn  them  or  simply  crush  the  “bud”  of  the  coru 
21382 — No,  20—4 


50 


and  mash  the  worm  it  contains.  The  small  percentage  of  corn  which, 
even  by  the  severest  method,  will  be  destroyed,  together  with  its  ab- 
solute certainty  in  attaining  the  desired  end  makes  this  a cheap,  effect- 
ual, and  practical  measure  to  practice  at  this  season  of  the  year. 

Some  advise  the  application  of  oil  emulsions  to  the  “ buds”  of  the 
young  corn  plants,  but  the  time  required  to  prepare  the  emulsions,  ex- 
pense of  material  and  apparatus  for  applying  properly  the  liquids,  or 
powders  used,  again  throws  it  beyond  the  realm  of  the  practical.  There 
can  be  no  practical  advantage  gained  since  no  remedy  of  this  nature 
can  be  more  satisfactory  and  expeditious  than  the  practice  of  crushing 
or  cutting  out  and  burning  of  the  “buds”  of  infested  plants  as  already 
described. 

This  preventive  measure  has  the  advantage  of  being  inaugurated 
at  a time  when  labor  is  not  so  much  needed  for  other  purposes,  and 
hence  can  be  done  at  a Jesser  cost  and  sacrifice.  It  can  be  utilized, 
however,  only  during  the  fore  part  of  the  season,  before  the  corn  tas- 
sels, and  hence  the  importance  of  early  action  on  the  part  of  the  plant- 
ers at  the  time  specified. 

As  a second  preventive  measure  the  cotton  field  should  be  so  ar- 
ranged that  four  or  five  rows  of  corn  are  planted  for  every  forty  or  fifty 
rows  of  cotton,  the  corn  to  be  planted  at  a such  a time  as  to  be  in  the 
prime  of  silking  and  roasting  ears  a week  or  ten  days  after  the  July 
brood  of  Boll  Worms  matures  in  the  regular  crop  corn  5 that  is  to  say, 
at  the  time  when  the  moths  of  the  destructive  August  brood  which  at- 
tacks cotton  begin  issuing.  Finding  the  regular  crop  corn  too  near 
maturity  they  are  compelled  to  go  to  the  cotton.  This  occurs  from 
about  the  first  to  the  middle  of  August,  depending  more  or  less  upon 
the  locality.  The  important  point  is  to  have  green  corn  in  suitable  con- 
dition for  food  at  the  time  when  what  is  called  “the  destructive  brood” 
goes  to  cotton.  This  time,  as  is  well  known,  varies  some  in  each  local- 
ity, and  can  and  must  be  best  determined  by  the  farmers  of  their  re- 
spective localities.  In  most  cases  the  result  will  be  accomplished  if  the 
trap  corn  spoken  of  is  planted  from  about  the  first  to  middle  of  June. 

By  some  dozen  experiments  with  trap-planted  corn  in  various  locali- 
ties, its  practicability  as  well  as  efficacy  has  been  demonstrated.  The 
female  unquestionably  selects  the  trap-planted  corn  for  egg  deposition 
to  the  practical  neglect  of  the  surrounding  cotton  and  all  other  food 
plants  except  cow-peas.  The  trap-planted  corn  being  reduced  to  the 
minimum  quantity,  the  egg  deposition  upon  each  individual  ear  is  un- 
naturally increased.  Oftentimes  fifteen  to  twenty-five  or  thirty  eggs 
were  found  on  the  silks  of  a single  ear.  The  worms  fed  and  found 
plenty  of  room  in  the  ear  of  corn  for  a time,  but  as  they  grew  larger 
they  became  crowded  and  began  to  prey  upon  each  other.  When  this 
preying  is  once  started  it  is  carried  1 6 such  an  extent  in  these  infested 
ears  that  rarely  more  than  one  (sometimes  two)  of  the  twenty  or  thirty 
worms  ever  attain  maturity.  Those  even  which  attain  maturity  have 
yet  the  risk  of  capture  by  natural  enemies,  parasites,  disease,  etc.,  to 


51 


experience  when  leaving  the  ear  and  traveling  about  seeking  a suitable 
place  for  pupation.  The  number  of  ears  of  corn  having  been  reduced 
to  a minimum  by  trap  planting,  it  is  found  that  the  cannibalism  in- 
duced among  the  worms  reduces  those  reaching  maturity  to  minimum 
also.  More  than  a minimum  can  not  be  accomplished,  whatever  be 
the  remedial  or  preventive  measures.  It  becomes  questionable,  there- 
fore, whether  it  is  to  be  recommended  that  the  trap-planted  corn  be 
cut  and  burned  so  as  to  destroy  the  few  worms  attaining  maturity  in 
it,  because  the  value  of  the  corn  more  than  compensates  for  the  small 
percentage  of  worms  thus  maturing. 

Again,  the  numerous  fresh  corn  silks  so  late  in  the  season  seem  to  be 
specially  attractive  to  many  beneficial  insects  as  suitable  resorts,  and 
the  egg  parasite  and  many  of  the  other  smaller  natural  enemies  of  the 
Boll  Worm  are  found  abundantly  on  these  silks  and  in  the  ends  of  the 
ears.  Whether  they  are  attracted  by  the  corn  silks  being  fresh  or  in 
search  of  the  objects  of  their  prey,  the  fact  remains  that,  being  thus 
conveniently  quartered  in  the  trap  itself,  these  beneficial  insects  have 
more  frequent  and  better  opportunities  for  successfully  preying  upon 
the  obnoxious  insect.  Their  attack  under  such  circumstances  may  be 
said  to  be  artificially  concentrated  more  or  less  against  a specified  in- 
jurious insect  and  hence  makes  them  more  efficient  agents  in  reducing 
and  assisting  in  the  control  of  the  ravages  of  that  species.  A portion 
of  these  beneficial  insects  would  also  be  destroyed  by  any  treatment  of 
the  corn  looking  to  the  artificial  destruction  of  the  Boll  Worm.  In  view 
of  these  additional  facts  it  seems  best  not  to  urge  such  a measure. 

As  to  the  first  preventive  measure,  some  insist  that  cutting  out 
infested  corn  early  in  the  season  endangers  a good  stand.  In  reply  it 
can  be  said  that,  much  of  the  corn  being  drilled  in,  some  is  chopped  out 
at  the  time  of  the  first  plowing.  At  the  time  of  this  first  chopping  a 
greater  proportion  of  the  drilled  corn  can  be  left  and  at  the  time  neces- 
sary to  most  efficiently  attack  the  Boll  Worm  the  portion  cut  out  will 
be  counterbalanced  by  the  slight  excess  left  from  the  first  thinning. 
But,  as  already  stated,  absolute  chopping  and  burning  need  not  be 
resorted  to  if  care  is  exercised  so  that  the  crushing  process  be  thor- 
oughly done.  In  that  case  the  worm  is  destroyed  and  the  plant,  as 
experiments  have  shown,  is  not  materially  injured  and  still  makes  a 
good  ear  of  corn. 

To  the  second,  some  object  that  by  planting  a trap  crop  in  the  man- 
ner recommended  you  actually  encourage  the  greatest  possible  devel- 
opment in  point  of  numbers,  that  succeeding  broods  will  be  proportion- 
ately greater,  and  hence  the  measure  will  be  worse  than  no  remedy. 
This  has  already  been  partially  answered.  The  trap  corn  is  reduced 
to  the  minimum  in  quantity.  This  makes  a maximum  crowded  condi- 
tion which  induces  the  maximum  cannibalism  in  the  species  and,  as 
already  explained,  actually  makes  the  Boll  Worm  its  own  destroyer. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  trap  corn  were  not  planted  the  moths  would 
of  necessity  deposit  on  cotton.  Here  there  is  plenty  of  room  and  each 


52 


in  dividual  worm  would  feed  and  mature  independently;  hence  no  con- 
ditions exist  to  induce  their  preying  upon  each  other  and  the  maximum 
number  of  worms  attain  maturity. 

The  results  of  this  preventive  measure  may  be  concisely  stated  to 
be:  First,  protection  of  the  cotton.  Second,  the  minimum  number  of 
Boll  Worms  reach  maturity  without  additional  expense  after  being- 
trapped.  Third,  the  first  and  second  are  both  attained  without  special 
cost,  in  that  no  money  outlay  is  necessary;  no  additional  labor,  since 
the  same  would  be  required  were  the  rows  cotton  instead  of  corn ; at 
any  rate  corn  enough  is  produced  to  pay  for  the  time  and  labor  re- 
quired. Fourth,  beneficial  insects  are  more  or  less  attracted  and  their 
attack  concentrated  to  a certain  extent  upon  a single  obnoxious  insect. 
Fifth,  the  planter  thus  protecting  his  cotton  is  certain  to  succeed, 
whether  his  neighbors  attempt  equally  with  him  to  jirotect  theirs  or 
not,  for,  having  fresh  corn  in  good  condition  in  his  cotton,  visiting 
moths  from  adjoining  farms  will  choose  to  deposit  and  the  resulting 
worms  will  ravage  the  corn  to  the  practical  neglect  of  the  cotton. 

COW-PEAS. 

For  attracting  or  diverting  the  Boll  Worm  moth  from  the  cotton  this 
crop  ranks  next  to  corn.  The  essential  point  to  be  attained  is  to  plant 
the  peas  at  such  a time  that  the  crop  will  be  in  the  height  of  its  bloom- 
ing period  during  the  latter  part  of  August  and  September.  The 
Boll  Worm  moth  is  very  fond  of  sipping  the  sweets  at  the  base 
of  the  developing  blooms  and  very  young  pods.  The  peas  answer  the 
purpose  best  it  seems  if  planted  in  distinct  rows  adjoining  cotton  fields. 
The  growth  should  be  rank  and  dense,  so  as  to  induce  the  moths  to 
make  these  rows  of  dense  growth  their  hiding  place.  From  observa- 
tion it  has  been  often  found  that  where  patches  of  peas  in  prime  con- 
dition were  met  with  during  August  and  September  the  moths  were 
found  there  in  great  abundance  and  to  the  practical  exclusion  of  them 
in  the  adjoining  cotton. 

In  case  it  is  found  that  the  late-planted  trap  corn  will  mature  rather 
too  early  to  be  of  the  greatest  value,  and  especially  in  regions  where 
drought  is  apt  to  prematurely  ripen  corn,  it  is  to  be  urged  that  cow-peas 
be  planted  between  the  rows  of  corn  in  time  to  furnish  a continuation 
of  the  trap  through  the  rest  of  the  season.  In  any  case  it  would  be 
well  to  plant  the  peas  as  suggested  as  an  additional  attraction  along 
with  the  trap  corn.  Care  must  be  taken  that  only  a minimum  area  is 
planted,  in  order  that,  possibly,  other  remedial  agencies  can  be  applied 
with  the  least  possible  expense  if  found  advisable  to  do  so. 

POISONED  SWEETS. 

The  only  crop  upon  which  there  is  a probability  of  practically  utiliz- 
ing poisoned  sweets  is  that  of  the  cow-peas,  planted  in  limited  areas  as 


53 


previously  recommended.  With  a limited  number  of  rows,  and  these 
swarming  with  Boll  Worm  moths,  a tasteful  and  attractive  sweet  well 
poisoned  and  thoroughly  applied  is  of  some  value.  A great  difficulty 
is  met  with  in  that  the  liquid  applied  dries  after  a short  time  and  what- 
ever moths  are  to  be  poisoned  in  this  way  must  feed  soon  after  the  ap- 
plication. This  process  makes  a daily  application  necessary  and  of 
course  renders  the  crop  as  forage  entirely  useless.  The  worst  feature, 
however,  is  that  the  poisoned  sweet,  in  order  to  be  an  effective  poison, 
must  be  made  so  strong  that  one  thorough  application  burns  the  foliage 
and  checks  the  growth  of  the  vines  to  such  an  extent  that  from  that 
time  the  pea- vines  become  useless  as  a crop  for  attracting  the  moths. 
Thus  the  very  purpose  for  which  it  was  planted  is  suddenly  discon- 
tinued. If  the  brood  of  moths  found  at  this  time  issued  evenly,  this 
might  not  be  so  serious  an  objection,  but,  since  the  brood  issues  very 
scattering! y,  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  trap  a continuous  one. 

Hence  it  appears  that  whatever  of  benefit  is  attained  by  the  use  of 
this  insecticide  it  is  at  too  great  a sacrifice  to  make  the  extensive  appli- 
cation of  it  advisable. 

Experience  has  shown  that  the  poisoned  liquid  must  be  actually  ap- 
plied to  the  food-plant  in  order  to  be  most  attractive,  and  hence  most 
efficient.  If  placed  in  pans  or  plates  or  on  posts,  boards,  and  like  ob- 
jects, a few  moths  are  trapped  occasionally.  These  catches  even  seem 
rather  accidental,  as  the  great  majority  are  not  attracted  and,  in  fact, 
the  liquid  offered  in  any  other  locality  than  upon  choice  food-plants 
seems  really  to  form  no  decisive  attraction. 

PYRETHRUM. 

As  already  intimated,  no  insecticide  can  be  of  practical  utility  against 
the  Boll  Worm.  Much  work  has  been  done,  however,  in  making  decoc- 
tions and  various  extracts  of  this  powder.  The  principal  points  con- 
sidered were  those  of  determining  the  difference  in  extractibility  of  hot 
and  cold  decoctions,  hot  and  cold  extracts  with  oils,  such  as  kerosene 
or  head-light  oil.  These  various  extracts  and  decoctions  were  always 
made  into  an  emulsion  with  oil.  The  emulsions  were  then  diluted  and 
applied  in  the  usual  way.  There  is  some  difference  in  the  extent  of 
extraction  of  the  insecticidal  properties  by  hot  and  cold  processes,  as 
also  the  aqueous  and  oil  extracts.  The  difference  by  one  of  the  proc- 
esses is  a decided  one,  though  its  practical  utility  upon  this  particular 
species  is  questionable,  except  in  special  cases  under  certain  conditions. 

LIGHTS. 

Numerous  and  decisive  experiments  with  lamps  for  trapping  Boll 
Worm  moths  were  made.  Some  of  these  were  made  under  the  most 
favorable  circumstances.  They  all  proved  the  absolute  folly  of  this 
practice  among  planters.  The  moth  is  not  attracted  much  at  any  stage 


54 


of  its  existence,  and  whatever  insects  are  captured  are  on  the  whole 
decidedly  beneficial.  This  practice  then  is  a positive  injury,  in  that  it 
systematically  destroys  beneficial  insects  without  accomplishing  any 
good  as  a recompense.  This  measure,  so  commonly  practiced  by  plant- 
ers, should,  in  view  of  the  decided  and  constant  harm  attendant  upon 
its  use,  be  unhesitatingly  condemned  whenever  opportunities  are  pre- 
sented for  doing  so. 

INSECT  DISEASES. 

In  order  that  any  insect  disease  should  be  most  efficient  and  prac- 
tical, it  is  necessary  that  the  pest  to  be  infected  be  gregarious  in  habit 
and  travel  freely  enough  to  intermingle  frequently.  For  the  Boll  Worm 
both  of  these  conditions  are  found  directly  by  opposites,  it  being  soli- 
tary in  habit  and  not  traveling  about  as  frequently  as  most  species  of 
worms  of  economic  importance  do. 

Furthermore,  feeding  on  the  inside  of  the  portions  attacked  their 
chances  for  infection  through  natural  agencies  and  communication  with 
diseased  worms  are  proportionately  decreased.  Even  should  a Boll 
Worm  become  diseased,  in  the  majority  of  cases  it  would  die  in  a boll 
or  ear  of  corn  and  the  deliquescing  portions  of  the  body  containing  the 
germs  would  be  absorbed  by  the  rotting  or  fermenting  boll.  No  other 
worm,  therefore,  is  ever  exposed  to  infection  from  it.  The  solitary  hab- 
its of  the  Boll  Worm  in  the  midst  of  suitable  plants  offering  a great 
plenty  of  food  furthermore  insures  the  most  healthy  and  least  acciden- 
tal condition  possible.  None  of  the  factors,  such  as  excessive  numbers, 
often  resulting  in  a scarcity  of  food,  thereby  reducing  the  vitality  of 
the  worm,  enter  into  consideration  in  the  case  of  the  Boll  Worm.  All 
or  any  of  these  are  conditions  which  greatly  favor  the  propagation,  in- 
fection, and  distribution  of  diseases.  These  facts  concerning  the  num- 
bers and  food-habits  of  the  Boll  Worm  make  it  impossible  to  accom- 
plish anything  in  a practical  way  with  this  species,  even  though  the 
diseases  in  question  were  highly  contagious  and  efficacious  as  destruc- 
tive agencies.  The  reason,  as  already  stated,  consists  in  the  fact  that 
there  are  certain  conditions  required  in  order  that  contagious  diseases 
can  be  introduced  and  disseminated,  and  those  conditions  are  wanting 
in  this  species. 

Again,  if  there  were  any  contagious  insect  diseases  of  economic  im- 
portance prevalent  in  the  cotton  belt  they  would  before  this  time  have 
made  evident  their  efficacy,  especially  when  it  is  considered  how  long  cot- 
ton and  other  crops  have  been  under  cultivation,  and  which  have  been  so 
long  ravaged  by  all  the  various  insects,  from  some  of  which  we  might 
expect  the  occurrence  and  spread  of  disease.  There  are  such  diseases 
found  in  the  cotton  region,  and  they  have  been  found  in  such  localities 
as  to  make  infection  possible  under  the  conditions  as  above  stated.  By 
observation  it  has  been  determined  that  occasionally  Boll  Worms  do  die, 
and  apparently  from  disease.  Whether  peculiar  to  the  species  or  due 


55 


to  infection  from  other  sources  need  not  be  stated  here,  because  the 
important  point  is  that,  in  either  case,  the  results  thus  attained  natu- 
rally are  for  this  species,  probably  the  best  possible  even  by  the  cooper- 
ation of  artificial  means.  This  is  in  reference  only  to  any  possible  in- 
sect diseases  already  found  in  the  region  where  the  Boll  Worm  depre- 
dates on  cotton. 

The  only  hope  then  would  seem  to  be  the  introduction  of  a foreign 
disease,  or  at  any  rate  one  not  already  found  in  the  infested  regions. 
This  was  thought  to  be  the  case  with  the  Cabbage  Worm  disease. 
This  disease,  even  in  localities  in  the  South  where  it  is  prevalent,  pro- 
duces no  wholesale  exterminative  destruction  of  that  species.  This 
disease  in  itself,  then,  under  the  local  existing  circumstances,  is  not  ot 
that  virulent  kind  necessary  in  most  cases  for  the  infection  of  a new 
pest  in  a new  locality.  (This  is  only  generally  speaking,  and  is  not  to 
be  understood  as  meaning  that  a disease  virulent  in  one  species  will  be 
equally  so  in  another,  or  that*  a disease  mild  in  one  pest  might  not  be 
virulent  in  another.)  Furthermore,  the  Cabbage  Worm  disease  is 
already  found  in  a mild  form  in  some  portions  of  the  cotton  belt;  also,  a 
very  prevalent  disease  of  the  Cabbage  Plusia  [Plusia  brassicce ),  and 
which  is  probably  the  same  as  the  Cabbage  Worm  disease.  Small 
patches  of  cabbage  are  found  here  and  there  at  quite  frequent  intervals 
throughout  most  of  the  cotton  plantations,  a condition  resulting  from 
the  system  of  small  negro  tenantry  prevalent  among  Southern  planters. 
Thus  every  opportunity  is  offered  for  the  spread  of  the  disease  in  ques- 
tion in  case  it  were  highly  contagious  and  of  practical  economic  import- 
ance in  this  connection.  In  fact  it  has  been  found  that  the  Boll  Worm 
is  occasionally  found  to  be  diseased.  From  symptoms  and  other  bac- 
teriological evidence  it  is  now  quite  definitely  determined  to  be  identi- 
cal with  the  Plusia  and  Cabbage  Worm  disease.  It  is  quite  probable, 
therefore,  that  these  diseases  are  already  doing  their  work  as  exten- 
sively as  is  possible  under  the  specially  peculiar  circumstances  already 
mentioned,  and  which  are  such  as  to  quite  effectually  baffle  artificial 
means. 

The  importance  of  the  work  with  insect  diseases  is  not  to  be  under- 
estimated, however.  The  work  which  it  was  possible  to  do  simply  dem- 
onstrates that  by  mere  contagion  and  transmission  no  great  and  won- 
derful results  are  to  be  obtained.  Rather  in  this  case  the  question 
becomes  one  of  virulence,  and  not  merely  susceptibility  to  infectious 
diseases.  One  acquainted  with  bacteriological  methods  knows  that 
these  two  objects  can  not  primarily  be  accomplished  simultaneously  in 
a single  investigation;  that  is  to  say  that  the  question  of  the  inefficacy 
as  a practical  economic  measure  by  the  transmission  of  any  contagious 
disease  must  be  determined  first,  and  then  attention  is  given,  if  the 
pest  is  found  susceptible,  to  those  conditions  which  might  increase  the 
virulence  of  the  disease-producing  germs  in  question.  The  work,  there- 
fore, so  far  as  followed  out,  is  thorough  and  conclusive,  but  from  the 


56 


nature  of  the  case  only  one  portion  lias  been  completed.  What  possi- 
bilities lie  in  the  way  of  experimenting  purely  with  the  germ  in  order 
to  attain  the  necessary  virulence  actual  experiment  will  have  to  dem- 
onstrate. In  addition  to  giving  attention  to  the  virulence  of  the  dis- 
ease germs,  more  study  should  be  given  the  natural  conditions  in  order 
to  determine  whether  they  may  be  artificially  varied  so  as  to  be  more 
conducive  to  the  dissemination  of  disease. 

Above  all,  the  subject  ought  not  to  be  summarily  dismissed,  since 
only  a limited  number  of  germs  could  possibly  be  experimented  with. 
True,  the  most  hopeful  ones  were  experimented  with  first,  but  yet  it  may 
transpire  that  other  well-known  diseases,  not  yet  tried,  may  be  efficient. 
The  work  has  really  been  one  of  elimination  of  some  specific  germs  by 
which  it  was  thought  certain  desirable  results  could  be  attained  rather 
than  such  as  to  conclusively  demonstrate  the  impracticability  of  util- 
izing insect  diseases  in  the  pro vince  of  economic  entomology. 


INSECTS  OF  THE  SEASON  IN  IOWA. 


By  Herbert  Osborn,  Special  Agent. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 


Ames,  Iowa,  December  5,  1891. 

Sir:  I submit  herewith  my  report  on  the  more  important  insects  of  the  season  in 
Iowa.  The  year  has  been  one  of  unusual  prosperity  and  excellent  crops  in  the  State 
and  the  ravages  of  insects  have  attracted  correspondingly  little  attention.  Observa- 
tions on  some  other  species  than  those  here  mentioned  are  still  in  a condition  too 
fragmentary  to  warrant  detailed  report. 

Very  respectfully  yours, 

Herbert  Osborn. 


Dr.  C.  Y.  Kiley,  Entomologist , 

Washington , D.  C. 


The  past  season  has  been  quiie  free  from  any  sweeping  insect  inva- 
sion, and,  aside  from  the  prominence  of  plant-lice  and  their  great  mul- 
tiplication upon  plums  and  wheat  and  the  spread  of  the  Clover- seed 
Midge,  there  were  none  to  attract  special  attention  or  to  cause  serious 
alarm.  There  were  of  course  the  ordinary  species  present  in  their 
usual  abundance,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  crops  were  affected  in  con- 
siderable degree  ; but  the  loss  was  not  such  as  to  attract  unusual  atten- 
tion, and  it  is  of  course  a matter  of  regular  occurrence  for  a certain 
amount  of  loss  to  occur  in  all  crops  without  causing  much  inquiry  from 
cultivators.  In  fact,  it  is  the  common  rule  to  consider  these  attacks  of 
little  moment,  or  to  believe  them  too  little  to  be  worthy  the  expenditure 
of  time  and  money  to  attempt  their  prevention.  For  some  crops,  and 
where  the  cost  of  application  of  remedial  measures  would  be  large,  it 
is  doubtless  true,  but  there  are  certainly  many  instances  where  the 
expense  of  applying  some  remedial  agent  or  the  trouble  of  adopting 
some  method  of  culture  to  avoid  insect  increase  would  be  abundantly 
repaid. 

The  White-winged  Bibio  ( Bibio  albipennis)  attracted  considerable 
attention  in  the  spring,  appearing  in  great  numbers  in  many  parts  of 
the  State,  and  in  a number  of  cases  it  was  sent  in  with  the  statement 
that  it  was  eating  foliage  of  various  plants.  The  evidence  gained,  how- 
ever, did  not  suffice  to  establish  any  case  where  actual  damage  was 

57 


58 


done  to  foliage,  and  we  can  but  think  that  the  flies  occurred  on  plants 
that  had  been  previously  eaten  by  some  other  insects  and  that  the  work 
was  erroneously  attributed  to  these  Bibios  when  they  appeared  in  such 
numbers. 

Plant-lice  were  very  abundant  on  almost  all  kinds  of  plants,  and 
especially  on  plum  trees  did  a great  deal  of  damage.  The  species 
known  as  Aphis  prunifolii  was  one  of  the  most  abundant  forms,  but 
other  species  occurred,  and  one  which  was  apparently  the  most  common 
and  destructive  appears  to  be  referable  to  Myzus  persicce.  This  is  a 
brown  or  reddish-brown  species,  with  greenish  legs,  and  it  occurs  in 
great  abundance  on  the  terminal  portions  of  the  twigs  and  causes  very 
extensive  curling  and  twisting  of  the  leaves,  being  almost  as  bad  as 
some  gall-forming  species  in  the  amount  of  distortion  produced.  On 
this  account  it  is  more  difficult  to  destroy  with  kerosene  emulsion  than 
the  forms  that  are  less  protected,  and  we  found  that  in  some  cases  the 
only  satisfactory  method  of  reaching  them  was  to  dip  the  worst  branches 
directly  into  the  emulsion  and  wash  them  about  till  all  the  corners  and 
cavities  had  been  reached.  Later  in  the  season  the  parasitic  insects 
affecting  these  lice  became  abundant  and  their  injuries  were  practically 
stopped.  They  can  most  seriously  affect  the  growth  of  the  fruit  as 
well  as  the  general  health  of  the  tree.  On  a small  tree  upon  which  I 
allowed  them  to  develop  for  the  purpose  of  watching  their  progress, 
they  clustered  on  the  stems  of  the  plums,  and  even  on  the  plums  them- 
selves, and  the  fruit  thus  infested  became  much  wilted,  much  of  it 
covered  with  exuded  juices;  and  even  after  the  lice  had  been  destroyed 
by  parasites  failed  to  recover  and  make  a good  growth,  some  attained 
only  about  half  size,  and  were  tough  and  of  poorest  quality  when 
ripened,  while  a portion  became  so  withered  that  they  failed  to  ripen 
at  all.  It  is  evident  that  the  insect  should  be  attended  to  early  in 
spring,  before  the  lice  become  numerous  and  the  leaves  become  curled, 
as  then  they  can  be  destroyed  very  much  easier  and  it  will  prevent  the 
damage  to  the  fruit. 

Two  other  forms,  apparently  distinct  species  and  quite  different  also 
from  Phorodon  humuli , were  observed  in  small  numbers  on  wild  plums, 
but  they  have  not  as  yet  been  referred  to  any  described  species. 

The  Wheat  Plant-louse  ( Siphonophora ; avehce ),  which  has  been  abun- 
dant in  States  east  of  here  for  a few  years  past,  appeared  in  abundance 
in  the  eastern  part  of  the  State  this  season,  especially  in  the  north- 
eastern portion  (Jackson  and  adjoining  counties).  It  seems  to  have 
been  noticed  first  only  a few  weeks  before  ripening  of  grain,  and  for 
two  or  three  weeks  I received  a great  number  of  samples.  In  almost 
every  case,  however,  the  specimens  sent  were  noticed  to  be  in  large  part 
affected  with  parasites,  and  I could  reply  that  the  injury  from  the  lice 
would  probably  soon  cease.  In  all  cases  where  I received  a second 
notice  from  the  same  place  it  was  to  the  effect  that  the  parasites  had 
been  increasing  and  that  the  injury  had  ceased.  The  louse  is  evidently 


59 


Avidely  spread.  It  was  seen  at  Ames  in  small  numbers  on  oats,  but  in 
this  case  also  accompanied  by  parasites;  and  while  it  is  probable  that 
wheat  and  oats  may  be  affected  by  the  louse  another  year,  I think  we 
may  depend  upon  the  parasites  being  sufficiently  numerous  to  prevent 
serious  loss.  It  would,  therefore,  not  seem  advisable  to  reduce  in  any 
degree  the  planting  of  wheat  or  oats  or  any  of  the  crops  that  may  be 
affected  by  this  species  on  account  of  possible  loss  from  this  pest. 

The  Dogwood  Plant-louse,  which  has  been  referred  to  in  previous  re- 
ports, has  been  observed  further  and  some  additional  facts  secured,  but 
there  are  still  some  points  of  importance  to  be  determined.  Eggs  of 
this  species  and  of  the  Dogwood  Aphis  (Aphis  cornicoia)  were  deposited 
freely  on  some  small  dogwood  bushes  near  my  office  last  fall,  and  I 
had  an  opportunity  of  watching  them  pretty  closely  during  the  spring. 
The  eggs  near  the  ground  seemed  to  pass  the  winter  most  perfectly, 
and  for  the  Schizoneura  hatched  in  fair  numbers  in  spring,  a short  time 
before  the  blossoming  of  the  Dogwood.  The  insects  gathered  upon  the 
expanding  leaves  and  also  on  the  blossom  buds,  and  as  the  latter 
opened  they  seemed  to  gather  by  preference  in  the  bunches  of  blossoms 
clustering  upon  the  stems  and  at  the  bases  of  individual  blossoms. 
Apparently  the  second  or  third  generation  acquired  wings,  and  the 
Schizoneura  then  disappeared  entirely  from  the  Dogwood.  They  were 
not  to  be  found  on  grasses  for  some  time  later,  but  they  would  neces- 
sarily be  scattered  widely  and  difficult  to  find  at  first. 

During  the  autumn  I received  word  from  a Mr.  Bower,  of  Norway, 
that  his  corn  had  been  troubled  with  plant-lice,  and  he  sent  me  sam- 
ples of  Setaria  infested  with  Schizoneura,  which  he  said  were  the  same 
as  he  had  been  troubled  with  on  his  corn. 

Thinking  it  probable  that  it  was  Aphis  maidis  that  was  affecting  the 
corn,  and  not  the  Schizoneura,  I requested  him  to  send  samples  if  he 
could  then  find  them  of  the  lice  on  the  corn  roots,  and  he  soon  sent  me 
some  roots  of  corn  on  which  were  a number  of  Schizoneurse  resembling 
in  every  respect  the  Schizoneura  so  common  on  grass.  Some  of  these 
were  quite  evidently  acquiring  wings,  and  shortly  after  I secured  from 
them  a winged  individual,  which  agrees  closely  with  Schizoneura  corni , 
except  that  the  antennal  sensory  pits  are  not  so  distinctly  developed. 

As  the  specimen  was  mounted  while  still  quite  fresh,  there  is  a possi- 
bility that  the  sensory  pits  had  not  become  as  well  marked  by  the  rigid 
chitinous  border  as  in  more  mature  individuals,  and  while  I can  not 
affirm  their  identity  it  seems  probable  that  they  are  the  same.  If  iden- 
tical with  the  species  affecting  the  Foxtail,  it  is  evident  that  there  is 
an  important  relation  between  this  weed  and  the  corn  with  which  it 
grows  so  abundantly.  It  is  certain  that  we  have  in  the  species  of 
Schizoneura  here  noticed  another  corn  pest  that  is  easily  equal  to  the 
common  corn-root  louse  in  its  power  to  injure  this  important  crop. 

The  Clover-seed  Midge  has  become  a serious  pest  in  many  parts  of 
the  State,  and,  while  it  has  been  observed  before  and  attention  called  to 


60 


the  necessity  of  preparing  for  its  probable  spread  here,  this  year  is  the 
first  one  in  which  there  has  been  a loss  so  great  as  to  cause  much  alarm 
amongst  the  farmers.  Its  most  serious  ravages  have  been  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  the  State,  where  clover  has  recently  become  a quite  im- 
portant and  extensively  cultivated  crop.  In  many  localities  from  which 
I have  received  reports  the  loss  of  the  clover  seed  this  year  has  been 
quite  complete.  In  some  cases  it  appears  that  the  clover  has  been  quite 
extensively  infested  with  the  Clover  Thrips  (. Phlceothrips  nigra),  the 
slender  red  larva  of  which  seems  to  be  by  some  mistaken  for  the  larva 
of  the  Midge.  The  Midge  was  treated  in  Bulletin  13  of  the  Iowa  Ex- 
periment Station,  illustrated  with  your  figures,  and  it  is  hoped  that  this 
discussion  and  the  quite  general  attention  it  has  received  from  the 
agricultural  press  of  the  State  will  enable  the  growers  of  this  valuable 
crop  to  adopt  measures  by  which  to  secure  good  crops  of  seed. 

Another  quite  serious  pest  during  the  year  was  the  Clover-seed  Cater- 
pillar (Grapholitha  interstinctana  Clem.),  which  appeared  in  this  locality 
in  great  abundance  and  caused  the  loss  of  a large  percentage  of  the  seed, 
though,  since  for  the  first  crop  there  was  no  effort  to  secure  a crop  of  seed, 
the  loss  was,  of  course,  not  so  important.  This  species  has  been  treated 
in  detail  by  Mr.  Gossard  and  myself  in  Bulletin  14  of  the  Iowa  Experi- 
ment Station  and  in  an  article  presented  to  the  Association  of  Eco- 
nomic Entomologists  (published  in  Insect  Life),  and  it  is  therefore 
unnecessary  to  go  into  detail  regarding  it  here.  It  may  be  stated,  how- 
ever, that  it  has  been  determined  to  be  three-brooded  here  and  that  it 
was  found  that,  when  the  clover  was  cut  and  stored  for  the  first  crop 
with  the  larvae  of  the  first  brood  still  in  the  heads,  all  the  larvae  per- 
ished, and  it  is  deemed  a complete  method  of  destruction  for  the  species 
to  cut  and  store  the  clover  while  still  in  bloom  the  first  time,  provided 
this  is  quite  general,  so  that  larvae  infesting  the  scattering  clover  in 
fence  corners  and  along  roadsides  are  not  developed  in  abundance  to 
lay  eggs  for  the  later  broods  of  the  season. 

The  Flavescent  Clover  Weevil  (Sitones  flavescens)  also  occurred  in 
considerable  abundance  here,  and  it  is  probably  quite  generally  dis- 
tributed through  the  State,  since  its  habits  are  such  as  to  attract  little 
attention. 

The  common  species  of  locusts  were  abundant  and  in  some  localities 
I learned  of  considerable  damage  to  clover  and  other  crops. 

In  a number  of  trials  of  the  liopperdozer  plan  of  treatment  for  the 
Grass  Leaf-hoppers  (which  works  effectually  also  for  the  young  ot 
locusts),  it  was  found  that  a simple  flat  sheet  of  sheet  iron  covered  with 
coal  tar  on  the  upper  surface  and  drawn  along  by  means  of  cords  at- 
tached at  each  end  was  a most  effective  method  of  capturing  the  jump- 
ing species  not  only  of  leaf-hoppers,  but  young  locusts  and  a number 
of  other  small  insects.  A paper  giving  results  of  these  tests  was  read 
at  the  Washington  meeting  of  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Agri- 
cultural Science,  and  published  under  joint  authorship  with  Mr.  Gossard 


61 


in  Bulletin  14,  Iowa  Experiment  Station.  The  most  important  results 
may  be  here  stated.  In  an  experiment  upon  a plat  of  grass  land  a por- 
tion was  treated  with  the  tarred  sheet  on  May  29 ; the  remainder  of  the 
plat,  or  rather  a corresponding  portion  on  the  opposite  side  of  a nar- 
row roadway,  was  left  untreated.  On  June  9 a trial  by  running  the 
tarred  sheet  over  a strip  3 rods  in  length  on  each  plat,  it  was  determined 
that  by  actual  count  the  leaf-hoppers  were  more  than  live  times  as  plenty 
on  the  plat  that  had  been  untreated  as  on  the  treated  plat.  And  July 
2,  when  the  hay  was  cut  on  each  plat,  the  yield  from  the  treated  plat 
was  34  per  cent  better  than  that  of  the  untreated  plat. 

On  June  20  the  tarred  sheet  was  tried  on  another  part  of  the  lawn, 
and,  “in  moving  55  feet  with  the  dozer,  the  number  of  leaf-lioppers  taken 
was  estimated  by  counting  the  insects  on  three  sections  of  the  dozer, 
each  6 inches  long  and  extending  the  entire  width  of  the  dozer.  The 
counts  were  183,  319,  and  226,  respectively,  which  averages  243  for  each 
section,  or  4,131  on  the  whole  pan.  At  this  rate  about  376,000  insects 
would  be  caught  per  acre. 

“Another  test  was  made  at  the  same  time,  dragging  the  dozer  over 
66  feet  of  lawn.  This  time  five  sections  of  6 inches  each  were  counted 
off  and  averaged,  instead  of  three,  which  resulted  in  giving  2,805  insects 
on  the  dozer,  or  213,089  would  be  taken  on  an  acre.” 

In  previous  reports  I have  given  some  estimates  as  to  the  number  of 
these  leaf- hoppers  that  may  occur  on  an  acre  of  grass  land,  and  it  will 
be  seen  that  these  trials  not  only  give  confirmatory  evidence  as  to  the 
great  numbers  of  these  pests  that  live  in  grass,  but  show  that  they  can 
be  captured  successfully  by  the  hopperdozer  plan.  Since  the  latter 
trials  were  made  in  hot  weather  and  when  most  of  the  insects  were 
winged,  it  was  impossible  to  capture  all  of  the  hoppers,  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  actual  number  of  hoppers  on  the  land  averaged  well  up 
to  1,000,000  per  acre.  By  selecting  best  conditions,  it  will  be  possible 
to  capture  a larger  percentage,  and  the  profit  of  securing  even  half  of  the 
hoppers  in  the  grass  will,  I believe,  well  repay  all  expense  and  trouble 
of  treatment. 

A very  interesting  occurrence  of  the  year  was  the  remarkable  in- 
crease of  a parasite  [Apanteles  glomeratus)  affecting  the  common  Cab- 
bage-worm ( Pieris  rapce). 

About  the  1st  of  May  I received  from  you  some  parasites  imported 
from  England,  but  they  were  already  issuing  from  the  cocoons  and 
there  had  been  no  cabbages  planted  at  the  time  in  this  locality,  so  that 
my  only  hope  of  getting  them  established  here  was  to  place  them  on 
Black  Mustard  growing  wild,  and  even  here  I had  little  hopes  of  getting 
them  established,  as  P.  rapce  had  only  begun  to  appear  in  the  imago 
and  there  was  little  possibility  of  larvae  being  ready  in  time  for  oviposi- 
tion  of  Apanteles.  About  the  1st  of  August  I was  somewhat  surprised 
to  have  brought  to  me  a number  of  rapce  larvae  with  cocoons  of  a para- 
site that  resembled  exactly  the  Apanteles.  When  the  imagos  issued 


62 


they  proved  to  be,  so  far  as  I could  see,  identical,  and  my  opinion  was 
confirmed  by  referring  the  specimens  to  your  office.  The  Apanteles 
had  been  most  abundant  in  the  gardens  of  a Mr.  Gregory,  a gardener 
near  Ames,  but  about  3 miles  from  where  the  Apanteles  had  been  in- 
troduced, and  it  seemed  almost  impossible  that  they  could  have  become 
so  widely  distributed  and  so  abundant  in  so  short  a time.  I made  care- 
ful inquiries  of  Mr.  Gregory,  and  found  that  the  parasite  had  been  first 
observed  by  his  wife  in  the  fall  of  1890,  but  in  small  numbers,  and  at 
the  time  supposed  to  be  an  injurious  species,  and  all  that  were  observed 
had  been  destroyed.  During  the  summer  just  past,  however,  she  had 
seen  the  larvae  issuing  from  the  caterpillars  and  rightly  appreciated 
their  beneficial  nature.  They  became  so  abundant  in  Mr.  Gregory’s 
garden  that  he  told  me  they  had  entirely  destroyed  the  cabbage  worms 
on  his  place,  and  they  also  multiplied  extensively  in  the  cabbage  patches 
on  the  college  farm,  so  that  there  will  probably  be  very  few  of  the  cab- 
bage worms  another  season  and  even  if  they  appear  in  some  numbers 
the  parasites  should  be  so  thoroughly  distributed  as  to  be  able  to  keep 
them  entirely  in  check. 

While  this  occurrence  of  the  Apanteles  by  some  previous  introduction 
makes  it  inrpossible  to  say  with  certainty  whether  any  were  established 
as  a result  of  the  introduction  of  last  spring  (and  the  probabilities  were 
against  a successful  issue  in  this  case)  there  is  the  strongest  proof  of  the 
ability  of  the  species  to  thrive  and  to  successfully  reduce  the  numbers 
of  Pieris  rapce.  It  would  be  of  interest  to  ascertain  the  source  from 
which  they  were  introduced,  but  nothing  could  be  learned  of  any  proba- 
ble introduction  direct  from  any  distant  point  and  it  seems  most  likely 
that  the  species  has  simply  spread  through  its  own  powers  of  dispersal 
from  other  parts  of  the  country  where  it  has  been  present.  It  would 
seem  to  be  a very  easy  species  to  distribute  from  one  point  to  another, 
but  for  the  Northern  States  it  would  seem  more  easy  to  introduce  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  season,  as  the  imagos  issue  in  spring  too  early  to  find 
rapce  larvm  ready  for  them  to  oviposit  upon.  Mr.  Gregory  informed  me 
that  the  parasites  were  noticed  issuing  from  the  pupae  as  well  as  from 
the  larvae. 

The  Apple  Maggot,  which  reports  indicated  as  common  in  some  sec- 
tions of  the  State  last  year  and  which  it  was  feared  might  prove  trouble- 
some to  our  orchardists,  has  not  been  heard  from  the  present  season,  al- 
though the  apple  crop  has  been  a large  one.  Should  it  make  no  further 
appearance  it  would  seem  to  strengthen  the  idea  that  it  does  not  thrive 
in  this  region,  perhaps  on  account  of  unfavorable  soil,  a condition  that 
may  be  viewed  with  much  satisfaction  by  our  fruit-growers. 


REPOET  OF  ENTOMOLOGICAL  WORK  OF  THE  SEASON  OF 

1891. 


By  F.  M.  Webster,  Special  Agent. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 

Columbus,  Ohio,  October  10,  1891. 

Sir:  I herewith  submit  my  annual  report  for  the  current  year.  My  last  report 
preceding  this  related  to  the  development  of  the  Hessian  Fly,  and  especially  as  show- 
ing the  desirability  of  late  sowing  as  a means  of  warding  off  the  fall  attack.  It 
seems,  however,  that  where  the  carrying  out  of  this  advice  leads  to  a procrastination 
in  the  preparation  of  the  ground  it  is  likely  to  lead  to  injurious. effects,  where  wheat 
is  to  follow  clover.  I have,  therefore,  prepared  the  accompanying  report  in  order  to 
show  the  nature  of  another  class  of  depredators,  and  how  it  is,  doubtless,  possible 
and  practicable  to  follow  out  the  directions  as  to  late  seeding  and  still  avoid  contact 
with  this  second  evil. 

Yours  very  respectfully, 

F.  M.  Webster, 

Special  Agent. 

Dr.  C.  Y.  Riley, 

TJ.  S.  Entomologist. 


INTRODUCTION. 

During  the  fall  of  1890,  after  the  rendering  of  my  annual  report  for 
that  year,  I was  engaged  in  the  study  of  various  insects,  notably  those 
affecting  young  growing  grain.  On  February  2,  1891,  I started  on  a 
tour  of  investigation  through  Arkansas  and  Texas,  in  order  to  continue 
work  begun  by  me  in  1886,  relative  to  the  occurrence  and  effect  of  vari- 
ous species  of  Simulium  infesting  the  streams  of  the  valley  of  the  lower 
Mississippi,  and  also  to  investigate  the  depredations  of  the  Grape  Cur- 
culio  in  northwestern  Arkansas.  From  the  20tli  of  February  to  the  1st 
of  April  I was  in  Texas  engaged  in  further  studies  of  Simulium  and 
grain  insects.  A report  of  the  work  of  this  trip  has  been  forwarded 
you  and  published  in  Insect  Life.  Soon  after  my  return,  in  accord- 
ance with  your  direction,  I visited  the  farm  of  Dr.  I.  W.  Chamberlain, 
at  Hudson,  Summit  County,  Onio,  to  investigate  an  occurrence  of  the 
Glover  Hay-worm.  A report  of  this  and  further  investigation  of  the 
species  involved  has  been  forwarded  to  you.  Further  investigations 

03 


64 


into  tlie  habits  of  some  destructive  species  of  Tipulidm  were  made,  and 
a report,  illustrated  by  drawings,  was  presented  to  you  for  publication. 

A report  on  observations  upon  many  species  of  Ooleoptera  has  also 
been  prepared  and  forwarded  to  you  for  publication.  In  pursuance  to 
your  instructions,  I secured  a large  number  of  eggs  of  Lachnosterna , 
especially  of  L.fusca,L.  gibbosa , and  L.  hirticula , and,  after  carefully 
watching  the  development  of  these  eggs,  placed  the  larvae  in  breeding 
boxes,  and  have  colonies  of  larvae  of  each  of  these  three  species,  reared 
from  the  egg,  and  at  present  thriving  nicely  in  confinement. 

On  April  23  I received  from  you  a consignment  of  Semiotellus  ni gripes, 
and,  in  accordance  with  your  instructions,  placed  the  larger  portion  in 
a wheat  field  seriously  affected  by  the  Hessian  Fly,  and  the  smaller 
portion  were  placed  on  fly- infested  plants,  under  a cover  of  Swiss  mus- 
lin. Later  I received  from  Prof.  Bruner  a second  consignment,  which 
was  promptly  forwarded  to  Prof.  Charles  E.  Thorne,  Director  of  the 
Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  who  placed  them  in  two  fields 
of  wheat  near  Columbus,  Ohio.  In  regard  to  the  success  in  introduc- 
ing these  parasites,  I am  not  yet  able  to  report.  I did  not  rear  adult 
Semiotellus  from  those  released  among  grain,  under  cover,  but  this  is  in 
no  way  to  be  construed  into  a failure  to  colonize  them  in  the  field. 
When  received  many  had  emerged  from  the  flaxseeds,  and  some  of 
them  had  perished,  and  the  larger  portion  of  those  remaining  were 
placed  in  the  fields.  At  the  time  of  the  release  at  La  Fayette,  Ind.,  the 
adult  Hessian  Flies  and  native  parasites  were  abroad  in  great  num- 
bers. The  field  where  they  were  placed  had  been  seriously  attacked  by 
the  fly  during  the  preceding  autumn,  fully  one-half  of  the  wheat  plants 
being  affected.  That  portion  of  the  field  where  colonization  was  made 
has  not  been  molested  since,  except  to  remove  the  crop.  Wheat  was 
again  sown  on  the  larger  portion  of  this  field  and  also  on  another  ad- 
joining, also  in  wheat  last  year,  so  that  at  present  there  are  two  fields 
of  wheat  growing  within  20  yards  of  the  spot  where  the  liberation  took 
place.  Therefore,  while  I am  unable  to  say  whether  or  not  the  parasite 
has  become  established,  I can  say  that  it  has  had  every  opportunity  to 
do  so,  and  a failure  in  this  case  would  almost  prove  conclusively  the 
imposibility  of  colonization.  The  number  of  living  parasites  placed 
was  too  small  to  show  immediate  results,  and,  therefore,  time  must  be 
given  for  them  to  multiply  before  expecting  absolute  proof  of  coloniza- 
tion. With  regard  to  those  released  here  I am  not  so  hopeful,  as  wheat, 
owing  to  dry  weather,  did  not  germinate  quickly  after  being  sown,  and, 
I fear,  may  have  come  too  late  to  afford  hosts  for  the  Semiotellus.  Both 
fields  where  the  parasite  was  liberated  still  remain  uncultivated. 

On  July  1 of  this  year  I severed  my  connection  with  the  experiment 
station  at  La  Fayette,  Ind.,  and  formed  a similar  connection  with  the 
Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  located  at  this  place,  a change 
which  was  approved  by  yourself. 

Since  locating  here  several  destructive  insects  have  demanded  atteu- 


65 


tion.  Tlie  Wheat  Midge,  Diplosis  tritici , appeared  in  limited  numbers 
and  was  investigated  in  accordance  with  your  instructions.  A bulletin 
was  issued  by  me  from  the  station  dealing  with  chronological  data  in 
regard  to  the  pest,  and  a report  submitted  to  yourself  relating  to  this 
and  some  other  closely  allied  species. 

Many  inquiries  in  regard  to  the  Hessian  Fly  have  been  received,  and 
in  order  to  meet  a popular  wish  my  report  of  1890  to  yourself,  and  ap- 
pertaining to  this  species,  has  been  received  and  adapted  to  a station 
bulletin,  which  was  issued  in  November  of  the  present  year.  This,  I 
think,  will  afford  the  desired  information  to  the  farmers  of  the  State 
and  reply  to  a vast  amount  of  inquiry,  which  would  otherwise  have  to 
be  answered  by  letter. 

The  indications  are  that  several  important  pests  will  demand  atten- 
tion next  year,  and,  with  your  approval,  considerable  time  will  be  spent 
in  becoming  acquainted  with  the  State  and  the  people,  with  a view  of 
securing  assistance  from  the  farmers  and  affording  the  same  in  return. 
The  facilities  offered  by  the  station  will  enable  me  to  push  some  inves- 
tigations which  I have  not  been  able  to  do  before. 

REPORT  ON  SEVERAL  SPECIES  OF  CRANE-FLIES  INFESTING  MEADOWS 

AND  PASTURES,  AND  WHICH  MAY  ALSO  PROVE  INJURIOUS  TO 

WHEAT. 

Any  extended  study  of  the  species  belonging  to  this  group  of  insects, 
the  Tipulidse,  is  impeded  by  many  obstacles,  owing,  first,  to  the  great 
difficulty  of  securing  a proper  determination  of  the  species  involved, 
and,  second,  to  the  fact  that  they  are  among  farmers  to  a considerable 
extent  associated  with  cutworms,  the  larvae  being  known  as  cutworms 
and  the  adults  as  “cutworm  Hies;  ” so  that  it  is  not  only  a difficult  task 
to  indicate  the  exact  insect,  but  equally  so  to  secure  accurate  data  with 
resjmct  to  its  habits  in  the  fields.  In  England  these  insects  have  long 
ravaged  fields  of  young  wheat  sown  after  clover,  but  in  this  country 
such  attacks  have  not  often  been  observed.  With  the  increasing  pop- 
ularity of  clover- growing,  both  for  pasture,  meadow,  seed,  and  fertilizer, 
it  would  appear  that  we  are  on  the  verge  of  a new  era  with  respect  to 
the  effects  of  these  insects  in  our  clover  fields;  and  even  now  one  who 
watches  them  carefully  and  notes  the  numbers  of  adults  which  are  often 
to  be  observed  about  our  clover  fields  can  not  help  but  suspect  that 
they  are  working  an  injury  which  we  either  fail  to  observe,  or,  observ- 
ing, attribute  the  loss  occasioned  thereby  to  other  causes.  So  far  as 
grain  crops  are  concerned,  the  indications  are  that  the  American  hus- 
bandman will  have  little  trouble  in  preventing  serious  ravages  in  his 
fields.  What  the  future  of  our  clover  lands  is  to  be,  especially  if  allowed 
to  remain  intact  for  a number  of  years,  is  yet  to  be  seen.  Of  the  species 
studied,  there  is  not  one  the  ravages  of  which  can  not  be  almost  en- 
tirely prevented  in  young  wheat  by  plowing  the  ground  during  late 
August  or  early  September,  and  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  if 
21382— No.  2G 5 


66 


the  fall  growth  of  clover  is  kept  mowed  or  grazed  off  during  September 
and  October  little  trouble  will  likely  follow  from  the  depredations  of  the 
larvae  the  following  spring.  Some  species,  notably  the  ones  studied  in 
the  Indiana  Helds  in  1888  and  1800,  are  two  brooded,  the  eggs  being  de- 
posited in  spring  and  tall,  while  Tipula  Mcornis , which  was  reared  from 
the  field  at  Ashland,  Ohio,  and  a species  near  or  identical  with  Tipula 
angustipennis  Loew,  are  probably  single  brooded,  ovipositing  during 
late  September  and  October  only. 


TIPULA  BICOKNIS  Loew. 

On  May  17,  1888,  we  received  the  following  note  from  the  editors  of 
the  Anderson  Herald: 

Anderson,  Ind.,  May  16,  1888. 

We  send  you  by  today’s  mail  a bottle  with  some  worms  which  are  taking  the  place 
of  cutworms  in  our  county.  We  send  them  to  have  them  named  or  to  find  out  the 
name. 

The  Herald  Company. 

We  visited  the  locality  on  May  23,  but  could  learn  of  but  one  infested 
field,  this  being  on  the  farm  of  Mr.  J.  C.  Beesom,  located  about  3^  miles 
from  the  city  of  Anderson.  This  field  consisted  of  22  acres  of  under- 
drained clay  loam,  with  the  soil  of  the  depressions  darker  colored,  the 
surface,  however,  being  nearly  level.  The  field  for  the  two  preceding 
seasons  had  been  devoted  to  red-clover  pasture,  but  not  pastured  dur- 
ing the  last  year  after  about  August  1.  After  this  date  there  sprung 
up  a rank  growth  of  clover,  and,  besides,  a great  number  of  Bag- weeds 
(Ambrosia).  During  March  of  1888  the  clover  had  been  almost  totally 
killed,  the  owner  thought  by  the  weather.  About  April  16  Mr.  Beesom 
began  to  break  the  field,  and  then  discovered  myriads  of  these  larvae, 
which  were  new  both  to  him  and  his  neighbors.  At  this  time,  from  a 
square  foot  of  ground  he  took  two  hundred  of  the  larvae,  and  did  not 
dare  to  plant  his  fields  from  fear  of  these  worms  destroying  his  crop. 
On  May  16  he  found  them  still  in  the  earth  in  immense  numbers,  and 
noticed  that  a considerable  percentage  had  disappeared — doubtless 
pupated. 

When  I visited  the  field  fully  90  per  cent  were  in  the  pupal  stage, 
their  numbers  fully  confirming  Mr.  Beesom7  s statement  as  to  the  num- 
ber of  larvae,  the  lower  and  darker  colored  spots  being  the  worst  in- 
fested. There  were,  at  the  time  of  my  visit,  very  few  adults  to  be 
found  in  the  grass  along  the  edges  of  the  field,  but  in  the  sod,  which 
was  that  of  Blue  Grass,  no  larvae  or  pupae  could  be  found.  Although 
the  two  stages  were  pretty  generally  distributed  over  the  whole  area  of 
the  field,  they  were  especially  abundant  under  clods,  turf,  or  half-cov- 
ered bunches  of  weeds  and  other  debris.  On  the  level  plowed  ground 
the  pupae  could  be  detected  by  round  holes  which  they  occupied  in  a 
vertical  position.  Under  the  clods  this  feature  was  not  so  noticeable  j 
although  in  these  cases  they  seemed  to  favor  the  edges  of  their  coverts. 


67 


The  country  was  originally  thickly  wooded,  but  has  for  a long  time 
been  cleared  up,  except  frequent  groves,  which  are  usually  pastured. 
The  infested  held  was  one  cleared  by  pioneers  many  years  ago. 

The  advanced  stage  of  development  to  which  the  insects  had  already 
attained  precluded  the  possibility  of  thorough  study  in  the  field,  espe- 
cially of  the  larval  habits,  and  hence  we  were  obliged  to  be  content  with 
a few  and  a good  supply  of  pupae,  with  which  we  returned  home. 

After  the  general  habit  of  these  insects  the  pupa  occupies  a vertical 
position  in  the  earth,  and  the  adult,  just  prior  to  emerging,  pushes  from 
one-half  to  two  thirds  of  its  body  above  the  surface.  In  this  position  a 
large  number  of  pupae  were  placed  in  breeding  cages  and  the  result 
most  carefully  watched.  The  first  adult,  a male,  appeared  on  May  25, 
and  did  not  burst  from  the  pupa  until  after  the  latter  had  been  protrud- 
ing from  the  earth  for  several  hours.  The  pupa  case  first  bursts  along 
the  head  and  protliorax,  and  the  head  and  shoulders  of  the  adult  first 
appear.  Until  enough  of  the  body  has  been  delivered  to  clear  the  tips 
of  the  wings,  egress  is  brought  about  by  muscular  extension  and  con- 
traction of  the  abdominal  segments.  After  the  wings  are  free,  but 
while  still  in  its  vertical  position,  the  imago  changes  its  tactics,  and 
begins  to  rock  gently  backward  and  forward,  drawing  up  the  legs 
slightly  at  each  backward  motion,  until  they  are  finally  withdrawn 
from  the  case,  and  the  now  nearly  emerged  insect  bends  forward  with 
the  nearly  empty  pupa  case  and  crawls  forth.  In  the  case  of  the 
female,  loaded  down  with  her  burden  of  eggs,  the  assistance  of  the 
male  is  often  required  to  finally  extricate  her. 

On  the  26th  a large  number  of  adults  of  both  sexes  emerged  in  the 
breeding  cage,  followed  on  the  27th  by  still  greater  numbers,  the  males 
in  the  majority;  but  hardly  to  the  extent  indicated  by  Mr.  Beesom  in 
the  following  letter,  received  a few  days  later : 


Anderson,  Ind.,  May  29 , 1888. 

Mr.  F.  M.  Webster:  According  to  promise  I will  give  you  a history  of  the  worms 
and  fly.  On  May  26  the  flies  were  very  numerous  around  the  fences,  multiplying  each 
day  until  the  29th,  when  the  field  was  swarming  with  the  “gran’daddy  long-legs.” 
On  the  same  day  there  was  some  not  yet  hatched,  hut  not  many,  and  some  were  j ust 
coming  out.  I watched  their  habits,  and  think  from  appearance  there  was  about  one 
female  to  one  hundred  males.  The  female  is  full  of  eggs  when  hatched ; has  about 
three  hundred  eggs  of  a jet  black  color.  I saw  the  male  helping  the  female  out  of' 
the  shell.  He  would  do  this  by  standing  upright  with  the  female  pushing  back  and 
forth.  In  this  case  the  shell  would  be  half  way  out  of  the  ground.  As  soon  as  he 
would  get  her  out  he  would  impregnate  the  eggs.  This  is  about  all  I can  tell  you 
now. 

Yours  etc., 

J.  C.  Beesom. 


Soon  after  emerging,  sometimes  within  a few  hours,  the  female  begins 
her  work  of  oviposition.  Three  newly  emerged  females,  placed  sepa- 
rately in  glass  tubes,  produced  respectively  297, 282,  and  289  eggs.  In 
confinement,  these  eggs  were  thrown  off  at  the  rate  of  from  3 to  10  per 
minute. 


68 


Authorities  differ  as  to  the  mode  of  oviposition  among  the  Tipulidae; 
and  it  is  not  improbable  that  there  may  be  a difference  of  method  in 
different  species.  Curtis  opined  that  the  British  species  oviposited 
while  on  the  wing,  and  Miss  Ormerod  says  that  Tipula  oleracea  Linn., 
oviposits  in  or  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  while  Dr.  Kiley  states  that 
he  has  witnessed  the  oviposition  of  an  American  species,  Tipula  trivit- 
tata  Say,  and  the  eggs  are  forced  into  the  ground  by  means  of  a double 
pair  of  valves,  something  as  in  the  case  of  our  common  locusts. 

In  the  species  under  consideration,  the  terminal  abdominal  segment 
of  the  female  is  much  more  obtuse  than  in  some  other  of  the  American 
species,  ending  in  a pair  of  broad,  concave  valves  or  plates,  whose  office 
appears  to  consist  in  holding  the  eggs  in  place  and  assist  in  directing 
them  to  within  the  reach  of  a second  pair  of  organs.  With  the  female 
standing  on  a horizontal  surface,  in  a natural  position,  the  egg  appears 
to  pass  down  the  oviduct  with  the  concave  surface  downward,  but  on 
nearing  the  terminus  of  the  oviduct  the  posterior  end  of  the  egg  is 
thrown  under  and  forward,  thereby  bringing  the  concave  side  upward, 
and  lying,  seemingly,  directly  under  a small  liguliform  plate  which  is 
attached  only  at  its  base.  The  apical  portion  of  this  triangular  plate 
appears  to  fit  the  concave  side  of  the  egg,  which  is  prevented  from  going 
too  far  backward  by  the  anal  valves  previously  mentioned.  It  is  here 
that  the  second  pair  of  plates  or  valves,  apparently  the  most  important 
appendage,  is  called  into  play.  This  is  situated  just  beneath  or  a little 
back  of  the  triangular  plate,  their  bases  having  very  nearly  a common 
origin,  and  is  composed  of  two  movable  valves,  or  claspers  (whose  base 
is  broadened  into  a thin  flap,  which,  coming  upward  at  the  sides,  forms  a 
receptacle  for  the  egg)  which,  when  closed  together,  form  a hemispheri- 
cal cup  having  almost  the  exact  form  of  one-half  of  the  epicarp  of  the  hick- 
ory nut  5 and  each  of  the  two  parts,  when  opened,  as  faithfully  represent 
one  of  the  valves  of  the  epicarp.  When  the  egg  is  in  position  on  the 
triangular  plate  these  valves  are  pressed  against  and  about  it,  inclosing 
it  on  all  sides,  leaving  only  a portion  visible  along  the  apex;  and  drop 
ping  downwards  slightly,  but  gently,  the  egg  is  projected  forth  with  a 
slight  snapping  sound,  seemingly  propelled  in  much  the  same  manner 
as  one  would  eject  the  pit  from  a ripe  cherry  by  pressing  it  between  the 
thumb  and  forefinger.  Whether  the  liguliform  plate  follows  the  valves 
in  this  downward  movement,  or  not,  I could  not  determine,  but  think 
such  is  the  case,  as  the  egg  is  not  projected  directly  backward,  but  de- 
flects considerably  downward.  The  movements  of  oviposition  are  made 
so  quickly  that  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  observe  the  exact  action  of 
the  parts,  and  therefore  I give  them  as  they  appeared  to  me.  Further 
observation  may  require  a slight  revision. 

I have  an  idea  that  the  two  elevations  at  the  base  of  the  liguliform 
plate,  which  is  drawn  as  seen  from  beneath,  may  serve  to  keep  the 
egg  from  slipping  backward  and  may  also  assist  in  pushing  it  for- 
ward. At  the  base  of  plate,  on  the  under  side,  are  two  loose  ap- 


69 


pendages  fixed  at  base  and  middle,  forming,  as  it  were,  a sort  of  basal 
pocket  for  each  of  the  claspers.  The  exact  use  of  these  I can  not  un- 
derstand, but  suspect  they  assist  in  some  manner  in  holding,  or,  pos- 
sibly, propelling  the  egg,  as,  in  Pachyrrhina,  they  are  reduced  to  what 
appears  to  me  to  be  a mere  cushion. 

I wish  it  distinctly  understood  that  I did  not  witness  oviposition,  ex- 
cept under  artificial  environments,  and  therefore  it  would  not  be  best 
to  take  too  much  for  granted.  But,  in  view  of  the  mechanism  of  the 
organs  of  oviposition,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  called  into 
play,  together  with  the  fact  that  in  the  breeding  cages  the  eggs  were 
scattered  about,  without  the  least  indication  of  a desire  to  secrete  them, 
it  seems  at  least  doubtful  about  this  species  ovipositing  in  the  ground, 
though  it  must  be  confessed  the  organs  of  oviposition  have  a strange 
resemblance  to  those  of  migratory  locusts. 

The  egg. — Tlie  egg  is  0.8mm  in  length,  and  from  0.3  to  0.4mm  in  breadth,  elongate- 
ovoid,  strongly  concave  on  one  side,  of  a jet  black  color  and  highly  polished.* 

The  larva. — The  larva  is  about  20mm  in  length,  and  in  maximum  diameter  is  about 
3mm ; head  retractile,  small  and  horny,  whitish  in  color,  and  spotted  with  black ; an- 
tennae yellowish;  body  strongly  wrinkled,  transversely,  especially  the  posterior  seg- 
ments. In  the  young  larvae  there  are  oh  most  of  the  segments  sparsely  placed,  stout, 
curved  bristles,  but  in  the  mature  larvae  these  are  more  frequently  missing.  The 
first  segment  is  small,  the  others  increasing  to  the  eighth ; thence  decreasing  to  the 
twelfth.  The  first  seven  segments  are  much  smoother,  but  not  as  clearly  defined  as 
the  last  five.  The  terminal  segment  is  very  obtuse,  and  armed  above  with  a row  of 
four  stout  hooked  spines,  curved  posteriorly,  beneath  which  are  two  large  spiracles, 
and  below  each  of  these  is  a short,  fleshy  spine,  curved  upward.  General  color,  dingy 
white. 

The  pupa. — The  pupa  varies  in  length  from  13mm  to  18mm,  and  in  breadth  from  3mm 
to5mm ; head,  with  eyes,  distinct;  the  antennae  is  insecurely  attached  along  the  breast, 
short,  eleven-jointed,  the  last  joint  strongly  constricted  at  tip;  horns  prominent, 
knobbed,  curved,  moderately  distantly  separated  at  base,  with  an  intervening  median 
black  ridge ; thorax  quite  prominent,  and  rotund  above ; wings  extending  to  anterior 
margin  of  first  ventral  segment;  legs  extending,  usually,  to  posterior  margin  of  first 
ventral  segment,  where  they  all  terminate  together,  forming  a sort  of  flap,  easily 
detached  from  the  segment  and  from  each  other.  The  abdomen  is  usually  rather 
strongly  depressed,  widening  from  base  to  third  segment,  gradually  tapering  from 
thence  to  tip.  Excepting  the  terminal,  all  of  the  abdominal  segments  are  provided 
with  a transverse  row  of  short  spines  on  the  dorsal  surface,  and  likewise  on  the  ven- 
tral surface,  with  the  exception  of  the  first  and  second,  which  have,  instead,  two 
large  and  two  small  spines,  one  of  each  placed  on  either  side  of  the  middle.  The 
terminal  segment  ends  with  a cluster  of  closely  placed,  fleshy  pustules,  which  appear 
to  be  more  or  less  retractile.  Back  and  above  these  are  two  fleshy  spines,  eight  in 
number.  The  lateral  margins  of  the  abdomen  are  wide  and  thin,  armed  with  a lateral 
row  of  spines,  two  on  each  segment.  General  color  of  pnpa,  dull,  dingy  brown. 

As  clover  was  seriously  injured  throughout  tlie  West  during  the 
winter  and  spring  of  1888,  any  attempt  to  estimate  the  injury  occasioned 
by  these  worms  would,  of  necessity,  be  mere  guesswork. 

*Egg8  very  similar  to,  if  not  identical  with,  these  were  described  some  years  ago 
by  Dr.  Riley,  to  whom  they  were  sent  by  Prof.  S.  A.  Forbes,  he  having  found  them 
in  the  stomach  of  the  Catbird  in  Illinois.  (See  Am.  Ent.,  vol.  ill,  p.  24.) 


70 


That  this  species  is  double-brooded  there  is  no  reasonable  doubt,  later 
observations  showing  that  the  eggs  of  the  fall  brood  are  deposited 
principally  during  September,  the  insect  wintering  over  in  the  larval 
stage  and  finishing  this  stage  in  early  spring,  its  period  of  development 
being  a little  later  than  the  following  species,  although  the  two  maybe 
found  abundantly  at  the  same  season,  the  Pachyrrliina  appearing  first 
and  seeming  to  be  well  advanced  in  the  work  of  oviposition  by  the  time 
this  begins  to  appear  in  noticeable  numbers. 

Respecting  natural  enemies,  Mr.  Beesom  had  observed  great  numbers 
of  crows  and  “bee  birds”  hovering  about  this  field  almost  constantly, 
and  he  was  quite  positive  that  they  were  engaged  in  the  destruction  of 
the  larvm.  From  what  has  already  been  stated,  it  seems  probable  that 
the  adults  are,  to  some  extent  at  least,  destroyed  by  the  Catbird.  Of 
the  probable  insect  enemies,  Pterostichus  lucublandus  was  particularly 
abundant,  and  Mr.  Beesom  at  once  pointed  them  out  as  the  most  nu- 
merous in  the  field,  and  particularly  where  the  larvae  were  then  congre- 
gated. Harpalus  pennsylvanicus , H.  caliginosus , and  Pterostichus  femor- 
alis  were  also  present  in  considerable  numbers,  as  were  also  the  larvae 
of  some  species  of  Harpalus  and  Platynus,  these  larvae  being  especially 
abundant  in  places  where  the  pupae  of  the  Tipula  were  massed. 

PACHYRRHINA  9J).  ? 

Late  in  April,  1890,  news  came  to  me  of  the  depredations  of  a new 
insect  pest  in  fields  of  young  wheat  near  Farmersburg,  Sullivan  County, 
Ind.  This  time  the  depredators  proved  to  be  the  larvae  of  a species  of 
Paehyrrina,  but  whose  depredations  were  very  mucli  like  the  preceding; 
a visit  to  the  locality  on  the  26th,  and  especially  to  the  fields  of  Mr.  T. 
H.  Kendall,  revealing  the  nature  of  the  depredator  and  eifect  of  its 
ravages.  The  insect  was  at  that  time  most  abundant  in  the  pupal 
stage,  these  pupae,  after  the  manner  of  the  Tipulidae  in  general,  occupy- 
ing vertical  cells  in  the  ground.  Larvae  were,  however,  present  in  con- 
siderable numbers,  both  in  the  earth  and  on  the  surface,  the  day  being- 
rainy,  and  not  only  about  the  wheat  plants,  but  also  about  stray  clumps 
of  timothy,  of  which  there  were  a considerable  number  scattered  over 
the  field  among  the  wheat.  For  reasons  which  will  appear  further  on, 
the  numbers  present  in  both  stages  did  not  correspond  at  all  with  the 
reports  of  Mr.  Kendall,  nor  with  the  amount  of  damage  clearly  attrib- 
utable to  the  pest.  The  most  seriously  injured  fields  were  those  which 
had  been  in  clover  the  previous  year. 

Of  two  fields  adjoining  each  other,  one  sown  on  oat  stubble,  the  other 
on  clover  sod  plowed  early  in  October,  the  latter  was  damaged  fully  50 
per  cent,  while  the  former  had  escaped  uninjured.  Another  field  a 
short  distance  from  these,  also  in  clover  last  year  but  plowed  late  in 
August,  was  damaged  only  about  15  per  cent.  A clover  field  adjoining 
the  first  two  had  been  completely  ruined,  but  this  might  have  been  in 
part  due  to  the  winter,  although  the  insect  was  present  in  abundance. 


71 


A close  inspection  of  the  most  seriously  injured  fields  showed  large  areas 
of  grain  totally  destroyed,  while  other  areas  among  them  were  little 
injured.  The  plants  themselves  had  not  been  thrown  out  by  the  frost, 
but  were  well  fixed  in  the  soil.  The  day  was  rainy,  and  many  of  the 
dead  plants  had  a green  appearance  like  that  of  wetted  hay,  and  did 
not  at  all  resemble  those  killed  by  frost  or  freezing,  indicating  that  they 
had  withered. 

Mr.  Kendall  stated  that  up  to  the  1st  of  February  his  wheat  was  in 
fine  condition,  but  after  that  time  it  began  to  die,  and  continued  to  do  so 
rapidly  until  about  the  first  week  in  April,  since  which  time  the  dep- 
redations had  gradually  ceased.  Soon  after  the  trouble  began  he  had 
observed  the  larvae  in  myriads  both  above  and  below  ground,  but  they 
worked  below,  not  cutting  off  the  plants,  but  apparently  wounding  them 
and  sucking  the  juices.  In  working  about  just  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  ground  they  raised  ridges  like  those  made  by  moles,  but  about  the 
size  of  straws,  and  the  earth  immediately  about  the  plants  was  often 
worked  up  as  if  by  ants  or  earth-worms. 

A large  number  of  larvae  and  pupae  were  secured  and  taken  home, 
in  order  that  I might  be  able  to  study  the  method  of  feeding  in  the 
former,  secure  adults,  and  watch  the  oviposition  of  the  females,  which, 
I judged,  might  differ  from  those  previously  studied  in  case  they  proved 
to  be  of  a different  species.  While  collecting  this  material,  not  only 
many  dead  pupae  were  noticed,  but  larvae  also,  lying  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  many  of  which  had  turned  black  wholly  or  in  part,  after 
the  manner  of  diseased  cabbage-worms.  This  led  to  the  suspicion  that 
they  had  been  attacked  by  a fungous  disease,  which  had  reduced  their 
number  and  consequent  injury.  While  all  living  material  was,  on  my 
arrival  home,  placed  in  a breeding  cage  and  thus  kept  out  of  doors, 
nearly  all  of  the  pupae  were  destroyed,  almost  entirely,  I believe,  by  this 
fungoid  enemy,  which  Dr.  J.  0.  Arthur  informs  me  is  undescribed,  and 
for  which  he  proposes  the  manuscript  name  Empiisci  pachyrrliince.  One 
larva  constructed  its  cell  in  the  earth  in  the  breeding  cage  and  trans- 
formed to  the  pupa,  but  the  next  day  this  pupa  worked  itself  upward 
out  of  the  cell  and  was  found  lying  on  the  surface  dead,  and  covered 
with  spores  of  Empusa.  How  much  this  fungus  had  to  do  with  the 
stopping  of  depredations  of  the  larvae  on  the  wheat  it  is,  of  course,  im- 
possible to  say,  but  it  must  have  destroyed  a large  percentage  of  the 
pest. 

The  first  adult  appeared  in  the  cage  on  the  28th,  two  days  after 
removal  from  the  field.  Other  adults  emerged  so  very  sparingly,  and 
at  such  long  intervals,  that  no  opportunity  was  offered  to  secure  fer- 
tilized eggs  or  note  fhe  ovipositing  habits  of  the  females.  The  first  of 
the  only  two  females  reared  was  nearly  dead  when  a male  emerged, 
and,  though  fertilized,  died  without  ovipositing,  and  the  male  refused 
to  pair  a second  time,  leaving  the  second  female  without  a mate,  she 
dying  before  a second  male  emerged.  Two  females  and  four  males 


72 


were  all  the  adults  secured  from  the  material  brought  home,  the  others, 
as  I believe,  having  been  destroyed  by  the  Empusa  previously  mentioned. 

The  same  species  was  found  in  abundance  in  clover  fields  about 
Lafayette  during  the  whole  of  the  month  of  May,  eggs  being  secured 
on  the  28th  from  a female  taken  in  the  field.  We  have  this  year 
reared  adults  which  appeared  June  4.  About  the  10th  of  August  males 
began  to  appear  again  in  great  abundance,  and  both  sexes  were  ob- 
served on  the  15th,  and  by  the  27th  they  seemed  to  be  in  the  height  of 
the  ovipositing  season ; but  the  females  stubbornly  refused  to  oviposit 
in  confinement,  and  it  was  only  by  securing  a female  while  laying  her 
eggs  in  the  field  that  I secured  an  additional  supply,  though  I saw  a 
female  which  had  been  caught  in  a spider  snare  depositing  her  eggs 
freely.  By  the  20th  of  September  the  species  had  nearly  disappeared, 
only  spent  females  being  seen,  though  the  present  season,  near  Colum- 
bus, Ohio,  one  was  observed  filled  with  eggs  as  late  as  the  22d.  It 
seems,  therefore,  that  the  ovipositing  seasons  are,  as  a rule,  from  about 
May  1 to  June  15  and  from  about  August  10  to  September  25,  the 
period  covering  about  six  weeks. 

The  organs  of  oviposition  in  this  species  are  very  different  from  those 
of  the  preceding,  giving  to  the  posterior  segment  of  the  females  a very 
different  appearance.  Instead  of  the  broad  valves  we  have  a pair  of 
chitinous  forceps  while  the  lower  plates  are  produced  with  the  pro- 
longations vertically  flattened,  and  the  base  forms  an  elongate  recepta- 
cle. The  liguliform  plate  is  less  robust  and  partakes  more  of  a carti- 
laginous than  a chitinous  nature,  its  office  evidently  being  in  part  sus- 
tained by  the  teeth  with  which  the  interior  basal  part  of  the  second  pair 
of  plates  is  provided.  The  two  pair  of  plates,  when  not  in  use,  close  up 
and  form  a slender  prolongation  of  the  last  abdominal  segment.  The 
egg  differs  from  that  of  the  preceding  species  by  being  smaller  and  hav- 
ing five  distinct  grooves,  presumably  allowing  the  teeth  of  the  lower 
plates  to  gain  a stronger  hold  on  the  egg  itself,  and  thus  reenforcing 
the  liguliform  plate,  which,  as  in  the  preceding,  seems  to  fit  into  the 
concavity  of  the  egg.  The  manner  of  oviposition  is  as  follows : The  egg, 
leaving  the  oviduct,  drops  into  the  second  or  lower  pair  of  claspers  and 
under  the  small  liguliform  piece,  the  concave  side  upward.  Here  it 
seems  to  be  held  in  place  while  the  upper  organ  or  plate  is  drawn  back- 
ward, the  lower  being  at  the  same  time  slightly  advanced  until  the  two 
flattened  prolongations  drop  in  between  the  two  upper  ones,  when  there 
is  a sharp  click  and  the  egg  is  thrown  forth  at  an  angle  of  probably  40 
degrees.  As  with  the  preceding  species,  the  rapidity  of  the  movement 
renders  it  difficult  to  observe  accurately  or  to  determine  the  exact  source 
of  propulsion.  The  females  of  this  species  utterly  refuse  to  oviposit  in 
confinement,  and  it  is  only  by  capturing  them  in  the  fields,  after  they 
have  probably  begun  oviposition,  that  one  is  able  to  secure  eggs. 
Even  here,  however,  we  have  not  been  able  to  witness  undisturbed 
oviposition,  and  therefore  not  able  to  observe  whether  or  not  they  use 


73 


tlie  combined  organs  with  which  to  place  the  eggs  in  the  earth,  as  their 
general  contour  would  indicate  might  be  the  case.  More  especially  does 
this  seem  possible  as  the  preceding  species,  whose  organs  of  oviposi- 
tion  do  not  seem  fitted  for  placing  eggs,  oviposit  freely  in  the  breeding 
cage.  Besides  being  grooved,  the  eggs  of  these  Pachyrrhinae  are  smaller 
and  less  robust  than  those  of  Tip  ala  Mcor  nis.  The  number  of  eggs 
which  the  female  produces  is  also  uncertain,  as  I have  not  been  able  to 
secure  accurate  data  on  that  point. 

On  May  7,  1891,  I received  a number  of  Tipulid  larvae  from  Mr.  D. 
F.  Wise,  of  Ashland  County,  Ohio,  with  the  statement  that  they  were 
present  in  one  of  his  fields  in  myriads,  and  he  was  afraid  to  plant  corn 
therein  through  fear  of  their  destroying  his  crop.  The  owner  described 
the  infested  field  as  having  been  devoted  to  wheat  three  and  two  years 
previously,  yielding  about  20  bushels  per  acre ; was  seeded  to  clover,  and 
last  yearacrop  of  hay  was  removed.  This  spring,  however,  the  clover  had 
disappeared  and  the  entire  field  of  14  acres  furnished  only  feed  enough 
for  twenty- two  ewes  and  their  lambs.  From  these  larvae  I reared,  June 
4,  a male  and  female  of  this  species.  Mr.  Wise  wrote  me  later  that  he 
had  observed  these  worms  in  his  clover  fields,  and  had  noticed  unac- 
countable injuries  thereto  for  the  last  nine  years,  but  thought  the  intruders 
were  ordinary  cut- worms.  About  the  first  of  April, this  year,  he  began 
tiling  his  field,  and  on  the  following  morning  found  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch,  though  covered  with  water,  was  swarming  with  these  larvae,  and 
the  fact  of  their  living  in  water  raised  the  suspicion  that  they  were  not 
true  cut-worms.  On  May  16,  nearly  six  weeks  later,  he  wrote  that  those 
larvae  were  still  living  in  the  ditch. 

When  I received  the  larvae  from  Mr.  Wise  they  were  placed  in  a large 
glass  with  considerable  earth  and  a clover  plant,  but  no  drainage. 
After  waiting  a considerable  time  for  other  adults  to  emerge  from  the 
larvae,  I concluded  that  the  remainder  had  died,  and  paid  no  further 
attention  to  the  glass  in  which  they  had  been  placed. 

Tipula  costalis  Say. 

Early  in  July  an  examination  of  the  earth  in  the  glass  mentioned 
above,  now  nearly  a solid  mass,  showed  several  larvae,  and,  what  was 
more  surprising,  they  were  still  alive.  During  my  removal  from  La- 
fayette, Ind.,  to  Columbus,  Ohio,  and  the  rearrangement  of  things, 
this  glass  accidentally  became  filled  with  water,  and  remained  so  for 
nearly  two  weeks,  when,  judge  of  my  astonishment  on  examining  the 
contents,  ten  larvae  were  found  alive  and  completely  submerged  in  the 
water,  one  floating  about  with  its  posterior  upward.  The  larvae  were 
at  once  removed  and  placed  in  a flower  pot,  in  which  a fresh  clover 
plant  was  placed,  and  this  kept  watered.  Nothing  appeared  until  Sep- 
tember 20,  when  a male  emerged,  followed  on  the  next  day  by  a female. 
These  were  kept  together,  and,  though  copulation  took  place,  the 
female  stubbornly  refused  to  oviposit,  and  died  without  furnishing  me 


74 


with  a single  egg.  The  same  day  on  which  the  latter  of  these  two 
adults  emerged,  while  riding  along  the  road,  myriads  of  botli  sexes 
were  observed.  They  were  also  received  from  Mr.  J.  M.  Jones,  of 
Dunkirk,  Hardin  County,  who  wrote  under  date  of  September  19, 
stating  that  they  had  appeared  about  the  15th  and  were  literally 
swarming.  He  also  called  attention  to  the  popular  notion  of  their 
originating  from  cut-worms.  All  facts  taken  together  indicate  that  this 
species  is  single-brooded,  the  eggs  being  deposited  during  late  Sep- 
tember and  early  October.  Mr.  Wise  states  that  the  larvae  of  these 
Crane-flies  are  most  abundant  in  low,  grayish-black  soil,  and  where  the 
ground  is  the  wettest,  and  that  during  heavy  rains  they  appear  to  work 
nearer  the  surface  of  the  ground.  He  also  states  that  to  his  knowledge 
they  have  never  injured  corn  planted  in  these  fields,  and  the  present 
season  has  shown  no  exception.* 

From  the  foregoing  it  seems  that  our  clover  fields  are  menaced  by  at 
least  three  species  of  Crane-flies,  one  of  which  is  known  to  be,  under 
certain  conditions,  exceedingly  destructive  to  wheat,  while  the  other 
two  may  rest  under  grave  suspicion.  In  a former  report  to  this  Depart- 
ment I clearly  showed  the  desirability  of  sowing  wheat  late  in  the 
fall — the  exact  time  depending  upon  the  locality — as  a protection  against 
the  fall  attack  of  the  Hessian  fly.  It  seems  now  that  though  sowing 
should  be  deferred,  plowing,  in  cases  where  wheat  is  to  follow  clover, 
should  be  done  late  in  August,  or  at  least  before  the  middle  of  Septem- 
ber, in  order  to  escape  injury  from  the  larvm  of  Crane-flies. 

Besides  the  enemies  of  Crane-flies  already  given,  I have  observed  an 
ant,  Ajphcenogaster  fulva , attack  and  drag  away  a living  female  of  Pa- 
chyrrliina,  and  in  addition  to  the  bird  enemies  given  by  Mr.Beesom  the 
following  is  a list  of  birds  found  to  have  preyed  upon  these  insects  in 
Illinois  (see  Bull.  State  Lab.  Nat.  Hist.  111.,  No.  3,  pp.  104-135): 


Species  of  bird. 

No.  of 
birds  ex- 
amined. 

Ratio  of 
food  com- 
posed of 
Tipulidae. 

Robin 

114 

.01 

Catbird 

70 

.05 

Wood  Tlnusb 

22 

.12 

Alice  Thrnsli 

11 

.08 

Swainson  Thrush 

11 

.04 

* Since  the  above  was  written  letters  have  been  received  from  Mr.  Wise  stating 
that  the  corn  in  the  field  infested  by  the  larvae  of  this  species  did  not  yield  half  a 
crop.  The  plants  were  thrifty  until  in  August,  when  they  suddenly  ceased  to  grow, 
with  the  result  stated.  Roots  sent  me  show  unmistakable  signs  of  attacks  by  in- 
sects, such  attacks  not  being  made  until  after  the  plants  had  become  well  rooted, 
after  which  a vast  number  of  small  roots  had  been  thrown  out  to  replace  the  larger 
ones  destroyed.  While,  therefore,  it  is  as  yet  too  much  to  say  that  Tipula  costalis  is 
a corn-destroying  insect,  there  seems  a prospect  that  future  study  may  prove  it  to  be 
such.—  F.  M.  W. 


REPOET  UPON  THE  GYPSY  MOTH  IN  MASSACHUSETTS. 


By  Samuel  Hens  haw,  Special  Agent. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 

Cambridge,  Mass.,  Decernin'  7,  1891. 

Sir:  I herewith  submit  my  report  upon  the  Gypsy  Moth  ( Ocneria  dispar)  in  Massa- 
chusetts, undertaken  in  accordance  with  your  instructions. 

Yours  truly, 

Sam’l  Henshaw. 

Prof.  C.  Y.  Riley, 

U.  S.  Entomologist. 


This  insect,  a native  of  Europe,  is  mentioned  in  the  American  Ento- 
mologist for  February,  1870  (Yol.  ii,  p.  771),  as  accidentally  introduced 
into  New  England  (Of.  also  Riley’s  Second  Missouri  Report,  1870,  p.  10). 
Though  noted  at  that  time  as  u spreading  with  great  rapidity”  it  was 
not  until  November,  1889,  when  Prof.  C.  H.  Fernald,  of  the  Hatch 
(Massachusetts)  Experiment  Station,  issued  a special  bulletin,  entitled 
u A dangerous  insect  pest  in  Medford,”  that  the  species  attracted  gen- 
eral attention. 

Prof.  Fernald’s  bulletin,  aided  by  notices  in  the  daily  press,  led  to  the 
mention  of  the  insect  by  Governor  Brackett  in  his  message  to  the  State 
legislature  in  January,  1890;  he  said:  “A  new  enemy  is  at  present 
threatening  the  agriculture,  not  only  of  our  State  but  of  the  whole 
country.  I refer  to  the  Gypsy  Moth  ( Ocneria  dispar ),  a European  in- 
sect which  has  recently  appeared  in  the  State.  They  are  said  to  attack 
almost  every  variety  of  tree  as  well  as  the  farm  and  garden  crops. 
They  are  now  confined  to  a very  small  area  in  Middlesex  County,  but 
have  become  acclimated  and  are  spreading  with  great  rapidity.  If 
their  eradication  is  to  be  attempted,  immediate  measures  are  of  the 
utmost  importance.” 

A hearing  was  given  by  the  Committee  on  Agriculture  and  an  act 
was  passed  by  the  legislature  authorizing  the  appointment  by  the 
Governor  of  a Gypsy  Moth  Commission  to  consist  of  not  more  than 
three  members. 


76 


Tlie  following  is  the  act: 

[Chap.  95.] 

AN  ACT  to  provide  against  depi'edations  by  the  insect  known  as  the  Ocneria  dispar  or  Gypsy  Moth. 

Be  it  enacted,  etc.,  as  folloivs: 

Section  1.  The  Governor,  by  and  with  the  consent  of  the  Council,  is  hereby  author- 
ized to  appoint  a commission,  of  not  exceeding;  three  suitable  and  discreet  persons, 
whose  duty  it  shall  be  to  provide  and  carry  into  execution  all  possible  and  reason- 
able measures  to  prevent  the  spreading  and  to  secure  the  extermination  of  the  Oc- 
neria dispar,  or  Gypsy  Moth,  in  this  Commonwealth ; and  to  this  end  said  Commission 
shall  have  full  authority  to  provide  itself  with  all  necessary  material  and  appliances 
and  to  employ  such  competent  persons  as  it  shall  deem  needful;  and  shall  also  have 
the  right  in  the  execution  of  the  purposes  of  this  act  to  enter  upon  the  lands  of  any 
person. 

Sec.  2.  The  owner  of  any  land  so  entered  upon,  who  shall  suffer  damage  by  such 
entry  and  acts  done  thereon  by  said  Commission,  or  under  its  direction,  may  recover 
the  same  of  the  city  or  town  in  which  the  lands  so  claimed  to  have  been  damaged 
are  situate  by  action  of  contract;  but  any  benefits  received  by  such  entry  and  the 
acts  done  on  such  lands  in  the  execution  of  the  purposes  of  this  act  shall  be  deter- 
mined by  the  court  or  jury  before  whom  such  action  is  heard,  and  the  amount  thereof 
shall  be  applied  in  reduction  of  said  damages;  and  the  Commonwealth  shall  refund 
to  said  city  or  town  one  half  of  the  amount  of  the  damages  recovered. 

Sec.  3.  Said  Commission  shall  have  full  authority  to  make  from  time  to  time  such 
rules  and  regulations  in  furtherance  of  the  purposes  of  this  act  as  it  shall  deem  need- 
ful ; which  rules  and  regulation  shall  be  published  in  one  or  more  newspapers  pub- 
lishedin  the  county  of  Suffolk,  and  copies  of  such  rules  and  regulations  shall  be 
posted  in  at  least  three  public  places  in  each  city  or  town  in  which  said  Ocneria 
dispar  or  Gypsy  Moth  shall  be  found  by  such  Commission  to  exist,  and  a copy  thereof 
shall  be  filed  with  the  city  or  town  clerk  of  each  city  or  town.  Any  person  who 
shall  knowingly  violate  any  of  the  provisions  thereof  shall  be  punished  for  each  vio-’ 
lation  by  a fine  not  exceeding  twenty-five  dollars. 

Sec.  4.  Said  Commission  shall  keep  a record  of  its  transactions  and  a full  account 
of  all  its  expenditures,  in  such  form  and  manner  as  shall  be  prescribed  by  the  Gov- 
ernor and  Council,  and  shall  also  make  return  thereof  to  the  Governor  and  Council 
at  such  time  or  times  and  in  such  form  as  shall  be  directed  by  the  Governor  and  Coun- 
cil. The  expenses  incurred  under  this  act  shall  be  paid  by  the  Commonwealth,  except 
claims  for  damages  by  the  entry  upon  the  lands  of  any  person  and  acts  done  thereon 
by  said  Commission  or  by  its  direction,  which  shall  be  paid  as  provided  in  section 
two  of  this  act. 

Sec.  5.  The  Governor  and  Council  shall  establish  the  rate  of  compensation  of  the 
Commissioners  appointed  under  this  act,  and  the  Governor  may  terminate  their  com- 
missions at  his  pleasure. 

Sec.  6.  Any  person  who  shall  purposely  resist  or  obstruct  said  Commissioners  or 
any  person  or  persons  under  their  employ  while  engaged  in  the  execution  of  the  pur- 
poses of  this  act,  shall  be  punished  by  a fine  not  exceeding  twenty-five  dollars  for 
each  offense. 

Sec.  7.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person  to  knowingly  bring  the  insect  known 
as  the  Ocneria  dispar  or  Gypsy  Moth,  or  its  nests  or  eggs,  within  this  Commonwealth; 
or  for  any  person  knowingly  to  transport  said  insect  or  its  nests  or  eggs  from  any 
town  or  city  to  another  town  or  city  within  this  Commonwealth,  except  while  en- 
gaged in  and  for  the  purposes  of  destroying  them.  Any  person  who  shall  offend 
against  the  provisions  of  this  section  of  this  act  shall  be  punished  by  a fine  not  ex- 
ceeding two  hundred  dollars  or  by  imprisonment  in  the  house  of  correction  not 
exceeding  sixty  days,  or  by  both  said  fine  and  imprisonment. 

Sec.  8.  To  carry  out  the  provisions  of  this  act  a sum  not  exceeding  twenty-five 
thousand  dollars  may  be  expended. 

Sec.  9.  This  act  shall  take  effect  upon  its  passage. 


77 


This  act  was  approved  March  14, 1890,  and  the  Governor  named  W.  W. 
Rawson, of  Arlington;  Pearl  Martin,  of  Medford,  and  J.  H.  Bradley,  of 
Malden,  as  the  Commissioners;  they  organized  March  22,  1890.  The 
appropriations  for  the  work  were  authorized  in  the  following  act  and 
resolve,  approved  April  2,  1890,  and  June  3,  1890: 

[Chap.  157.] 

AN  ACT  making  an  appropriation  for  the  extermination  of  the  insect  known  as  the  Ocneria  dispar  or 

Gypsy  Moth. 

Sec.  1.  A sum  not  exceeding  twenty-five  thousand  dollars  is  hereby  appropriated 
to  he  paid  out  of  the  treasury  of  the  Commonwealth  from  the  ordinary  revenue,  for 
the  purpose  of  meeting  expenses  authorized  by  chapter  ninety-five  of  the  acts  of  the 
present  year  providing  against  depredations  by  the  insect  known  as  the  Ocneria  dispar 
or  Gypsy  Moth. 

Sec.  2.  This  act  shall  take  effect  upon  its  passage. 

[Chap.  66.] 

RESOLVE  relative  to  the  insect  known  as  the  Ocneria  dispar  or  Gypsy  Moth. 

Eesoived,  That  there  be  allowed  and.  paid  out  of  the  treasury  of  the  Commonwealth 
a sum  not  exceeding  twenty-five  thousand  dollars,  in  addition  to  the  twenty-five 
thousand  dollars  authorized  by  chapter  ninety-five  of  the  acts  of  the  present  year, 
for  the  purpose  of  continuing  the  work  of  the  Commission  appointed  under  said  act 
in  preventing  the  spreading  and  securing  the  extermination  of  the  Ocneria  dispar  or 
Gypsy  Moth  in  the  Commonwealth. 

Of  this  sum  of  $50,000  only  $25,514.31  was  expended  during  the  work 
of  the  season. 

Naturally  the  first  work  of  the  Commission  was  to  determine  the 
limits  of  the  infested  region.  The  only  data  at  hand  stated  that  the 
Ocneria  was  confined  to  an  area  in  the  form  of  an  ellipse  about  a mile 
and  a half  long  by  half  a mile  wide  situated  in  Medford.  It  was  at 
once  discovered  that  the  Ocneria  was  abundant  in  many  other  localities. 
By  the  end  of  May,  1890,  the  infested  region  was  stated  to  cover  a dis- 
trict 4 miles  wide  and  16  miles  long. 

At  the  end  of  their  term  of  service  (February  25,  1891),  the  Commis- 
sioners stated  that  the  infested  territory  was  confined  to  Everett,  Mal- 
den, Medford,  the  westerly  parts  of  Chelsea,  the  northwesterly  of 
Arlington,  the  easterly  edge  of  Winchester,  and  a few  scattered  locali- 
ties in  Somerville,  in  all  an  area  of  about  50  square  miles.  The  district 
being  determined,  an  inspection  of  trees,  shrubs,  fences,  etc.,  followed, 
all  infested  being  marked  with  a piece  of  red  flannel.  Attention  was 
first  given  to  the  masses  of  eggs  and  their  destruction  was  pressed 
energetically  until  the  first  days  of  May,  when  spraying  began.  Lighted 
kerosene  torches  were  used  to  destroy  the  egg  masses.  They  were 
applied  to  the  eggs  in  the  positions  in  which  they  were  found. 

. Many  acres  of  brush  land  were  burned  over.  The  work  of  spraying 
began  May  12  and  was  practically  finished  July  23.  Mr.  C.  A.Longley 
was  in  charge  of  the  work  and  the  insecticide  used  was  Paris  green, 
one  pound  in  150  gallons  of  water.  During  the  season  about  2 tons 
of  Paris  green  were  used  and  70,000  trees  sprayed.  The  spraying  equip- 
ment consisted  of  a cask  mounted  upon  a wagon,  a force  pump  with 
stirrer,  100  to  200  feet  of  hose  and  nozzles.  Four  men  accompanied  each 


78 


team.  A means  taken  to  prevent  the  spread  of  the  Ocneria  was  the 
employment  of  officers  with  authority  to  stop  and  examine  every  team, 
carriage,  horse  car,  or  person  passing  outside  the  limits  of  Malden  and 
Medford  and  to  examine  the  same.  Though  the  utility  of  this  work 
wras  doubted  from  the  first  it  was  continued  until  most  of  the  larva? 
had  transformed  into  pupae.  In  the  fall  months  the  Commission  also 
did  some  work  destroying  the  egg  masses. 

On  February  25,  1891,  Governor  Russell,  actiug  under  authority  of 
Section  5,  Chapter  95,  acts  of  1890,  sent  a message  to  the  Legislature 
and  to  the  Executive  Council  removing  the  Commissioners  for  cause  and 
placing  the  work  in  charge  of  Messrs.  W.  R.  Sessions,  FT.  S.  Shaler, 
and  F.  H.  Appleton.  All  the  new  appointees  are  connected  with  the 
State  Board  of  Agriculture  and  serve  gratuitously.  See  Insect  Life, 
Vol.  Ill,  pp.  472-474  for  the  act  passed  by  the  general  court  in  1891 


and  for  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  Committee.  Early  in  March 
the  Committee  jfiaced  the  field  work  in  charge  of  Mr.  E.  H.  Forbush, 
to  whose  tireless  energy  most  of  the  good  results  are  due. 

Starting  with  the  information  as  to  the  limits  of  the  infested  region 
given  by  the  Commission  of  1890  it  was  soon  discovered  that  the  Ocneria 
was  abundant  in  many  places  in  addition  to  those  reported.  It  can 
now  be  stated  to  occur  in  Marblehead,  Salem,  Swampscott,  Lynn, 
Lynnfield,  Reading,  Wakefield,  Saugus,  Revere,  Chelsea,  Charlestown, 
Cambridge,  Somerville,  Watertown,  Waltham,  Belmont,  Arlington- 
Lexington,  Burlington,  Woburn,  Winchester,  Stoneham,  Melrose,  Mai, 
den,  Everett,  and  Medford.  There  is  a great  difference  in  the  abun- 
dance of  the  Ocneria  in  the  various  localities,  and  the  bulk  of  the  dam- 
age has  been  confined  to  Everett,  Malden,  Medford,  and  Arlington. 


79 


The  main  lines  of  work  this  year  have  not  been  different  from  those 
adopted  the  preceding  year,  though  in  some  details  there  have  been 
changes.  The  greatest  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  destruction  of 
the  eggs.  It  was  thought  that  the  method  of  burning  the  eggs  in  situ 
adopted  last  year  was  injurious  to  the  trees  and  that  many  of  the  eggs 
were  not  only  not  destroyed  but  scattered  about.  Consequently  such 
as  were  in  exposed  situations  on  trees,  fences,  etc.,  were  cut  out  and 
burned. 

The  danger  of  scattering  the  eggs  by  this  method  would  not  seem  to 
be  very  much  less  than  by  burning  them  in  place. 

For  egg  masses  that  could  not  be  collected  and  destroyed  another 
method  has  been  employed.  This  is  called  blazing,  and  is  applied 
chiefly  to  stone  walls,  trunks  of  old  trees,  heaps  of  stone,  etc. 

The  apparatus  used  consists  of  a cyclone  nozzle  attached  to  a pole,  a 
brass  rod  passes  through  the  pole,  a line  of  hose  connects  the  pole  with 
a tank,  from  which  crude  oil  is  pumped.  A blaze  thus  started,  a run- 
ning fire  is  secured,  and  it  soon  penetrates  all  the  cracks  and  crevices. 
This  seems  a useful  and  effective  way  of  destroying  many  eggs  not 
readily  reached  by  any  ordinary  method.  The  committee  and  their 
superintendent  place  their  greatest  hope  of  the  extermination  of  the 
Ocneria  upon  the  destruction  of  the  eggs ; to  an  impartial  observer, 
however,  the  probability  of  the  detection  of  every  mass  of  eggs  scattered 
over  an  area  of  50  square  miles  seems  very  small,  especially  when  it  is 
remembered  that  they  are  placed  in  almost  every  conceivable  situation 
upon  the  trunks,  branches,  and  even  the  leaves  of  trees  and  shrubs, 
upon  fences,  the  sides  of  houses,  under  stone  walls,  piazzas,  board  walks, 
etc.  So  far  as  my  observations  go  the  search  for  the  eggs  has  been 
carefully  done,  though  I have  found  masses  of  the  eggs  after  the  inspec- 
tion of  the  locality  had  been  completed.  Many  similar  cases  have  been 
reported;  they  should  be  considered  as  a criticism  of  the  method  rather 
than  an  indication  that  proper  care  had  not  been  exercised,  for  as  Prof. 
Fernald  says,  “it  is  not  at  all  probable  that  one  will  find  all  the  egg 
masses  even  with  the  most  careful  searching  on  the  trees  in  a small 
orchard.” 

Owing  to  a lack  of  time  or  insufficient  force  some  of  the  most  badly 
infested  districts  were  not  inspected  during  the  spring  search. 

Early  in  May  the  committee  turned  their  attention  to  destroying  the 
larvae  by  spraying  with  Paris  green.  After  the  visit  of  the  United 
States  Entomologist,  about  the  middle  of  June,  a nozzle  that  would 
throw  a mist  spray  was  obtained,  an  ordinary  garden  nozzle  having 
been  used  up  to  that  time.  A tendency  to  cover  too  much  ground  in  a 
given  time  was  noticed,  and  also  much  unevenness  in  the  effectiveness 
of  the  spraying.  It  is  quite  possible,  however,  that  this  unevenness 
due  to  inexperience  was  inevitable  under  the  circumstances. 

Though  this  indiscriminate  spraying  undoubtedly  did  much  good  in 
lessening  the  ravages  of  the  canker  worms,  Orgyia,  etc.,  it  certainly  in- 


80 


creased  an  already  existing  strong  feeling  against  the  use  of  Paris 
green,  and  many  land-owners  did  all  in  their  power  to  annul  or  neutral- 
ize the  work  of  the  committee. 

To  prevent  the  larvae  ascending  the  trees  two  methods  were  used ; 
the  one  consisting  of  a band  of  printer’s  ink  and  the  other  of  strips  of 
bagging.  While  the  larvae  were  unable  to  cross  the  band  of  ink,  its 
composition  was  such  that  it  required  renewal  every  few  days,  and  its 
application  left  each  tree  with  an  ugly  girdle  and  possibly  did  injury  to 
the  trees.  Insect  lime  would  have  been  a desirable  substitute.  The 
strips  of  bagging  served  as  a hiding  place  for  any  wandering  larvae, 
which  were  collected  and  destroyed. 

The  work  of  inspecting  vehicles  passing  out  of  the  district  was  dis- 
continued after  a trial  of  about  two  months;  information  as  to  the  chief 
direction  of  travel  from  the  infested  district  seems  to  have  been  the 
only  result  of  this  work. 

Considerable  work  was  done  in  trimming  trees,  clearing  away  and 
burning  rubbish,  and  in  cementing  holes  in  trees,  fences,  etc.  The  hab- 
its and  natural  history  of  the  Ocneria  as  observed  here  differs  some- 
what from  the  same  in  Europe. 

I have  no  evidence  that  it  is  double  brooded.  The  winter  is  passed 
in  the  egg  state.  There  is  much  irregularity  in  the  hatching  of  larvae, 
they  were  first  observed  on  April  15,  in  1890,  and  on  the  20th  of  the  same 
month  in  1891;  they  were  abundant  May  20.  In  1891  larvae  hatched 
as  late  as  June  17  and  by  the  10th  of  July  young  larvae,  fully  grown 
larvae  and  all  intermediate  stages,  pupae  and  imagos  were  found.  The 
young  larvae  on  hatching  scatter,  feed  chiefly  during  the  night,  resting 
during  the  day  upon  the  leaves,  branches,  etc.  The  tendency  to  wander 
increases  with  growth.  In  confinement  they  cluster  together,  eat  more 
continuously  and  strip  the  twigs  in  a more  methodical  manner  than  ob- 
served in  those  feeding  at  large.  Pupae  were  abundant  July  10;  this 
stage  usually  lasts  from  twelve  to  twenty  days  though  several  have 
given  imagos  after  eight  and  nine  days. 

The  males  fly  readily  but  the  females  are  excessively  sluggish;  even 
when  blown  by  the  wind  they  have  a marvellous  faculty  of  getting  to 
the  ground  or  to  the  sheltered  side  of  a tree  or  fence.  The  greatest 
distance  I have  seen  one  fly  was  a little  short  of  6 feet.  The  moths  are 
not  readily  attracted  by  light. 

As  is  well  known  the  Ocneria  is  a most  general  feeder.  I have  found 
it  on  Linden  ( Tilia ),  Horse  Chestnut  (Acsculiis),  Maple  (Acer),  Pear, 
Cherry,  Plum  ( Prunus ),  Rose  (Rosa),  Apple  (Pyrns),  Ash  (Fraxinus), 
Elm  (Ulmus),  Hickory  (Carya),  Birch  (Betula),  Alder  (Alnus),  Oak 
(Qucrcus),  Beech  (Fagus),  Willow  (Salix),  and  Poplar  (Populus).  It  has 
also  eaten,  in  confinement,  Virginia  Creeper  (Ampelomis),  Dogwood 
(Gornus),  and  Fringe-tree  (Chionanthus).  It  refused  Grape  ( Vitis). 
Other  records  include  Quince,  Apricot,  Pomegranate,  Hornbeam,  Hazel- 
nut, Lime,  Norway  Spruce,  Larch,  Fir,  Azalea,  Myrtle,  Corn,  Wisteria, 


81 


Cabbage,  Chestnut,  Arbor  Yitte,  Yew,  Ilex,  Pine,  Mespilus,  Peach, 
Millet,  Plane-tree,  Hawthorn,  Mulberry,  and  Strawberry. 

An  interesting  point  in  connection  with  their  ability  to  feed  on  so 
great  a variety  of  plants  is  the  facility  with  which  they  can  be  changed 
from  one  food-plant  to  another.  I have  fed  a number  of  larvai  all  from 
a single  mass  of  eggs,  the  food-plant  of  every  one  of  which  was  differ- 
ent, and  with  others  have  changed  the  food-plant  every  day  during 
their  entire  larval  history.  The  larvm  of  Ocneria  are  frequently  found 
Avith  the  eggs  of  a Tachinid  attached  to  them.  Generally  there  is  but  a 
single  egg,  though  sometimes  two,  three  and  four  have  been  observed  5 
they  are  usually  on  or  near  the  head.  I11  most  of  the  cases  that  came 
under  my  observations  the  Ocneria  moulted  before  the  eggs  of  the 
Tachinid  hatched.  Two  of  the  Tachinids  which  pupated  August  19, 
gave  images  September  2.  Anotl:  er  fact  which  must  lessen  the  value 
of  this  Tachinid  as  a destroyer  of  ihe  Ocneria  is  a habit  the  larvie 
have  of  rubbing  the  head  against  some  hard  substance.  This  was 
observed  several  times,  and  in  some  cases  ihe  eggs  though  not  detached 
were  injured.  Although  I can  not  state  that  Pimpla  pedalis  is  parasitic 
upon  the  Ocneria  it  has  been  very  abundant  in  the  infested  region  this 
year,  and  I think  it  very  probable  that  it  will  be  found  among  the  para- 
ites  of  the  Ocneria. 

Doubtless  many  birds  will  be  found  feeding  upon  the  Ocneria.  At 
this  time  there  are  but  two  species,  the  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo  and  the 
Black -billed  Cuckoo  ( Coccyzus  americanus  and  G.erythrophthalmus ),  that 
I can  name  as  aiding  quite  materially  in  the  destruction  of  the  larvm. 
Among  invertebrates  the  following  can  be  named : Cicindela  6-guttata , 
Gamponotus  lierculaneus , Sinea  diadema , an  undetermined  Syrphus,  and 
Chrysopa,  Lithobius  forficatus ; also  the  folloAving  spiders:  Epeira  strix , 
Steatoda  borealis , Lycosa  sp.,  Brassus  sp.,  Agalena  ncevia , Phidippus  gal- 
athea  ( mystaceus ),  Epiblemum  scenicum , Marptusa  familiar  is,  and  Tho* 
mixus  sp. 

While  the  original  creation  of  the  Commission  and  the  subsequent 
transfer  of  the  work  to  the  State  Board  of  Agriculture  were  warranted 
by  the  nature  of  the  emergency,  it  Avas  undoubtedly  a mistake  to  appoint 
men  to  look  after  such  important  work — work  demanding,  in  the  words 
of  the  appointing  power, u prompt,  judicious,  and  energetic  action” — who 
were  already  more  than  occupied  with  other  Avork.  The  fact  that  they 
were  appointed  with  the  distinct  understanding  that  their  services 
should  be  given  gratuitously,  while  not  equivalent  to  saying  that  their 
services  would  be  slight,  does  indicate  that  they  would  be  secondary 
to  more  important  affairs. 

And  Avliile  it  is  only  just  to  the  present  committee  to  state  that  they 
have  devoted  more  time  to  their  work  than  could  have  been  asked  or 
expected,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  one  of  them  is  now  in  favor  of 
at  least  a per  diem  compensation,  and  recently  so  testified  before  a leg- 
islative committee. 

21383— No,  26 Q 


82 


The  destruction  of  the  Ocneria  being  primarily  an  entomological 
question,  the  need  of  an  entomologist  acting  in  constant  concert  with 
the  committee  would  seem  to  be  undisputed.  That  there  was  no  such 
person  employed  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  the  Committee  allowed  the 
most  important  month  for  spraying  to  pass  without  procuring  the  most 
improved  apparatus. 

The  attention  drawn  to  this  insect  should  lead  to  the  passage  of  a 
general  law  against  insect  and  fungus  pests.  A State  officer  acting 
under  the  direction  of  the  State  Board  of  Agriculture  could  recommend 
to  farmers  and  others  the  means  to  be  used  against  noxious  insects  and 
fungi,  and  the  law  should  be  so  framed  that  penalties  could  be  imposed 
upon  owners  who  took  no  precautions  after  due  notice  had  been  given. 
Some  such  legislation  would  soon  bring  the  orchards  and  shade  trees 
of  Massachusetts  into  a more  creditable  condition,  and  the  introduction 
of  the  Ocneria  could  be  looked  upon  as  a benefit  rather  than  an 
injury. 


REPOET  OF  AriCULTURAL  EXPERIMENTS  IN  1891. 


By  A.  J.  Cook. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 

Agricultural  College,  Mich.,  Novembeir  15,  1891. 

Sir:  I beg  leave  to  submit  the  following  report  of  experiments  in  apiculture  for 
the  season  of  1891.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  this  report  the  plural  pronoun  has 
been  used,  and  this  is  eminently  proper,  as  Mr.  John  H.  Larrabee  has  not  only  had 
charge  of  the  work  directly,  but  has  aided  very  much  by  offering  many  excellent 
suggestions. 

Respectfully,  yours, 

A.  J.  Cook. 


The  past  season  has  been  very  unfavorable  for  apieultural  experi- 
ments, not  only  in  Michigan,  but  throughout  the  entire  country.  The 
secretion  of  nectar  from  clover,  and  indeed  from  nearly  all  other  honey 
plants,  was  very  meager  indeed.  In  Michigan  the  season  has  been 
peculiar  for  drought  and  cold.  The  exceptionally  cool  temperature  has 
been  very  general  throughout  the  country,  while  in  many  sections  there 
has  been  an  excess  of  rainfall.  As  the  honey  production  has  been  very 
light  in  nearly  all  sections,  it  would  seem  that  the  low  temperature 
might  be  the  chief  cause  of  the  light  honey  crop  for  this  season. 

SPECIAL  PLANTING  FOR  HONEY. 

The  experiments  of  this  season  have  been  a continuation  of  those  of 
the  past  three  years.  The  aim  has  been  to  determine  whether  it  would 
be  profitable  or  not  to  plant  solely  with  the  view  of  increasing  the  acre- 
age of  honey  plants,  and  so  the  production  of  honey. 

As  the  expense  of  planting,  use  of  land,  and  danger  of  failure  to 
secure  a crop  are  considered,  we  easily  see  that  we  can  not  hope  for 
a profitable  return  unless  the  plants  have  value  besides  for  honey,  are 
sure  to  give  us  honey  despite  the  season,  to  grow  when  planted  even 
though  drought  confronts  us,  to  grow  and  thrive  with  but  little  care  ' 
after  planting,  and  to  hold  their  own  against  insects,  drought,  and  all 
discouragements. 


83 


84 


THE  CHAPMAN  IIONEY-PLANT. 

As  tliis  plant  has  been  very  highly  extolled,  was  lauded  by  a special 
committee  selected  to  examine  it,  and  has  been  widely  distributed  by 
Government,  it  was  considered  a desirable  plant  with  which  to  experi- 
ment. 

Quite  a large  area  was  planted  to  this  Uchinops  splicer ocephalus  on  two 
successive  years.  The  soil  was  clay  loam.  The  ground  was  fitted  as 
well  as  for  corn,  the  seeds  sown  in  drills,  and  cultivated  the  first  season. 
The  plants  came  well  and  grew  remarkably  well.  They  never  blossom 
until  the  second  season,  so  there  are  no  returns  the  first  year.  This  is 
the  first  serious  objection  to  them  as  honey  plants.  The  second  summer 
the  plants  blossomed  full.  They  were  very  vigorous  and  the  blossoms 
very  numerous.  The  bees  seemed  to  visit  the  flowers  very  freely.  Mr. 
Tli.  W.  Cowan,  a celebrated  apiarist  of  England,  said  to  me  some 
years  since  regarding  this  plant : u The  bees  hang  around  it  persistently, 
but  I could  never  see  that  the  gain  in  honey  in  the  hive  was  ever  per- 
ceptible.” I found  the  same  true  here.  Actual  weighing  showed  very 
little  gain,  nor  was  our  honey  crop  superior  to  that  of  our  neighbors 
with  no  Ecliinops  within  range  of  their  bees.  The  plants  blossom  from 
July  20  to  August  20,  at  a good  time  and  for  a long  season,  if  they  were 
of  any  value. 

In  the  winter  we  cleaned  the  seed.  Although  previously  warned, 
and  consequently  protected  by  veils  and  gloves,  the  barbed  awns  sought 
out  our  eyes  and  skin  everywhere.  The  pain  caused  was  intense.  All 
who  aided  in  cleaning  the  seed  were  in  agony  for  several  days.  Even 
this  alone  would  or  should  preclude  this  plant  from  general  use.  To 
my  disappointment,  these  plants  seemed  to  exhaust  themselves  this  first 
season.  The  next  year  there  were  almost  no  blossoms,  but  new  plants 
came  up  very  thickly  from  seeds  scattered  the  previous  autumn.  This 
failure  of  the  plants  to  afford  blossoms  the  third  season  from  planting 
I know  is  not  always  true,  as  I have  had  blossoms  for  four  years  from 
plants  on  sand.  It  is  probable  that  when  the  plants  are  very  luxuri- 
ant and  are  allowed  to  seed  we  can  only  count  on  a single  crop  of  blos- 
soms. This  season,  the  fourth  from  planting,  we  had  a rather  feeble 
growth  of  plants.  The  grass  and  weeds  fought  with  the  Echinops  for 
the  land  and  succeeded  in  so  far  that  we  secured  a very  meager  quantity 
of  bloom,  and  apparently  no  valuable  results  in  our  honey  crop.  Thus 
the  failure  to  blossom  the  first  year,  the  failure  to  secrete  any  large 
amount  of  nectar,  the  failure  in  many  cases  to  bloom  the  third  year, 
and  the  inability  to  compete  with  grass  and  other  weeds  without  expen- 
sive aid,  makes  it  certain  that  if  any  plants  will  pay  for  honey  alone 
this  is  not  one  of  them. 

THE  HOOKY  MOUNTAIN  BEE  PLANT. 

This  plant  ( Cleome  integrifolia)  has  again  been  tried  for  the  third  year. 
That  it  is  a very  superior  honey  plant  and  blossoms  at  just  the  right 


85 


time,  all  through  July  and  August,  is  certainly  true;  but  it  is  not  a 
very  pushing  plant,  and  the  seeds  will  not  germinate  unless  exposed  to 
the  weather  for  months.  Thus  it  is  necessary  to  plant  in  August  or 
September  of  the  previous  year  if  we  expect  a fair  stand  of  this  plant. 
When  this  is  done,  unless  the  land  is  very  free  from  grass  and  weed 
seed,  the  latter  will  get  the  start,  and  our  Cleome  will  be  choked  out. 
Thus  1 think  we  have  proved  that  Cleome  is  only  suitable  for  planting 
in  waste  places,  when  from  its  beauty  and  excellence  as  a honey  plant 
it  rivals  even  the  Sweet  Clover. 

There  seems  little  doubt  but  that  we  should  secure  much  honey  from 
this  plant  were  we  to  take  the  necessary  pains  to  secure  a full  stand  of 
acres  of  vigorous  plants.  But  this  can  be  done  only  at  large  expense, 
too  large  to  ever  pay  in  actual  practice. 

RAPE. 

Knowing  from  the  study  of  small  plats,  that  have  been  grown  here 
for  years,  that  the  Kape  ( Brassica  campestris  var.  colza)  and  the  mus- 
tards seemed  especially  attractive  to  the  bees,  and  knowing  that  the 
former  was  regarded  very  highly  by  many  farmers  for  pasture,  especially 
for  sheep,  it  was  thought  advisable  this  season  to  sow  several  acres  of 
ground  to  this  plant.  Part  of  the  land  was  light  sand  and  another  part 
clay  loam.  As  the  plant  blooms  in  about  four  weeks  from  seeding,  we 
sowed  it  the  middle  of  June. 

We  are  likely  to  have  a severe  drought  at  this  time,  and  this  year  was 
no  exception.  The  seed  failed  to  germinate  well,  especially  on  the  sand. 
By  the  middle  of  July  both  fields  were  in  full  bloom,  yet  the  bees  did 
not  swarm  on  the  flowers,  as  we  had  hoped  they  would,  nor  did  the 
honey  product  seem  affected  by  the  near  presence  of  the  rape.  I am 
not  sure  that  we  gained  any  special  advantage  from  it.  If  we  did  it 
was  not  perceptible.  The  weather  for  nearly  all  the  time  was  very  cool. 

I do  not  believe  it  will  ever  x>ay  to  sow  rape  specially  for  honey.  If 
it  is  sown  for  pasture,  as  recommended  in  England  and  Ontario,  there 
will  be  but  little  bloom,  and  so,  even  in  favorable  years,  the  beekeeper 
would  receive  but  small  advantage.  If  grown  for  seed  there  would  be 
a profusion  of  bloom,  and  in  favorable  seasons  the  honey  product  would 
be  without  doubt  greatly  augmented. 

It  is  certainly  wise  for  the  apiarist  to  encourage  and  even  urge  the 
planting  in  his  neighborhood  of  any  and  every  useful  honey  plant,  as 
Bape,  Alsike,  Clover,  and  Buckwheat.  Often  from  unfavorable  weather 
they  will  not  afford  nectar,  still  they  may  bridge  the  whole  distance 
between  failure  and  success. 

SWEET  CLOVER. 

Bee-keepers  have  long  known  that  Sweet  Clover  (Melilotus  alba), 
though  often  failing  to  secrete  nectar,  is  still  one  of  our  first  honey 
plants.  It  not  only  yields  in  favorable  seasons  very  abundantly,  but 


86 


the  lioney  from  it  is  very  white  and  exeellent.  This  plant  is  known  as 
Melilot,  Sweet  Clover,  White  Melilotus,  and  Bokhara  Clover.  While  one 
or  two  authorities,  Prof.  Thorne,  of  Ohio,  and  Prof.  Tracey,  of  Missis- 
sippi, have  stated  that  it  possesses  value  as  a forage  plant,  the  con- 
sensus of  opinion  throughout  the  country  is  that  this  luxuriant  plant 
possesses  little  value  to  feed  either  green  or  as  hay.  It  has  been  sown 
in  many  parts  of  the  country  by  beekeepers  and  others  in  waste  places 
and  along  roadsides,  and  in  such  locations  has  frequently  added  deci- 
dedly to  the  honey  product.  It  is  a beautiful  plant,  with  a sweet  per- 
fume, and  may  well  replace  Ragweed,  Mayweed,  Smart  weed,  etc.,  along 
our  highways. 

We  sowed  several  acres  of  this  plant  this  spring,  six  on  sand  and  three 
on  clay.  The  drought  came  on  and  the  young  plants  upon  the  sand 
withered  and  died.  On  the  clay  the  catch  was  only  partially  successful, 
but  the  plants  have  stooled  and  we  think  will  produce  a fairly  good  crop 
of  bloom.  It  is  our  purpose  to  see  if  it  may  not  be  a valuable  silage 
plant.  It  surely  produces  abundantly.  If  it  will  be  appetizing  as  silage 
so  as  to  possess  value  to  the  farmer  then  from  its  double  value  as  a 
silage  plant  and  a most  excellent  honey  plant  it  may  well  be  grown  by 
the  bee-keeping  farmer  and  may  be  urged  conscientiously  by  the  apiarist 
upon  his  neighbor  farmer.  This  plant,  like  nearly  all  the  clovers,  is  a 
biennial,  and  so  we  must  wait  till  next  year  to  complete  our  experi- 
ment, when  we  hope  to  prove  that  Melilotus  is  valuable  for  silage. 

Our  conclusions  thus  far  are  that  special  planting  for  honey  will 
never  pay.  Unless  we  can  find  a plant  that  will  always  secrete  nectar, 
and,  as  seasons  of  honey  failure  occur  in  all  countries,  we  conclude  that 
none  such  exist,  and  we  certainly  can  not  afford  the  expense  and  labor. 

We  think  our  experiments  warrant  this  conclusion.  That  it  may 
and  often  has  paid  well  to  scatter  seeds  of  Sweet  Glover  in  waste  places 
there  is  no  possible  doubt.  Along  the  roadside  this  plant  may  well 
replace  such  utterly  worthless  and  ugly  plants  as  Ragweed — species  of 
Ambrosia,  and  Mayweed — Maruta  cotula.  The  first  year’s  growth  and 
the  second  till  after  bloom  are  very  handsome.  After  bloom  the  dry 
ugly  stock  may  be  cut,  when  the  undergrowth  from  the  seeds  of  the 
present  year  will  make  a pleasing  border  to  the  road.  Gleome  may  also 
be  planted  in  all  waste  places.  This  has  been  done  with  excellent  re- 
sults in  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin.  It  is  a very  handsome  plant,  and 
like  Sweet  Clover  is  easily  subdued  if  not  wanted.  In  case  this  is  de- 
sired the  seeds  should  be  planted  early,  as  early  as  August  or  Septem- 
ber, else  they  will  not  germinate  well  the  following  season. 

BEES  AS  FERTILIZERS. 

Spraying  fruit  trees  in  early  spring  to  prevent  the  ravages  of  various 
insects  is  becoming  very  common.  Spraying  trees  while  in  bloom  is 
very  likely  to  poison  the  nectar  and  destroy  the  Honey  Bee.  This  has 
been  done  in  several  cases.  Not  only  have  the  mature  bees  been  poi- 


87 


soned,  but  the  brood  has  also  been  destroyed.  The  fact  that  doubt  has 
been  expressed  in  reference  to  such  poisoning,  and  the  fact  that  even 
legislators  have  expressed  disbelief  in  the  value  of  bees  to  horticultur- 
ists, led  to  the  following  experiments : 

Bees  in  cages  were  given  foliage  sprayed  with  sweetened  water,  and 
in  other  precisely  similar  cages  the  same  sweetened  water  in  which 
London  purple  had  been  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  1 pound  to  200  gal- 
lons of  water.  The  bees  in  the  first  cages  were  in  no  way  affected, 
while  the  others  were  all  dead  in  thirty  six  hours,  and  in  many  cases 
in  twenty-four  hours. 

Thus  we  have  positive  proof,  both  in  the  field  and  from  laboratory 
experiment,  that  bees  are  very  susceptible  to  the  poisonous  effects  of 
the  arsenites,  and  that  to  spray  fruit  trees  while  in  bloom  always  en- 
dangers the  lives  of  all  bees  that  visit  the  flowers.  In  the  other  ex- 
periments we  desired  to  learn  how  important  bees  were  in  the  work  of 
fertilization  and  cross-fertilization  of  plants.  Trees  examined  in  May 
while  in  bloom  showed  twenty  bees  to  one  of  other  kinds  of  insects. 
On  a rather  cold  day,  such  as  are  likely  to  occur  in  time  of  fruit  bloom, 
hundreds  of  Honey  Bees  were  found  at  Avork  on  the  apple  bloom,  while 
almost  no  other  insects  were  to  be  seen. 

In  the  following  experiment  the  same  number  of  blossoms  were 
counted  on  each  of  two  adjacent  branches  on  various  trees,  shrubs, 
and  plants.  In  each  case  one  lot  was  marked  by  a tag  giving  the  date 
of  the  experiment,  while  the  other  was  surrounded  by  cheese  cloth 
just  before  the  blossoms  opened,  thus  precluding  the  visits  of  all  insects 
from  this  lot,  except  such  very  small  ones  as  Thrips,  Jassids,  etc.,  which 
Avere  so  small  that  they  would  escape  notice.  After  the  blossoms  with- 
ered the  covers  were  removed,  and  two  weeks  later  examination  Avas 
made  to  note  the  results.  The  following  table  gives  the  results  of  the 
this  experiment: 


Variety. 

Date  cov- 
ered. 

Date 

uncov- 

ered. 

Number 
of  blos- 
soms. 

Date 

exam- 

ined. 

Fruit 

set. 

Fruit 
set  on 
compar- 
ison. 

Remarks. 

Apple 

May  4 

May  25 

40 

June  11 

0 

15 

Do 

May  4 

May  19 

75 

June  11 

0 

3 

Crab  Apple 

May  4 

May  19 

200 

June  11 

0 

3 

Affected  by  the  frost. 

Apple 

May  4 

May  19 

160 

June  11 

2 

9 

Pear 

May  4 

May  19 

140 

June  11 

0 

7 

Cherry 

Straw  berries  . . . 

May  4 

May  19 

300 

June  11 

9 

119 

May  18 

June  16 

60 

June  22 

9 

27 

Do 

May  18 

June  16 

212 

June  22 

80 

104 

Do 

Raspberries 

May  18 
May  26 

June  16 
July  6 

123 

2 canes . . 

June  22 
July  6 

20 

36 

As  many  perfect  berries  as 
on  canes  not  covered. 

Do 

Do 

May  30 
May  30 

July  6 
July  6 

184 

1 cane. . . 

July  6 
July  6 

93 

160 

No  difference  by  count  or 
appearance  of  fruit. 

Red  Clover 

June  12 

July  30 

10 heads. 

July  30 

0 

191 

White  Clover  . . 

June  5 

July  30 

10 heads. 

July  30 

0 

541 

In  the  case  of  the  strawberries  boxes  covered  with  cheesecloth  were 
set  over  the  plants.  As  these  stood  on  the  ground,  of  course  insects  may 


88 


have  come  up  from  the  earth.  Thus  a few  insects  may  have  gained  ac- 
cess to  the  flowers,  as  we  note  that  the  plants  were  covered  for  about 
a month. 

We  see  that  in  every  case  the  fruit  was  greatly  lessened,  if  we  except 
the  two  cases  of  raspberries.  In  several  cases,  notably  those  of  the 
clovers,  no  fruit  or  seeds  were  secured  in  the  covered  specimens.  The 
strawberries  seem  less  affected  than  any  other  of  the  plants,  except  the 
two  cases  of  the  raspberries.  This  may  be  owing,  as  suggested  above, 
to  the  presence  of  insects  that  could  come  up  from  the  earth  beneath 
the  plants.  Perhaps  strawberries,  when  the  blossoms  contain  both  sta- 
mens and  pistils,  are  less  dependent  on  insects  than  many  other  fruits. 
The  two  cases  of  raspberries  are  curious.  We  can  not  explain  them. 
The  fact  is  very  apparent  that  fruit-growers  are  nearly  or  quite  as  much 
interested  in  the  presence  of  bees  as  are  the  bee-keepers.  Pomologists 
then  may  well  join  hands  with  the  apiarists  in  demanding  and  securing 
a law  making  it  a grave  misdemeanor  to  spray  fruit  trees  while  they 
are  in  bloom. 

EXPERIMENTS  IN  BREEDING. 

That  bees,  like  all  other  organisms,  are  greatly  subject  to  variation  is 
known  to  every  bee-keeper.  That  they  can  be  greatly  improved  by 
careful  selection  is  equally  well  understood  by  all  observant  queen- 
breeders.  The  mating  habits  of  bees  are  such  as  to  make  experimenta- 
tion in  breeding  difficult,  but  the  obstacles  are  not  unsurmoun table. 
We  are  working  to  overcome  them  and  to  develop  a superior  strain  of 
bees  by  judicious  crossing  and  selection.  This  is  slow  work,  and  we 
can  hope  for  decided  results  only  after  a long  period. 

Our  stock  is  from  Syrian  and  Carniolan,  and,  as  the  former  predomi- 
nates, we  have  this  season  bred  very  largely  from  Carniolan.  Several 
of  the  most  prolific  queens  are  selected,  and  it  is  our  purpose  to  use  the 
ones  from  these  that  winter  the  best  the  coming  winter  for  breeding 
next  season.  We  shall  try  to  test  the  Punic  bees  and,  if  they  show 
superiority,  introduce  some  of  this  blood. 

Besides  the  above,  several  other  experiments  of  a miscellaneous  char- 
acter have  been  conducted  which  are  of  more  or  less  interest. 

CONSUMPTION  OF  HONEY  IN  THE  SECRETION  OF  WAX. 

This  experiment  was  performed  that  we  might  determine  how  much 
honey  it  requires  to  enable  the  bees  to  secrete  1 pound  of  wax.  Three 
colonies  were  taken,  which  we  will  designate  as  No.  1,  No.  2,  and  No.  3, 
the  bees  of  which  weighed  6|,  8J,  and  5J  pounds,  respectively.  No.  1 
was  given  a virgin  queen  and  no  comb  or  honey.  No.  2 was  given  a 
virgin  queen  and  empty  combs.  No.  3 was  given  a laying  queen  and 
empty  combs.  A vigorous  colony  on  scales  during  the  experiment 
gained  4J  pounds.  The  bees  did  not  fly  from  these  hives  as  vigorously 
as  from  hives  not  in  the  experiment.  The  feeding  doubtless  had  some- 


89 


thing  to  do  with  this.  No.  3 seemed  to  gather  more  honey  and  to  be  in 
a more  normal  condition  than  Nos.  1 and  2.  No.  3 had  a full  frame  of 
brood  nearly  ready  to  seal  at  the  expiration  of  the  experiment.  August 
15,  28  per  cent  of  the  bees  in  No.  1 had  wax  scales,  while  none  of  No. 
2 that  were  examined  had  wax  scales.  The  experiment  commenced 
August  11.  The  bees  of  each  colony  were  fed  21  pounds  of  honey. 
The  experiment  lasted  ten  days. 


No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

W eight  of  bees  August  11 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

H 

43 

Pounds. 

•r*i 

40| 

61* 

20! 

21 

Total  weight  August  11,  7 p.  m 

"4 

35 

Total  weight  August  22, 7 a.  m 

46 

62 

Gain  in  weight  in  ten  days 

11 

21 

19 

Total  amount  of  feed  given  . . 

21 

Weight  of  honey  extracted  August  22 

9 

16* 

4* 

19 

18 

Loss  in  honev  fed 

12 

3 

Gain  in  veiarht,  in  tpn  rln.ys 

11 

20! 

Wax  secreted  by  No.  1 

*1U 

L 

Pollen  in  combs  at  end 

1* 

18 

t4 

Total  weight  removed  at  close 

io| 

22 

Apparent  deficiency  due  to  scales 

% 

1 

Gain  in  weight  of  No.  2 over  No.  1 8 pounds. . 

* Ounces.  t Weight  of  young  brood  and  pollen. 

Ill  • 8 = 16  : x,  or  about  11  pounds  honey  to  1 pound  of  wax. 


This  experiment  gives  11  pounds  of  honey  as  the  amount  necessary 
to  secrete  1 pound  of  wax.  Huber  decided,  as  the  result  of  careful  ex- 
perimentation, upon  20  pounds  as  the  amount,  while  Viallon  and  Hasty 
concluded  that  the  amount  was  less  even  than  we  have  found  in  the 
above.  Of  course,  in  such  experiments  there  will  be  errors,  as  from  the 
conditions  the  colony  is  not  kept  in  an  absolutely  normal  condition. 
No  brood-rearing  should  be  allowed,  and  so  virgin  queens  were  given  to 
colonies.  Whether  the  bees  work  with  less  vigor  physically  or  physio- 
logically when  a laying  queen  is  replaced  by  a virgin,  I can  not  say. 

AVe  thought  over  the  experiment  a long  time  and  concluded  on  the 
above  as  the  nearest  apjiroack  to  the  normal  of  any  plan  we  could  de- 
cide upon. 

The  results  from  colony  No.  3,  which  was  normal,  show  that  the  error 
was  not  great.  A repetition  will  add  correctness  to  the  experiment. 
We  shall  hope  to  repeat  it  another  year.  We  believe  the  results  are 
not  very  wide  of  the  truth  in  actually  normal  conditions. 

DO  WORKER  BEES  FEED  THE  DRONES  1 

Several  times  in  the  past  we  have  tried  experiments  to  determine 
whether  the  worker  bees  fed  the  drones,  as  they  do  the  queen  and 
larvie,  the  albuminous  portion  of  their  food.  We  know  that  drones  are 
great  honey-consumers.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  they  are 
equally  great  consumers  of  the  albuminous  food  or  bee  bread.  There 
is  little  or  no  doubt  that  the  upper  head  glands  of  the  younger  worker 
bees  secrete  the  liquid  that  digests  the  pollen.  These  glands  are 
large  and  turgid  in  the  young  or  nurse  bees,  shrunken  and  inactive  in 


90 


old  w orker  bees,  and  absent  in  the  drones  and  queens.  From  analogy, 
then,  we  would  reason  that  the  queen,  drones,  and  older  workers — 
the  bees  that  do  the  outside  work — as  well  as  the  larvae,  are  fed  the 
digested  pollen,  which  is  rich  nitrogenous  food.  If  this  is  true,  and 
there  can  be  no  longer  any  doubt,  then  we  have  double  reasons  to  re- 
duce the  number  of  drones  in  the  apiary,  to  save  honey  and  pollen  and 
also  the  energy  of  the  nurse  bees. 

To  prove  this  point  we  repeated  the  previous  experiments  of  caging 
drones  in  the  hive  behind  a single  wire  gauze,  a double  wire  gauze,  the 
space  between  being  more  than  0.26  of  an  inch,  which  is  the  maximum 
length  of  the  worker’s  tongue,  and  a perforated  zinc  cage.  Honey  wras 
placed  in  each  cage  in  such  a manner  as  not  to  daub  any  bees.  In  the 
first  kind  of  cage  the  bees  could  reach  the  drones  through  the  single 
gauze,  though  at  some  inconvenience,  so  as  to  feed  them  the  digested 
food.  In  the  second  cages  this  would  be  impossible  and  the  drones 
could  only  get  honey  for  food.  In  the  third  cages  the  drones  were  con- 
fined, but  could  be  and  were  freely  visited  by  the  worker  bees,  as  the 
workers  could  pass  freely  through  the  zinc,  which  the  drones  could  not 
do.  In  the  single  wire-cloth  cages  the  drones  appeared  somewhat  neg- 
lected after  several  days.  They  lived  from  four  to  seven  days,  while  in 
the  cages  with  double  wire  cloth  none  lived  over  three  days,  and  they 
generally  died  inside  of  forty-eight  hours.  Those  confined  in  cages  cov- 
ered with  perforated  zinc  lived  for  over  two  weeks  and  would  probably 
have  lived  much  longer. 

These  experiments  agree  very  closely  with  those  previously  tried. 

THE  CONDUCTIVITY  OF  WAX. 

It  is  a common  practice  among  bee-keepers  to  confine  the  bees  in 
winter  to  a portion  of  the  hive,  thus  to  economize  heat  and  the  better  to 
preserve  the  health  and  vigor  of  the  bees.  Some  experiments  by  Prof. 
Gaston  Bonnier,  of  Paris,  France,  seem  to  show  that  the  combs  are  as 
good  a protection  as  is  a division  board,  especially  if  fastened  to  close- 
fitting  frames,  or,  as  in  nature,  to  the  side  of  the  hive.  To  test  this 
matter  we  used  a common  division  board,  a close-fitting  empty  comb, 
and  a close-fitting  comb  full  of  honey  These  Avere  used  successively 
to  confine  the  bees  to  one  part  of  the  hive  and  leave  a vacant  space  on 
the  other  side.  A thermometer  was  suspended  in  this  empty  space 
and  the  temperature  observed  several  times  daily,  and  estimates 
made  with  reference  to  the  outside  temperature.  The  averages  showed 
no  difference  with  respect  to  the  division  board  and  the  empty  comb, 
but  did  show  a slight  difference  in  favor  of  the  comb  full  of  honey. 
We  then  used  an  empty  hive,  dividing  it  into  three  compartments  by 
means  of  a division  board  of  wood  and  of  empty  comb,  and  again  by  the 
use  of  the  wooden  board  and  a full  comb  of  honey,  the  combs  being  made 
equally  tight-fitting  with  the  wooden  division  board.  A small  lamp 
was  placed  in  the  middle  apartment  and  thermometers  in  the  other 


91 


two.  The  hive  was  placed  in  the  cellar  where  the  thermometer  marked 
a temperature  of  58°  F.  The  temperature  in  the  compartment  of  the 
hive  with  the  lamp  was  110°  F.  As  between  the  board  and  empty 
comb  there  was  no  difference  in  the  temperature  in  the  outer  compart- 
ments, while  with  the  comb  of  honey  the  temperature  was  4J  degrees 
cooler  beyond  the  division,  showing  this  to  be  a poorer  conductor  of 
heat  and  a better  protection  for  the  bees  than  either  the  board  or  empty 
comb. 

Thus  we  see  that  for  winter  protection  special  division  boards  are 
unnecessary  if  we  but  use  close-fitting  frames  of  comb  or  make  such 
frames  close  fitting  in  the  winter  time.  It  is  also  apparent  that  combs 
full  of  honey  are  better  as  nonconductors  than  are  empty  combs.  Thus 
in  nature  bees  are  well  fortified  against  the  cold  of  winter,  as  they  are 
. combs  walled  in  on  each  side  by  several  full  combs,  which  are  fastened  to 
the  side  of  the  receptacle.  We  also  see  that  close-fitting  frames  or  else 
frames  with  wide  or  close-fitting  top  and  end  bars  are  better  to  protect 
the  bees  than  are  the  common  Langstroth  frames.  It  is  easy  to  see 
from  the  above  why  box  hives  and  hives  with  close-fitting  frames,  like 
the  Heddon,  are  well  arranged  to  secure  success  in  wintering. 

CELLAR  VS.  OUTDOOR  WINTERING. 

In  the  more  northern  latitudes  of  the  United  States  bees  winter  bet- 
ter as  a general  thing  and  consume  less  honey  in  the  cellar  than  on 
the  summer  stands,  even  though  packed  or  kept  in  chaff  hives.  The 
last  winter  was  an  exception.  Our  bees  in  chaff  hives  wintered  out  of 
doors  consumed  less  honey  apparently  and  were  certainly  in  better 
condition  in  the  spring  than  were  those  wintered  in  the  cellar.  If  we 
could  be  sure  of  such  mild  winters  as  the  last  two  have  been,  cellars  for 
wintering  would  certainly  go  out  of  use.  Hence  it  is  to  be  feared  that 
many  bee-keepers  will  become  confident,  forgetting  the  cold  and  disas- 
trous winters  of  the  past,  and  soon  there  may  come  a return  of  the 
severe  cold  and  the  mortality  among  the  bees  will  be  as  terribly  dis- 
astrous as  in  the  worst  winters  of  the  past.  It  is  well  to  prepare  for 
war  in  time  of  peace.  The  wise  bee-keeper  will  arrange  each  autumn 
for  a severe  winter.  Then  he  will  be  safe  in  any  event. 

PACKING  ABOUT  THE  HIVES  IN  SPRING. 

We  have  proved  for  the  past  two  or  three  springs  prior  to  that  of 
1891  that  to  pack  closely  about  the  hives  with  excelsior  or  other  poor 
conductors,  confining  the  same  by  a large,  well-covered  case  set  around 
the  hive,  has  paid  exceedingly  well  for  the  expense  of  the  case  and  the 
labor  of  adjusting  it  and  the  packing.  The  past  spring  we  could  see  no 
such  advantage.  The  unprotected  colonies  gained  as  rapidly  and  were 
as  strong  in  May  as  were  those  in  the  hives  that  were  protected.  The 
explanation  is  not  far  to  seek.  The  last  spring  was  very  mild  and  bees 


92 


suffered  very  little  in  any  kind  of  liive.  Usually  we  have  many  very 
eold  bleak  days  in  April  and  early  May;  then  protection  pays  exceed- 
ingly well.  The  principle  is  a good  one,  u It  pays  to  protect.”  Occa- 
sionally we  have  a spring  like  that  of  1891,  when  it  is  unnecessary,  but 
we  should  conduct  our  business  for  the  general,  not  the  exceptional. 


INDEX. 


Aphsenogaster  fulva,  attacking  Pachyrrhina,  74. 
Apicultural  experiments,  report  ol‘,  83. 

Anasa  tristis,  attempt  to  colonize  mite  on,  43. 

thymo-cresol  useless  against,  44. 

Apanteles  glomeratus,  advent  in  Missouri,  43. 
increase  in  Iowa,  61. 

Aphelinus  fuscipennis,  parasite  of  Aspidiotus 
convexus,  20. 

mytilaspidis,  parasite  of  San  Jose  scale,  22. 
Aphididae,  thymo-cresol  against,  44. 

Aphis  cornicola,  notes  on,  59. 
grain,  in  Missouri,  37. 
maidis,  m.,  59. 

prunifolia,  destructiveness  in  Iowa,  58. 
woolly,  of  apple,  in  Missouri,  36. 

Scymnus  larva  destroying,  17. 

Apple  maggot,  in  Iowa,  62. 

Aspidiotus  aurantii,  food-plants  of,  15. 
notes  on,  14. 

citrinus,  thymo-cresol  against,  35. 
convexus,  notes  on,  20. 
nerii,  notes  on,  20. 
pemiciosus,  notes  on,  21. 
rapax,  notes  on,  25. 

Beehives,  spring  packing  for,  91. 

Bee-plant,  Rocky  Mountain,  expts.  with,  84. 

Bees,  as  fertilizers  of  plants,  86. 

cellar  vs.  outdoor  wintering  for,  91. 
experiments  in  breeding,  88. 
worker,  do  they  feed  drones,  89. 

Bibio  albipennis,  wrongly  reported  injurious,  57. 
Black  smut,  caused  by  Capnodium  citri,  19. 
Black  scale,  fungus  attacking,  18. 
enemies  of,  30. 
habits  of,  28. 
resin  wash  against,  19. 
treatment  of,  32. 

Black  Tartarian  cherry,  exempt  from  San  Jose 
scale,  22. 

Blastobasis  iceryaeella,  feeding  on  black  scale,  30. 
Blissus  leucopterus,  in  Missouri,  37. 

Boll  worm,  broods  and  hibernation,  46. 
characters  and  transformations,  46 
distribution  and  destructiveness,  45. 
food-plants,  46. 
investigation  of,  45. 
lights  for  trapping,  53. 
natural  enemies,  47. 
poisoned  sweets  against,  52. 
ravages  mistaken  for  those  of,  48, 

Remedies  against,  48. 


Brassica  campestris  var.  colza,  as  a honey  plant,  85. 
Brown  apricot  scale,  notes  on,  34. 

Brown  scale,  notes  on,  26. 

Bruner,  Lawrence,  report  of,  9. 

Cabbage  butterfly,  in  Nebraska,  11. 
thymo-cresol  against,  44. 
insects,  in  Nebraska,  11. 

Plusia=Plusia  brassicae. 

-worm  disease,  55. 

-worm,  increase  of  parasite  of,  61. 

-worm  parasite,  advent  in  Missouri,  43. 
Calocoris  rapidus,  on  cotton,  48. 

California  Lace-wing,  feeding  on  red  scale,  17. 
Capnodium  citri,  fungus  of  orange,  etc.,  19. 
Capsid  enemy  of  Heliothis,  48. 

Catocala  grynea,  an  orchard  pest,  40. 

Cliamyris  cerintha,  on  plum,  40. 

Chapman  honey  plant,  expts.  with,  84. 

Chermes  sp.  ?,  on  post  oak,  39. 

Chicken  louse,  thymo-cresol  against,  44. 
Chilocorus  bivulnerus,  enemy  of  scale  insects,  30. 

enemy  of  red  scale,  15. 

Chinch  bug  in  Missouri,  26. 

Chionaspis  furfurus,  thymo-cresol  against,  44. 
Chrysopa  californica,  feeding  on  red  scale,  17. 
Cleome  integrifolia,  expts.  with,  84. 

Clisiocampa  disstria,  in  Minnesota,  40. 

Clover  hay-worm,  in  Ohio,  63. 

Clover-seed  caterpillar  in  Iowa,  60. 

midge,  in  Iowa,  59. 

Clover,  sweet,  as  a honey  plant,  85. 

Clover  Thrips=Phloeothrips  nigra. 

Coccid,  post  oak,  in  Missouri,  39. 

Coccophagus  citrinus,  parasiteof  San  Jos6  scale,  22. 

lecanii,  parasitic  on  scale-insects,  26. 

Colaspis  prsetexta,  attempt  to  colonize  mite  on,  42. 

tristis,  attempt  to  colonize  mite  on,  42. 
Conotrachelus  nenuphar,  in  Missouri,  37. 

Convex  scale,  notes  on,  20. 

Cook,  A.  J.,  apicultural  report  of,  83. 

Coquillett,  D.  W..  report  by,  13. 

Corn,  boll  worm  work  on,  49. 

Corn-root  worm,  in  Nebraska,  9. 

Cottony-cushion  scale,  see  Fluted  scale. 

Cottony  maple  scale,  in  St.  Louis,  39. 

Cow-pea,  as  trap  for  boll  worm,  52. 

Crane-flies,  bird  enemies  of,  74. 
report  on,  65. 

Cucumber-beetle,  striped,  its  Uropoda  parasite,  42 
twelve-spotted,  thymo-cresol  useless  against, 

44 


94 


Cutworms,  in  Missouri  in  1891,  38. 

Cutworms,  on  sugar  beet,  11 . 

Diabrotica  longicornis,  in  Nebraska,  9. 
on  sugar  beet,  11. 

vittata,  attempt  to  colonize  Uropoda  upon,  42. 
on  sugar  beet,  11. 

12-punctata,  thymo-cresol  useless  against,  44. 
Dilophogaster  californica,  parasite  of  black  scale, 
31. 

Diplodus  renardii,  preying  upon  Chalcidids,  31. 
Diplosis  tritici,  investigated  in  Ohio,  65. 
Dogwood  Aphis  = Aphis  cornicola. 

Doryphora  10-lineata,  attempt  to  colonize  Uropoda 
parasite  on,  42. 

Echinops  sphserocephalus,  expts.  with,  84. 

Edema  albifrons,  in  Missouri,  40. 

Eleodes  opaca,  Tachina  on,  12. 

tricostata,  on  cabbage,  11. 

Empusa  pacliyrrhinae,  fungus  onPachyrrhina,  71. 
Encyrtus  flavus,  bred  from  Lecaniumhesperidum, 
26. 

Entomological  notes  for  1891  in  Missouri,  36. 
Flavescent  clover  weevil  = Sitones  flavescens. 
Eluted  scale,  subjugated  by  Vedalia,  13. 

Frosted  scale,  notes  on,  33. 

Goniocotes  hologaster,  expts.  against,  44. 
Gooseberry  span-worm,- in  Nebraska,  10. 

Grape  curculio,  trip  to  investigate,  63. 
Grapholitha  interstinctana,  in  Iowa,  60. 

Greedy  scale,  notes  on,  25. 

Gypsy  moth,  birds  feeding  upon,  81. 
food-plants  of,  80. 
legislation  against,  76. 
line  of  work  employed  against,  79. 
region  infested  by,  78. 
report  upon,  75. 

Harlequin  cabbage-bug,  in  Missouri,  37. 
remedies  against,  38. 
thymo-cresol,  useless  against,  44. 
Harpaluscaliginosus,  probable  enemy  of  Tipula,  70. 

pennsylvanicus,  probable  enemy  of  Tipula,  70. 
Harris’s  apple  scale,  thymo-cresol  against,  44. 
Heliothis  armigera,  investigation  of,  45. 
Hemiptera,  attempt  to  colonize  Uropoda  ameri- 
cana  on,  43. 

Hemipterous  insects  on  cotton,  48. 

Hemispherical  scale,  notes  on,  27. 

Henshaw,  Samuel,  report  of,  75. 

Hesperomyces  virescens,  on  Chilocorus,  16. 
Hessian  fly,  remarks  on,  63. 
report  on,  65. 

Hippodamia  convergens,  on  sugar  beet,  11. 

Honey,  consumption  of,  in  the  secretion  of  wax,  88. 
special  planting  for,  83. 

Hopperdozers,  for  leaf-hoppers  and  locusts,  60. 
Hydrocyanic  gas  treatment,  reference,  19. 
Hyphantria  cunea,  Plochionus  timidus  destroy- 
ing, 41. 

Icerya  purchasi,  kept  in  subjection  by  Vedalia 
cardinalis,  13. 

Insect  depredations  in  Nebraska,  report  on,  9. 

diseases,  and  their  relation  to  boll  worm,  54. 
Insects  of  the  season  in  Iowa,  57. 

Insect  ravages  mistaken  for  those  of  boll  worm,  48. 
Insecticides,  experiments  with,  43. 

Isodromus  icerya1,  parasite  of  Chrysopa,  17. 
Isosoma  grande,  in  Missouri,  37. 


Joint- worm,  in  Missouri,  37. 

Kermes  camellia?,  possibly  synonymous  with  As- 
pidiotus  rapax,  25. 

Laboulbeniaceae,  parasitism  of,  16. 

Lace-wings,  cannibalistic  habits  of,  17, 18. 
Lachnosterna,  work  on  biology  of,  64. 
fusca,  work  on  biology  of,  <54. 
gibbosa,  work  on  biology  of,  64. 
hirticula,  work  on  biology  of,  64. 

Ladybird,  Australian,  fluted  scale  kept  in  sub- 
jection by,  13. 

twice-stabbed,  enemy  of  scale-insects,  15,30. 
(Scymnus)  feeding  on  red  scale,  16. 

Largus  cinctus,  damaging  cotton,  48. 
Leaf-hoppers,  grass,  hopperdozer  against,  60. 
Lecanium  filicum,  27. 

hemisphaericum,  nqtes  on,  27. 
hesperidum,  notes  on,  26. 

thymo-cresol  against,  35. 
hibernaculorum,  27. 
oleae,  fungus  attacking,  18. 
habits  of,  28. 
resin  wash  against,  19. 
pruinosum,  notes  on,  33. 
sp.,  notes  on,  34, 

Lema  trilineata,  attempt  to  colonize  mite  on,  42. 
Limneria  flavicincta,  parasite  of  Orgyia,  40. 
Locusts,  abundant  in  Iowa,  60. 

Lyda  sp.,  on  wild  plum,  10. 

Mally,  F.  W.,  report  by,  45. 

Maple-worm,  green-striped,  in  Nebraska,  10. 
Melilotus  alba  as  a honey  plant,  85. 

Meliola  citri,  fungus  on  citrus  trees,  19. 

Monoxia  guttulata  on  sugar  beet,  11. 

Murgantia  histrionica  in  Missouri,  37. 
remedies  against,  38. 
thymo-cresol  useless  against,  44. 

Murtfeldt,  Mary  E.,  report  of,  36. 

Myzus  persicae,  destructiveness  in  Iowa,  58. 
Nephelodes  violans,  abundant  in  Missouri,  38. 
Ocneria  dispar,  report  upon,  75. 

Oleander  scale,  notes  on,  20. 

Orgyia  leucostigma  in  St.  Louis,  39. 

Orsodachna  atra  on  peach  blossoms,  38. 

Orborn,  Herbert,  report  of,  57. 

Pachyrrhina  sp.,  notes  on,  70. 
oviposition  of,  72. 

Perilampus  sp.,  bred  from  Chrysopa,  18. 

preyed  upon  by  Diplodus,  31. 

Phloeothrips  nigra,  on  clover  in  Iowa,  60. 

Pieris  rapae,  increase  of  parasite  of,  61. 
parasites  of,  43. 

Plant-lice,  abundant  in  Iowa,  58. 

Plant-louse,  dogwood,  notes  on,  59. 

wheat,  abundance  in  Iowa,  58. 

Plochionus  timidus,  enemy  of  Hyphantria 
cunea,  41. 

Plum  curculio,  in  Missouri,  37. 

Plusia  brassicae,  disease  of,  55. 

Pteromalus  sp.,  bred  from  Chrysopa,  18. 
Pterostichus  femoralis,  probably  an  enemy  of 
Tipula,  70. 

lucublandus,  probable  enemy  of  crane-flies, 
70. 

Pyralidae  on  cotton,  48. 

Pyretlirum,  against  boll  worm,  53. 

Quercus  obtusiloba,  Chermes  sp.  on,  39. 


95 


Rape  as  a honey  plant,  85. 

Red  scale,  fungus  attacking,  18. 
notes  on,  14. 
remedies  for,  19. 

Red  spider,  resin  wash  against,  19. 

Resin  wash  against  scale-insects,  19. 

Robber  fly  capturing  boll  worms,  47. 

Rose  scale,  thymo-cresol  against,  44. 

San  Jos6  scale,  enemies  of,  22. 
habits  of,  21. 
remedies  for,  23. 

Scale-insects  killed  by  fungus,  18. 
of  California,  report  on,  13. 

Schizoneura,  on  dogwood,  59. 
lanigera,  in  Missouri,  36. 

Scymnus  larva  destroying,  17. 

Scymnus  sp.,  larva  feeding  on  red  scale,  16. 

Semiotellus  nigripes,  colonization  of,  64. 

“Sharpshooters”  on  cotton, 48. 

Simulium,  trip  to  investigate,  63. 

Siphonophora  avenae,  abundance  in  Iowa,  58. 
in  Missouri,  37. 

Sitones  flavescens,  abundance  in  Iowa,  60. 

Soft  scale,  notes  on,  26. 

thymo-cresol  against,  35. 

Solenopsis  geminata,  capturing  boll  worms,  47. 

Spiders,  enemies  of  lace-wings,  18. 

Spraying  injurious  to  honey  bees,  86-88. 

Squash  bug,  thymo-cresol  useless  agaiust,  44. 

Sugar-beet  insects,  in  Nebraska,  10. 


Sweet  clover,  as  a honey  plant,  85. 

Tachina  (fly)  on  Eleodes,  12. 

Tent-caterpillar,  forest,  observations  on,  40. 
Tetranychus  sp.,  resin  wash  against,  19. 

bred  from  Chrysopa,  17. 

Thecla  poeas,  on  cotton,  48. 

Thymo-cresol,  as  an  insecticide,  35, 43. 

useless  against  Harlequin  cabbage-bug,  37. 
Tipula  angustipennis,  notes  on,  66. 

bicornis,  description  of  preparatory  stages,  69. 

notes  on,  66. 
costalis,  notes  on,  73. 
oleracea,  notes  on  oviposition,  68. 
trivittata,  note  on  oviposition,  68. 

Tipulidae,  work  on,  64. 

Tortricidae,  on  cotton,  48. 

Trichogramma  pretiosa,  egg  parasite  of  boll  worm, 
47. 

Triphleps  insidiosus,  enemy  of  Heliothis,  48. 
Tussock  moth,  white-marked,  in  St.  Louis,  39. 
Uropoda  americana,  attempts  to  colonize,  42. 
Yedalia  cardinalis,  Icerya  subjugated  by,  13. 

Wax,  conductivity  of,  90. 

Webster,  F.  M.,  report  of,  63. 

Web- worm,  fall,  Plochionus  timidus  destroying, 41 
tiger,  enemy  of  fall  web-worm,  4 1, 

Wheat  midge,  investigated  in  Ohio,  65. 
White-winged  Bibio=Bibio  albipennis. 

Yellow  scale,  thymo-cresol  against,  35. 


o 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

DIVISION  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Bulletin  No.  27. 


REPORTS 


ON  THE 


DAMAGE  BY  DESTRUCTIVE  LOCUSTS 

DURING 


THE  SEASON  OF  1891. 


MADE  UNDER  THE  DIRECTION  OF  THE  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


PUBLISHED  BY  AUTHORITY  OE 
THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1892. 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Letter  of  Transmittal 5 

Introduction 7 

Report  on  Destructive  Locusts Lawrence  Bruner. . 9 

The  Locust  Pest  in  Colorado 10 

The  Locust  Pest  in  the  Red  River  Valley  of  North  Dakota.  Minnesota,  and 

Manitoba 11 

Prof.  Waldron’s  Report 13 

Introduction  (by  H.  E.  Stockbridge) 15 

The  Rocky  Mountain  Locusts  (by  C.  B.  Waldron) 16 

Migratory  Locusts  in  Minnesota  in  1891  (by  Otto  Lugger ) 18 

The  Locust  Pest  in  Idaho — Summer  of  1891 24 

The  Destructive  Western  Crickets 29 

Locust  Injuries  in  other  Regions  during  the  Summer  of  1891 32 

Report  on  Locust  Invasion  of  California  in  1891  D.  W.  Coquillett..  34 

Breeding  Grounds  of  the  Devastating  Locust 40 

Cause  of  the  Locust  Ravages 44 

Natural  Enemies 46 

Remedies 51 

Report  of  a Trip  to  Kansas  to  investigate  reported  Damage  from  Grasshop- 
pers  Herbert  Osborn . . 58 

The  Territory  affected 61 

The  Crops  affected 61 

The  Amount  of  Injury 61 

The  Species  doing  the  Damage 62 

Measures  recommended 63 

Other  Species  observed 64 

Parasites  and  Diseases 64 


3 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Division  of  Entomology, 
Washington , D.  G .,  January  19 , 

Sir  : I have  the  honor  to  transmit,  for  publication  as  Bulletin  No. 
27  of  this  Division,  the  following  reports  by  three  of  the  field  agents  of 
the  Division  on  the  damage  done  by  destructive  locusts  during  the 
season  of  1891. 

Respectfully, 

C.  Y.  Riley, 
Entomologist . 

Hon.  J.  M.  Rusk, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture . 


5 


DAMAGE  BY  DESTRUCTIVE  LOCUSTS. 


INTKODUCTION. 

The  season  of  1891  was  marked  by  widespread  alarm  felt  at  the  pres- 
ence in  force  of  several  species  of  destructive  locusts  in  different  parts 
of  the  country,  and  particularly  in  the  Western  States.  A general 
summary  of  these  incursions  was  given  in  my  annual  report  for  1891, 
and  in  this  bulletin  are  brought  together  the  detailed  reports  of  the 
agents  who  were  sent  into  the  field  and  who  carefully  examined  the 
country  from  which  locusts  were  reported. 

Mr.  Bruner  visited  portions  of  Colorado,  Wyoming,  the  Dakotas, 
Minnesota,  Montana,  Idaho,  and  Utah,  and  also  made  a short  trip  into 
Manitoba,-  Mr.  Coquillett  confined  his  investigations  to  the  State  of 
California,  while  Professor  Osborn  visited  the  State  of  Kansas  only. 

In  addition  to  the  localities  reported  upon  in  this  bulletin  Mr.  Banks 
visited  Texas  and  Kew  Mexico,  but  as  his  report  was  negative  in  char- 
acter it  need  not  be  printed  here.  Professor  Osborn’s  report  has  pre- 
viously been  printed  in  Insect  Life,  Volume  iv,  pp.  49  to  56.  It  will 
be  noticed  that  Mr.  Bruner,  in  speaking  of  the  species  which  I have 
always  placed  in  the  genus  Caloptenus,  refers  to  them  under  the  genus 
Melanoplus.  The  question  as  to  the  value  of  Melanoplus  as  a genus  is 
discussed  in  the  first  report  of  the  U.  S.  Entomological  Commission, 
and  I prefer  to  hold  to  the  older  name.  It  will  suffice,  however,  for  the 
reader  of  this  bulletin  to  know  that  the  name  Melanoplus  as  used  by  Mr. 
Bruner  is  synonymous  with  Caloptenus  as  used  by  me. 

C.  V.  R. 

7 


EEPOET  ON  DESTEUCTIYE  LOCUSTS. 


By  Lawrence  Bruner,  Special  Agent. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 


Lincoln,  Nebr.,  October  3,  1891. 

Sir  : I beg  to  submit  herewith  a report  of  my  observations  on  the  destructive  lo- 
custs of  the  country  during  the  current  year,  a work  which  has  engaged,  as  you 
already  know,  the  greater  portion  of  my  time  during  the  past  summer.  While  oc- 
cupied with  these  investigations  portions  of  Colorado,  Wyoming,  the  Dakotas,  Min- 
nesota, Montana,  Idaho,  and  Utah,  along  with  the  Red  River  Valley  of  Manitoba, 
were  visited  by  me.  In  addition  to  the  regions  personally  examined,  I am  also  ena- 
bled to  include  reports  on  other  districts  based  upon  reports  and  specimens  obtained 
from  friends  who  themselves  had  examined  into  the  conditions  of  these  affairs. 
It  will  not  seem  surprising,  therefore,  if  the  greater  portion  of  my  report  relates  to 
this  particular  group  of  insects.  Since  there  have  been  a number  of  species  of  these 
destructive  locusts  concerned  in  the  injuries  inflicted  in  various  portions  of  the 
country  during  the  season,  I have  thought  it  hest  not  only  to  mention  all  of  these, 
but  also  to  include  such  others  as  have  been  recorded  as  pests  during  former  years, 
as  well  as  those  that  are  liable  in  the  future  to  become  injurious  over  local  areas. 
This  report  can  then  serve  as  a sort  of  reference  hereafter  for  those  wishing  to  study 
the  injurious  insects  of  this  class  found  in  America  north  of  Mexico. 

It  is  but  just  here  to  acknowledge  the  aid  which  I have  received  from  various  rail- 
road companies  that  took  sufficient  interest  in  the  locust  question  to  grant  it,  in  the 
shape  of  transportation  by  which  I was  enabled  to  visit  many  regions  that  would  not 
otherwise  have  been  reached.  I would  also  extend  my  thanks  to  all  those  persons 
who  have  aided  me  in  any  manner  whatsoever  during  the  summer’s  work  among  the 
destructive  locusts. 

The  regions  visited  by  myself  and  other  agents  of  the  Division  early  in  the  season, 
as  well  as  those  examined  by  Messrs.  Snow  and  Popenoe,  of  Kansas,  have  been  re- 
ported upon  heretofore ; hence  will  not  be  treated  at  length  here.  The  district  com- 
prised in  North  Dakota  and  Minnesota,  over  which  the  true  Migratory  or  Rocky 
Mountain  Locust  was  more  or  less  abundant,  has  been  carefully  studied  during  the 
year  by  Prof.  C.  B.  Waldron  in  the  former  and  Prof.  Otto  Lugger  in  the  latter  State. 
The  reports  of  these  gentlemen  are  appended  hereto. 

Very  respectfully  yours, 


Lawrence  Bruner. 


Prof.  C.  V.  Riley, 

U.  S.  Entomologist. 


9 


10 


About  the  middle  of  June  reports  of  damage  by  grasshoppers  or 
locusts  began  to  make  their  appearance  in  the  papers  of  the  country  at 
large,  and  especially  were  such  reports  of  frequent  occurrence  and  of 
an  alarming  nature  in  the  region  where  the  Rocky  Mountain  locust  rav- 
aged the  country  some  years  ago.  Nor  were  these  reports  purely  rumor, 
for  it  was  definitely  known  to  entomologists  and  others  that  numbers  of 
these  insects  had  hatched  in  various  parts  of  the  country  and  were  at 
this  time  devouring  the  vegetation  at  an  alarming  rate.  The  past  few 
years  had  also  been  very  favorable  to  their  increase,  while  considerable  in- 
jury to  crops  had  actually  been  done  by  these  insects  during  last  year.  In 
Colorado  railroad  trains  had  been  stopped  by  the  insects  which  gathered 
upon  the  rails  and  were  crushed  by  the  heavy  wheels  of  the  locomotives. 
From  Idaho  and  California  came  reports  of  grasshopper  swarms,  and  in 
portions  of  Minnesota  and  North  Dakota  these  insects  were  known  to 
occur  in  numbers  too  great  for  the  settlers  to  be  troubled  with  visions 
of  overflowing  granaries.  Accordingly,  quite  early  in  July  the  Secre- 
tary of  Agriculture  decided  upon  a general  tour  of  inspection  by  spe- 
cialists in  insect  study,  who  were  to  work  under  the  direction  of  Prof.  C. 
Y.  Riley,  the  United  States  Entomologist.  Several  field  agents  located 
in  different  parts  of  the  Union  were  immediately  instructed  to  examine 
into  the  reports  emanating  from  adjacent  localities,  and  to  report  the 
results  of  such  investigations  promptly. 

Having  been  more  or  less  constantly  engaged  in  the  special  study  of 
this  particular  group  of  insects  for  the  past  ten  or  eleven  years,  the 
writer  was  instructed  to  make  a general  tour  of  inspection  over  the  re- 
gion known  as  the  range  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  or  Migratory  Locust. 
During  the  time  occupied  in  carrying  out  these  instructions  portions  of 
Colorado,  Wyoming,  Montana,  North  Dakota,  Minnesota,  Manitoba, 
Idaho,  and  Utah  were  traversed.  The  following  reports  will  give  some 
idea  of  the  results  of  these  various  regions  visited : 

THE  LOCUST  PEST  IN  COLORADO. 

The  first  locality  which  I visited  for  the  purpose  of  studying  these 
destructive  locusts  was  located  in  eastern  Colorado  upon  the  plains  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  town  of  Akron,  on  the  line  of  the  Burlington  and 
Missouri  River  Railroad.  Here  it  was  found  that  a large,  long- winged 
locust,  which  is  known  scientifically  by  the  name  of  Dissosteira  longi- 
pennis  Tlios.,  was  the  culprit,  and  that  it  was  really  destroying  the 
grasses  on  the  prairies  over  an  area  of  fully  400  square  miles  of  terri- 
tory. A little  investigation  showed  it  to  be  the  same  species  that  was 
present  farther  to  the  southward,  and  that  had  been  the  cause  of  the 
newspaper  reports  which  filled  the  columns  of  the  dailies  at  the  time. 
By  driving  northward  from  Akron  across  the  country  to  the  Platte 
River,  other  small  detached  swarms  of  the  same  locust  were  encoun- 
tered, and  judging  from  such  reports  as  were  obtainable  at  Sterling, 


11 


this  insect  also  occurred  in  destructive  numbers  in  several  limited  lo- 
calities of  southeastern  Wyoming. 

At  about  the  same  time  that  I was  investigating  the  northern  border 
of  the  region  occupied  by  the  Long- winged  Locust,  Messrs.  Snow  and 
Popenoe,  of  Kansas,  were  studying  it  along  its  southern  limits,  where 
they  found  the  insect  in  even  much  greater  numbers  than  I did  along 
its  northern  limits  of  abundance.  As  those  gentlemen  have  made  a 
much  more  thorough  investigation  of  the  pest  than  I have,  and  have 
written  a rather  full  report  of  the  results  of  their  labors,  the  readers  are 
referred  to  that  paper  if  they  desire  to  obtain  the  full  particulars. 

The  description,  habits,  distribution,  and  life-history  of  this  species 
will  be  given  farther  on  in  this  report,  in  connection  with  like  particu- 
lars in  reference  to  other  species  of  these  destructive  insects  which  oc- 
cur in  Korth  America  north  of  the  Mexican  boundary. 

THE  LOCUST  PEST  IN  THE  RED  RIVER  VALLEY  OF  NORTH  DAKOTA, 
MINNESOTA,  AND  MANITOBA. 

After  returning  to  Lincoln  from  this  Colorado  trip,  the  Red  River  Y alley 
of  Korth  Dakota,  Minnesota,  and  Manitoba  was  visited.  In  this  latter 
region  it  was  reported  that  the  genuine  Rocky  Mountain  Locust  (Me- 
lanoplus  spretus)  was  doing  some  injury  to  grain.  Upon  arriving  at  St. 
Anthony  Park,  where  I expected  to  find  the  Entomologist  of  the  Minne- 
sota Experiment  Station,  it  was  found  that  that  gentleman  was  away 
from  home  among  the  grasshoppers  in  the  northern  part  of  his  State. 
The  next  halt  was  made  at  Fargo,  K.  Dak.,  where  my  letter  of  instruc- 
tions suggested  that  I had  better  stop  and  confer  with  the  officials  of 
the  experiment  station  located  here,  since  they  were  more  apt  to  be  fa- 
miliar with  the  locust  question  so  far  as  their  State  was  concerned  than 
would  anyone  else.  Here  also  I found  that  most  of  the  station  workers 
were  away  from  home  engaged  in  active  work  against  the  locust  pest. 

By  lingering  in  the  vicinity  for  a few  days,  and  occupying  my  time 
in  making  collections  of  such  species  of  locusts  as  were  to  be  found 
about  the  college,  I was  enabled  to  leave  at  least  twenty  species  of 
authentically  labeled  specimens  with  the  authorities  when  they  returned 
a few  days  later.  Afterwards  a number  of  infested  localities  were 
visited  in  company  with  Prof.  0.  B.  Waldron,  who  had  chief  charge  of 
the  locust  work  in  this  State.  These  short  journeys  over  the  region 
sufficed  to  show  conclusively  that  not  only  was  the  true  Migratory 
Locust  present,  but  also  three  other  species,  all  engaged  in  the  injuries 
to  crops  in  the  region  under  consideration.  Here  then,  in  the  Red 
River  Yalley  and  for  some  distance  back  into  the  u hills”  to  the  west- 
ward, were  four  distinct  species  of  locusts  present  in  unusually  large 
numbers,  while,  in  addition  to  these,  a number  of  other  species  were 
by  no  means  rare.  A journey  as  far  north  as  Winnipeg,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Manitoba,  showed  that  this  region  of  undue  increase  among 
these  various  locusts  also  extended  into  that  country  for  some  miles  be- 


12 


yond  the  point  reached.  Not  having  the  authority  to  proceed,  I was 
unable  to  determine  the  exact  boundary  of  this  region ; but  from  what 
1 was  able  to  learn  through  inquiry  among  the  intelligent  inhabitants, 
it  was  surmised  that  at  least  one-lialf  of  the  province  was  to  be  in- 
cluded within  that  boundary.  Of  course  I do  not  wish  to  be  understood 
that  every  portion  of  the  territory  thus  included  was  covered  by  the 
pest,  for  such  was  not  the  case.  The  hoppers  occurred  in  spots  in 
Manitoba  just  as  they  did  in  Minnesota  and  North  Dakota.  I found 
that  this  region  contained  the  following  species  of  locusts  in  hurtful 
numbers:  the  Rocky  Mountain  or  true  Migratory  {Melanoplus  spretus ), 
the  Lesser  Migratory  ( Melanoplus  atlanis ),  the  Two-striped  Locust  {Me- 
lanoplus bivittatus ),  and  the  Pellucid  Locust  {Camnula  pellucida). 

Further  inquiry  resulted  in  showing  that  the  Rocky  Mountain  species 
had  entered  North  Dakota  during  the  previous  fall  from  the  northwest, 
dropping  into  the  State  at  a point  just  east  of  the  Turtle  Mountains, 
and  leaving  the  first  batch  of  eggs  near  the  town  of  Cando  in  Tower 
County.  From  here  they  evidently  passed  eastward  and  a little  to  the 
south,  leaving  eggs  at  various  points  along  the  route  wherever  the  con- 
ditions were  favorable. 

It  is  quite  probable  that  these  locusts  which  entered  the  country  last 
fall  were  those  that  had  hatche  I in  spring  in  the  vicinity  of  Regina 
and  disappeared  from  that  region  in  a southeasterly  direction  after  be- 
coming fledged.  Should  this  be  the  case,  there  are  now  no  other 
swarms  of  this  particular  locust  in  the  United  States  and  British 
America  that  we  know  of,  nor  does  the  species  appear  to  be  even  com- 
mon in  other  localities ; hence  the  importance  of  extra  efforts  on  the 
part  of  all  interested  parties  at  this  particular  time  to  stamp  out  the 
pest  where  it  occurs  at  present.  We  can  easily  afford  to  be  without  it, 
for,  as  the  succeeding  pages  will  show,  we  have  plenty  of  other  locusts 
that  are  apt  to  occupy  our  attention  during  almost  any  year  in  the 
future.  That  any  of  these  destructive  locusts  can  be  successfully  fought 
and  their  injuries  prevented  has  been  pretty  well  demonstrated  time 
and  again.  At  no  time,  however,  has  this  been  so  plainly  shown  as 
during  the  past  spring  and  summer  in  this  very  region  in  question. 
This  comparative  ease  with  which  the  insect  was  handled  here  is  chiefly 
due  to  its  habit  of  egg-laying  varying  somewhat  in  the  Red  River  Val- 
ley from  what  it  is  known  to  be  in  other  parts  of  the  country  where  it 
has  been  studied. 

The  attached  reports  of  Messrs.  Lugger  and  Waldron,  who  have  been 
in  the  region  and  who  had  under  their  direction  nearly  all  of  the  war- 
fare already  mentioned,  will  best  serve  to  show  the  modus  operandi 
followed  and  the  results  secured.  Careful  estimates  have  been  made 
as  to  the  actual  benefits  to  be  derived  from  fighting  these  destructive 
grasshoppers,  and  the  figures  obtained  are  really  surprising.  It  is 
supposed  that  at  least  calculation  20,000  acres  of  wheat  alone  were 
saved  which  otherwise  would  have  been  destroyed  by  the  locusts  that 


13 


were  killed  before  and  after  hatching.  This  wheat,  at  30  bushels  to  the 
acre,  an  average  yield  for  the  twelve  counties  where  the  locust  plague 
occurred,  would  be  worth  about  $400,000.  The  actual  outlay  in  money 
by  the  authorities,  State  and  county,  for  machinery  and  oil  could  not 
have  been  more  than  $1  for  each  $50  saved.  We  were  told  that  in  the 
two  States  together  there  were  over  200  u hopper-dozers”  at  work  col- 
lecting and  destroying  the  locusts.  These  machines  were  kept  going 
for  fully  two  weeks,  some  of  them  longer,  and  each  machine  caught 
from  4 to  11  bushels  of  the  locusts  per  day.  It  is  supposed  that  fully 
as  many  as  8,000  to  10,000  bushels  were  thus  destroyed,  many  of  them 
being  quite  small  and  hence  counted  for  more.  At  any  rate,  the  de- 
struction was  great.  An  equal  number  were  destroyed  by  plowing  the 
eggs  under  prior  to  their  hatching.  These  figures  represent  an  actual 
present  saving ; but  what  shall  we  say  about  the  probable  future  sav- 
ing to  the  settlers  of  these  two  States  and  of  those  adjoining,  had  none 
of  this  work  of  destruction  been  carried  on?  With  favoring  conditions 
in  climate  and  surroundings  nearly  all  of  our  various  species  are  capa- 
ble of  increasing  at  the  ratio  of  fifty-fold ; i.  e.,  each  female  will  lay 
upwards  of  100  eggs.  About  one-half  of  the  young  hatched  from  these 
eggs  will  be  males  and  the  other  half  females.  Therefore,  if  twelve 
counties  are  overrun  with  these  insects  this  year,  and  they  all  live  to 
deposit  eggs,  with  all  favoring  circumstances  the  result  will  be  suffic- 
ient hoppers  by  the  following  year  to  overrun  fifty  times  twelve  coun- 
ties, or  six  hundred  counties,  a matter  too  formidable  to  think  of. 

Since  I have  already  reported  to  you  the  results  of  this  trip  through 
the  Red  River  Valley,  and  alse  spoken  of  it  at  the  Washington  meet- 
ing of  the  Association  of  Economic  Entomologists,  I will  not  enter 
farther  into  details  here.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that  after  going  over  the 
regions  already  indicated,  I went  west  over  the  line  of  the  Great  North- 
ern Railroad  to  Helena,  Mont.,  stopping  off  at  convenient  points  along 
the  road.  At  these  places  inquiries  were  made  among  the  settlers  con- 
cerning locust  abundance,  besides  goingoutinto  the  country  and  exam- 
ining for  myself  to  make  doubly  sure  that  there  were  no  migratory 
locusts  in  the  entire  country  west  of  Devil’s  Lake  in  North  Dakota. 
Only  at  several  points  in  the  mountains  of  Montana  did  I find  these 
insects  at  all  abundant,  and  there  only  over  very  limited  areas  where 
the  Camnula  pellucida  occurred  in  the  valleys,  in  hay  fields. 

PROF.  WALDRON’S  REPORT. 

Fargo.  N.  Dak.,  Aug.  6,  1891. 

Pear  Sir  : In  compliance  with  your  request,  I submit  the  following  report  con- 
cerning the  recent  appearance  of  grasshoppers  in  North  Dakota. 

The  first  report  of  grasshoppers  came  from  Orr,  a station  in  the  northern  part  of 
Grand  Forks  County.  The  report  was  received  July  * 25,  and  on  July  26  I went  to 
the  infested  region  and  found  a considerable  number  of  grasshoppers,  the  oldest  of 
which  had  been  hatched  two  or  three  weeks  before,  while  new  ones  Avere  appearing 

* This  must  be  a ppstake,  and  I think  should  read  May  25  instead. — L.  B. 


14 


constantly.  The  two  prevailing  species  were  the  Caloptenus  spreius  and  the  Calop- 
tenus  atlanis.  The  former  species  was  the  most  numerous,  the  ratio  being  about 
4 to  1.  Other  species  existed,  hut  as  they  were  found  but  sparingly  no  attempt  was 
made  to  enumerate  them. 

As  was  to  be  supposed,  the  hatching  was  confined  entirely  to  the  stubble  fields. 
From  these  the  young  insects  moved  forward  onto  the  adjacent  wheat  fields,  and  at 
the  time  of  my  first  visit  a narrow  strip  of  grain  along  a few  of  the  fields  had  been 
destroyed.  The  usual  methods  of  extermination  were  resorted  to,  i.  e.,  the  plowing 
of  the  adjacent  stubble  fields  and  the  use  of  hopper-dozers  along  the  edges  of  the 
infested  fields. 

The  Great  Northern  Railway  immediately  plowed  all  of  its  lands  in  which  the 
grasshoppers  were  hatching,  and,  so  far  as  it  was  possible,  most  of  the  farmers  did 
the  same.  The  beneficial  effect  of  the  plowing  was  very  marked  even  after  the  proc- 
ess of  hatching  was  well  advanced. 

The  work  of  the  coal-tar  and  kerosene  hopper-dozers  was  also  very  effective,  each 
pan  catching  from  5 to  8 bushels  per  day.  The  canvas  traps,  such  as  were  reported 
as  giving  more  or  less  satisfactory  results  elsewhere,  were  abandoned  after  the  first 
one  or  two  trials.  When  canvas  traps  are  used  the  grasshoppers  have  to  be  caught 
twice,  and  the  second  operation — that  of  securing  them  after  they  have  jumped  into 
the  bag — is  the  more  difficult  one;  so  difficult,  in  fact,  as  to  border  on  the  impossible. 

While  working  at  Orr  reports  came  in  from  the  adjoining  regions,  showing  that 
the  infested  region  reached  as  far  north  as  the  center  of  Walsh  County,  nearly  as 
far  south  as  Larimore,  and  occupied  a region  some  10  miles  wide.  The  grasshoppers 
did  not  cover  the  entire  region,  but  were  found  in  patches  here  and  there,  more 
noticeably  in  the  vicinity  of  Park  River,  Conway,  and  Inkster,  with  a few  at 
McCanna  and  Niagara.  They  were  also  found  through  the  central  part  of  Nelson 
County,  though  not  in  destructive  numbers. 

Grasshoppers  were  also  found  to  some  extent  in  the  western  part  of  Ramsey 
County,  at  a place  called  Church’s  Ferry,  and  north  from  there  18  miles,  at  Cando. 
In  all  of  the  places  mentioned  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locust  was  the  prevailing  kind.  A 
few  of  this  species,  associated  with  many  others,  chiefly  the  Caloptenus  bivittatus , were 
found  at  Clifford,  in  the  western  part  of  Trail  County.  The  Rocky  Mountain  Locust 
was  also  reported  from  the  central  part  of  Ransom  County,  but  as  they  were  few  in 
number  the  locality  was  not  visited.  The  work  of  extermination  was  carried  on  in 
all  parts  of  the  State  in  which  the  grasshoppers  appeared  in  sufficient  numbers. 
While  the  damage  to  this  year’s  crop  would  not  have  been  great  in  any  event,  yet 
the  warfare  in  many  localities  has  no  doubt  resulted  in  a larger  crop  than  would 
otherwise  have  been  harvested. 

Our  chief  concern  is  for  the  coming  year.  I shall  stay  in  the  infested  localities 
for  the  remainder  of  the  season,  carefully  noting  in  what  regions,  if  any,  the  eggs 
are  laid,  so  that  we  may  carry  on  the  work  of  future  extermination  intelligently 
and  thoroughly. 

C.  B.  Waldron. 

Mr.  Lawrence  Bruner, 

Lincoln , Nebr. 

T add  still  further  matter  in  reference  to  this  outbreak  of  locusts  in 
North  Dakota  in  the  shape  of  a special  bulletin,  which  was  issued  from 
the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of  that  State  early  in  July.  This 
bulletin  was  prepared  conjointly  by  the  Director,  Dr.  H.  E.  Stockbridge, 
and  Prof.  C.  B.  Waldron,  whose  report  is  already  given.  This  special 
bulletin  is  not  large,  hence  will  be  copied  in  full, 


15 


INTRODUCTION. 

(By  H.  E.  Stockbridge.) 

On  June  19  tlie  Director  of  the  North  Dakota  Experiment  Station  received  a tele- 
gram from  Superintendent  Jenks,  of  the  Dakota  division  of  the  Great  Northern  Rail- 
road, dated  Larimore,  announcing  the  presence  of  grasshoppers  in  overwhelming 
numbers  in  the  vicinity  of  Orr,  Grand  Forks  County,  and  requesting  assistance  and 
advice  in  the  premises.  Professor  Waldron,  of  the  station  staff,  under  instructions, 
left  for  the  scene  of  the  outbreak  on  the  first  train  leaving  Fargo  after  the  announce- 
ment was  received,  and  June  20  returned  with  specimens  of  the  locusts  and  full  par- 
ticulars concerning  the  presence,  numbers,  and  amount  of  devastation  wrought, 
gathered  by  personal  inspection  in  the  field.  After  further  consultation,  Professor 
Waldron  immediately  returned  to  Orr,  with  full  instructions  and  authority  to  take 
any  steps  or  action  necessary  and  incur  any  legitimate  expense  required  for  the  sup- 
pression of  the  outbreak  and  extermination  of  the  pest  coming  properly  within  the 
sphere  or  jurisdiction  of  the  station. 

Meanwhile  communications  had  been  received  from  the  Commissioner  of  Agricul- 
ture, the  Commissioners  of  Grand  Forks  County,  and  several  interviews  had  been  held 
with  the  Governor  of  the  State  looking  toward  control  of  conditions  and  prevention 
of  ravage. 

On  June  25  the  increased  presence  of  the  pest  and  its  extension  to  other  localities 
seemed  to  demand  more  stringent  measures  for  suppression,  and  after  a thorough  in- 
spection of  the  infected  localities  in  Grand  Forks  County,  and  a consultation,  by  re- 
quest, with  the  township  commissioners  of  the  infected  townships,  it  was  decided 
that  a more  extended  use  of  the  hopper-dozer  and  the  plowing  of  large  areas  of  stub- 
ble must  be  immediately  instituted.  The  use  of  the  dozer  was  easily  accomplished. 
Twelve  of  these  implements  were  immediately  ordered  and  put  to  their  work  of  exe- 
cution, while  a further  and  large  shipment  of  coal  tar  was  ordered  by  telegraph. 
The  land-owners  in  the  interested  localities  seemed  to  recognize  the  emergency,  and 
manifested  a willingness  to  do  everything  in  their  power  toward  exterminating  the 
enemy.  A great  difficulty,  however,  lay  in  the  impossibility  of  plowing  with  pasture- 
fed  horses,  and  the  impossibility,  in  many  cases,  of  procuring  grain  or  feed  on  indi- 
vidual responsibility,  while  the  ownership  of  stubble  by  non-residents  was  a further 
obstacle  to  the  immediate  plowing  of  such  land,  and  thus  exterminating  their  grass- 
hopper denizens.  On  returning  to  Grand  Forks  the  Governor  of  the  State,  the  resi- 
dent county  commissioner,  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  Helgesen,  Professor  Waldron, 
and  the  director  of  the  station  immediately  held  an  interview,  in  which  the  exigen- 
cies of  the  occasion  were  fully  discussed  and  further  measures  of  control  instituted. 
Feed  was  immediately  shipped  to  the  infested  localities  on  the  responsibility  of  the 
county  commissioners.  The  general  au  thority  of  the  State  in  the  premises,  so  far  as 
active  measures  were  concerned,  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Commissioner  of  Ag- 
riculture, while  immediate  supervision  of  disbursements  was  intrusted  to  resident 
county  commissioners.  Professor  Waldron,  on  behalf  of  the  experiment  station,  was 
instructed  to  remain  in  the  field,  visit  every  new  locality  of  outbreak,  and  furnish  all 
advice  and  assistance  possible  in  the  premises,  remaining  in  personal  control  of  the 
means  of  suppression  at  Orr  and  Inkster,  which  localities  would  serve  for  experi- 
mental purposes  and  as  illustrations  of  restrictive  measures  for  the  benefit  of  other 
communities.  At  present  areas  of  limited  infection  exist  in  Grand  Forks,  Walsh, 
Nelson,  Towner,  and  Ramsey  counties,  the  region  of  chief  infection  being  along  the 
Park  River  branch  of  the  Great  Northern  Railroad  for  a distance  of  nearly  40  miles 
between  Larimore  and  Park  River,  and  it  is  here  the  only  real  damage  has  been 
wrought  and  the  chief  cause  of  apprehension  lies.  It  is  now  confidently  believed 
that  with  the  vigorous  measures  adopted  serious  damage  during  the  present  season 
is  not  to  be  anticipated.  The  danger  lies  in  apathy  on  the  part  of  the  public, 
which  may  result  in  the  survival  of  a sufficient  number  qf  the  mature  insects  to 


16 


lay  the  eggs  of  broods  from  which  serious  damage  to  next  year’s  crops  may  follow, 
and  it  is  with  a view  to  prevent  this  contingency  that  the  present  information  is 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  public.  The  measures  for  prevention  are  briefly,  hut 
fully,  explained  in  the  present  bulletin,  the  material  for  which  has  been  chiefly  pre- 
pared by  Prof.  Waldron,  perfectly  familiar  with  the  premises  from  actual  personal 
experience.  The  measures  recommended  are  simple,  easily  followed,  and  so  cheap  and 
effective  that  no  excuse  can  he  found  for  a failure  to  heed  the  warning  and  follow 
the  suggestions  offered.  Further  than  this,  it  should  he  borne  in  mind  that  plowing, 
the  chief  dependence  for  prevention  of  the  locust  plague,  has  other  advantages  in 
the  way  of  soil  improvement  and  suppression  of  weeds  which  must  fully  compensate 
for  any  outlay  required. 


THE  ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  LOCUST 
(By  C.  B.  Waldron.) 

The  habits  of  the  locust  are  well  known,  and  measures  for  their  complete  destruc- 
tion are  so  cheap  and  simple  that  they  can  be  carried  out  by  simply  varying  the 
agricultural  methods  now  practiced  and  not  adding  materially  to  their  expense. 
No  attempt  will  he  made  in  this  bulletin  to  give  more  of  the  habits  and  natural  his- 
tory of  the  locust  than  is  absolutely  required  in  dealing  with  the  problem  of  exter- 
mination. 

The  eggs  in  the  region  named  were  doubtless  laid  during  the  latter  part  of  August 
by  locusts  coming  over  from  Manitoba  and  perhaps  from  Minnesota.  Flights  of  the 
insects  that  were  passing  towards  the  regions  now  infested  were  observed  on  the 
20th  of  August.  The  eggs  were  laid  in  stubble  fields,  as  would  have  been  supposed 
from  our  former  knowledge  of  the  habits  of  the  locust  and  as  subsequent  investiga- 
tion proved.  If  the  presence  of  the  locusts  last  season  had  been  properly  reported 
measures  would  have  been  adopted  that,  with  no  financial  outlay,  would  have 
absolutely  prevented  the  reappearance  of  the  pest. 

It  has  been  found  by  repeated  trials,  particularly  in  Minnesota,  that  if  the  eggs  of 
the  locust  are  covered  with  4 or  5 inches  of  moist  earth,  or  6 inches  of  dry  earth, 
the  hatching  will  either  he  prevented  or  the  young  will  die  before  being  able  to 
reach  the  surface.  It  follows,  then,  that  we  may  completely  destroy  the  egg  by  plow- 
ing the  fields  in  which  they  are  laid,  either  in  autumn  or  before  the  middle  of  June, 
at  which  time  the  hatching  begins  in  this  latitude.  As  the  eggs  are  never  laid  in 
thick  sod  nor  in  loosely  plowed  earth  it  will  be  seen  that  plowing  need  not  extend  to 
any  land  except  the  stubble  fields.  If  all  the  stubble  land  is  put  to  wheat  in  the 
regular  manner,  the  plowing  to  he  done  either  in  fall  or  spring,  no  word  of  complaint 
will  come  because  of  grasshoppers.  If  summer  fallowing  is  adopted  the  plowing 
should  he  done  in  May  or  early  June,  and  the  land  may  he  plowed  again  in  the  fall 
if  considered  necessary.  This  method  of  fallowing,  if  followed  from  the  start,  has 
the  added  advantage  of  destroying  such  weed  pests  as  the  Pepper  Grass,  “French 
Weed,”  etc. 

Even  if  the  plowing  is  not  finished  before  hatching  begins,  it  should  he  kept  up 
until  the  stubble  fields  are  all  turned  over.  The  period  of  hatching  begins  about 
June  1,  or  later  if  the  land  is  lower,  and  continues  about  six  weeks. 

When  the  young  grasshoppers  are  first  hatched  they  are  covered  with  a little  sac, 
and  by  it  enabled  to  push  up  through  2 or  3 inches  of  earth.  If  the  grasshoppers 
are  covered  with  earth  after  the  sac  disappears,  from  1 to  2 inches  is  sufficient  to  kill 
them.  One  reason  for  continuing  the  plowing,  then,  is  to  bury  and  kill  what  in- 
sects may  already  be  hatched.  Even  the  grasshoppers  that  are  not  plowed  under 
will  he  very  apt  to  starve  before  escaping  from  the  plowed  land.  As  a rule  it  will 
bp  found  welj  to  plow  a strip  5 qr  }.0  rods  wide  right  around  the  stubble  fielfi  to  retain 


17 


the  grasshoppers  inside,  and  then  the  rest  of  the  field  may  be  plowed  in  the  usual 
manner.  The  insects  will  be  driven  toward  the  center  of  each  land  as  the  plowing 
proceeds,  and  the  last  furrows  will  be  found  to  cover  up  great  numbers,  especially  if 
plowed  late  in  the  evening  or  as  soon  as  it  becomes  daylight  in  the  morning. 

If  thought  best,  the  plowing  may  not  be  finished  at  once,  but  a strip  left  in  the 
middle  of  each  land  on  which  the  grasshoppers  may  be  caught,  or  the  strip  may  be 
covered  with  dry  straw  and  the  insects  destroyed  by  burning.  Plowing  the  stubble 
field  is  an  important  step  in  fighting  the  locust  in  case  much  grass  is  found  growing 
in  the  stubble.  If  the  stubble  is  left  standing  the  grasshoppers  will  be  slow  to 
leave  their  hatching  ground  if  the  food  is  abundant,  and  thus  for  several  weeks  the 
insects  will  be  passing  from  the  stubble  to  the  wheat  fields.  The  task  of  catching 
them  is  much  shorter  after  the  fields  are  plowed.  In  catching  the  locust  several 
means  have  been  employed  at  various  times  and  places,  but  we  will  now  describe  only 
one,  that  being  the  one  that  from  its  cheapness,  ease  of  obtaining  and  operating,  and 
general  efficency,  seems  to  be  best. 

The  apparatus  referred  to  is  the  tar  pan  or  hopper-dozer.  The  pan  should  be  made 
of  rather  heavy  sheet  iron  or  ordinary  galvanized  iron.  The  length  should  be  about 
16  feet,  width  of  bottom  from  2-£  to  3 feet,  and  the  back  about  2 feet  high.  The  back 
may  be  made  higher  by  a strip  of  gunny-cloth  or  a board,  if  experience  shows  the 
necessity.  Along  the  front  edge  of  the  pan  is  placed  a board  from  1 to  2 inches  thick 
and  4 inches  wide.  This  is  beveled  on  the  lower  front  corner,  so  that  the  pan  may 
pass  easily  over  obstructions,  and  the  iron  that  constitutes  the  bottom  of  the  pan 
brought  around  the  front  edge  of  this  strip  and  nailed  on  top.  The  pan  is  further 
strengthened  by  a strip  of  timber  along  the  back.  The  ends  are  of  inch  plank, 
each  bearing  a clevis  at  the  front  for  drawing  the  pan.  The  pan  is  drawn  by  two 
horses,  one  hitched  in  front  of  each  end,  on  a rope  about  10  feet  long.  Fastened  to 
these  ropes  by  a strong  cord  is  a 16  foot  pole  so  arranged  as  to  drag  about  a foot  in 
front  of  the  pan  so  as  to  scare  up  the  grasshoppers. 

The  pan  is  heavily  smeared  with  coal  tar,  thus  catching  and  holding  all  insects 
that  jump  in.  It  is  a good  plan  to  add  a small  amount  of  kerosene  to  the  coal  tar, 
so  that  the  locusts  may  die  almost  as  soon  as  entering  the  pan.  Ordinary  observa- 
tion will  enable  a person  to  see  when  the  insects  should  be  scraped  out  and  a fresh 
supply  of  tar  added.  The  most  effective  time  of  day  for  using  the  dozer  is  toward 
evening  when  the  insects  are  feeding.  A pan  working  in  this  manner  will  catch 
several  bushels  a day  in  regions  that  are  badly  infested, 


Sir:  I have  just  returned  from  my  canvass  of  the  grasshopper  region  and  find  the 
situation  to  be  as  follows : 

In  general  there  appears  to  have  been  more  or  less  egg  laying  over  the  whole  region 
outlined  in  my  former  report  to  you.  From  Orr  north  to  Park  River  this  condition 
was  modified  largely  by  the  presence  of  what  I took  to  be  a dipterous  parasite,  though 
I saw  nothing  but  the  larval  form  of  this  parasite  and  can  not  tell  positively  what  it  is. 
The  larva  was  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long  and  turned  from  white  to  a light  brown 
on  emerging  from  its  host.  In  certain  localities  fully  three-fourths  of  the  Caloptenus 
8jpretu8  and  C.  atlanis  were  destroyed  by  the  timely  ravages  of  this  parasite,  but  the 
C.  bivittatus  seemed  to  escape  its  attacks.  In  the  vicinity  of  Larimore  the  parasite 
appeared  but  little.  The  region  in  which  the  greatest  number  of  eggs  is  deposited 
is  the  southern  part  of  Towner  County  in  the  vicinity  of  Cando.  The  C.  spretus 
was  abundant  here  and  stayed  till  very  late  with  no  trace  of  parasites.  The  same 
condition  exists  all  over  Benson  and  Ramsey  counties  though  in  these  last-named  re- 
gions the  grasshoppers  themselves  were  far  less  numerous.  The  gospel  of  plowing 
has  been  so  thoroughly  preached  that  little  danger  may  be  expected  except  in  what 

19539— No.  27 2 


18 


may  be  called  the  outskirts  of  the  grasshopper  region,  i.  e.  the  western  part  of  Walsh 
County,  the  southern  part  of  Cavalier,  and  the  northern  half  of  Ramsey  County.  In 
these  places  many  of  the  farms  have  been  deserted  and  the  chance  for  extermination 
thereby  lessened. 

Very  truly  yours, 

C.  B.  Waldron. 


MIGRATORY  LOCUSTS  IN  MINNESOTA  IN  1891/ 

(By  Otto  Lugger.) 

The  year  1891  has  been  remarkable,  as  far  as  insects  are  concerned,  for  a multitude 
of  very  noxious  insects.  Species,  in  former  years  rather  uncommon,  have  appeared 
in  vast  numbers,  causing  more  or  less  alarm  on  that  account.  A number  of  reasons 
may  be  given  for  such  a state  of  affairs  ; but  the  present  bulletin  is  not  the  proper 
place  to  discuss  them.  The  chief  causes  may,  however,  be  stated  to  be  exceptionally 
mild  winters  and  uniformly  favorable  growing  seasons. 

Among  the  numerous  injurious  insects  of  1891  none  are  more  dangerous  than  the 
various  species  of  locusts  or  grasshoppers.  Besides  the  native  species,  which  in 
seasons  favorable  to  locusts  are  always  more  or  less  injurious,  we  have  to  deal  at 
present  with  three  kinds  of  migratory  locusts,  i.  e. : Rocky  Mountain  Locust  ( Mdano - 
plus  spretus,  Thos.),  Lesser  Migratory  Locust  ( Melanoplus  atJanxs,  Riley),  Pellucid 
Locust  (Camnula  pellucida,  Scudd.). 

In  the  report  of  the  Entomologist  to  the  Board  of  Regents,  published  in  the  Bien- 
nial Report  for  1890,  page  17,  the  following  statement  was  made: 

“But  the  danger  of  fresh  invasion  remains,  and  it  is  in  the  line  of  wise  legislation 
to  take  time  by  the  forelock,  and  provide  the  necessary  means  for  suppressing  an- 
other outbreak.  The  Rocky  Mountain  Locusts  are  becoming  very  numerous  in  their 
native  breeding  places,  and  have  already  produced  some  swarms  extending  beyond 
their  usual  haunts.  In  fact  a large  swarm  of  locusts  passed  on  August  14,  1890,  over 
Crookston,  flying  in  a southeasterly  direction.  It  is  true  the  few  mutilated  speci- 
mens received  by  the  Entomologist  indicated  three  native  species,  but  this  material 
was  insufficient  to  furnish  proof  that  the  1 Hateful  Grasshopper’  was  not  a member  of 
this  swarm.  Through  the  kindness  of  the  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis  and  Manitoba  Rail- 
road, the  Entomologist  was  enabled  to  inquire  into  this  matter,  and  found  that  this 
swarm  had  continued  its  flight  from  Crookston  overFosston,  and  had  landed  near  to 
and  in  the  upper  Rice  Lake, in  the  White  Earth  Indian  Reservation,  where  the  great  ma- 
jority of  the  insects  composing  this  swarm  perished.  Some  eggs  were  deposited  near 
Crookston,  and  especial  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  locusts  resulting  from  them; 
but  it  could  not  be  learned  that  others  had  been  laid  elsewhere.  It  will  be  very  wise 
to  recollect  that  the  number  of  locusts  in  their  home  have  reached  the  danger  mark, 
and  may,  if  favored  by  a suitable  season,  become  not  simply  a menace  but  a reality.” 

After  the  publication  of  that  report  more  material  was  received,  which  proved  be- 
yond doubt  that  the  swarm  entering  the  Red  River  Yalley  was  composed  mainly  of 
migratory  species.  But  even  without  such  additional  proofs  it  was  quite  certain 
that  we  had  to  deal  with  migratory  species,  as  all  our  native  ones,  not  being  able  to 
make  extended  flights,  could  not  form  such  large  swarms.  Notwithstanding  the 
evidence  and  warning  of  danger,  no  preventive  measures  were  adopted  and  the  in- 
truders were  allowed  to  settle  in  the  invaded  region. 

Early  in  June  a number  of  newspapers  published  complaints  that  locusts  were 
doing  considerable  damage  in  some  fields,  but  mainly  near  Pelican  Rapids,  Otter 
Tail  County.  A visit  to  that  region  indicated  that  a small  swarm  of  locusts  had  de- 
posited their  eggs  in  that  locality,  but  that  timely  work  would  suffice  to  kill  all  the 


Reprinted  from  Bulletin  No,  17,  Minnesota  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


19 


young  insects,  as  they  were  small  at  that  time.  The  species  found  at  Pelican  Rapids 
was  the  Lesser  Migratory  Locust,  reenforced  by  very  numerous  specimens  of  the 
two-striped  species.  No  real  Rocky  Mountain  Locust  could  be  found.  Later  re- 
ports of  damages  caused  by  locusts  in  various  parts  of  the  Red  River  Valley  reached 
his  excellency  Governor  W.  R.  Merriam,  who  requested  me  to  proceed  at  once  to  the 
infested  region,  and  to  do  all  that  could  be  done  at  the  time  to  prevent  another  out- 
break of  a locust  plague.  The  Governor  also  instructed  the  county  commissioners  in 
the  infested  region  to  do  all  that  could  be  done  to  stamp  out  the  locusts  in  their 
respective  counties. 

When  I reached  the  Red  River  Valley  it  was  almost  too  late  in  the  season  to  per- 
form real  effective  work,  as  the  great  majority  of  these  injurious  insects  had  already 
acquired  wings.  Near  Crookston,  Polk  County,  the  chairman  of  the  county  commis- 
sioners, Mr.  Kirsch,  had  already  commenced  operations,  and  had  done  some  very 
good  work,  both  by  plowing  infested  fields  and  by  poisoning  the  grain  growing  upon 
adjoining  ones.  In  fact,  in  several  cases  he  had  killed  the  insects  to  such  an  extent 
that  but  very  few  escaped.  If  his  example  had  been  followed  everywhere  the  ma- 
jority of  the  dangerous  kinds  of  locusts  would  have  been  killed;  but  owing  to  a be- 
lief that  the  species  found  in  such  numbers  was  only  a harmless  one,  few  farmers 
adopted  his  methods,  while  many  others  even  ridiculed  the  idea  of  having  any 
migratory  insects  in  the  county  at  all.  It  is  rather  peculiar  what  strange  freaks 
memory  will  play  in  some  cases.  Among  others  some  farmers  who  had  passed 
through  former  grasshopper  troubles  claimed  that  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locusts  were 
insects  fully  2,  3,  or  even  4.  inches  in  length,  and  that  moreover  were  provided  with 
six  wings. 

As  soon  as  possible  a large  number  of  hopper-dozers  were  constructed- and  were 
distributed  by  County  Commissioner  Kirsch  to  all  farmers  who  wished  to  use  them. 
Both  hopper-dozers  and  kerosene  oil  were  furnished  free  by  the  county,  and  many 
farmers  set  to  work  to  kill  as  many  of  the  intruders  as  possible.  The  insects,  being 
already  winged  and  very  active,  could  no  longer  be  caught  during  the  day ; but 
towards  evening,  when  they  crawl  to  the  highest  points  of  the  plant  to  escape  the 
chilling  effect  of  the  moist  soil,  the  machines  proved  of  great  value  and  immense 
numbers  of  locusts  were  killed.  Various  modifications  of  the  hopper-dozers  were 
used  to  suit  the  varying  conditions  of  the  fields  and  of  the  crops.  Other  intelligent 
farmers  and  merchants  living  in  the  counties  of  Marshall,  and  Kittson  obtained 
models  of  these  machines  and  commenced  in  earnest  to  destroy  their  enemy. 

A close  inspection  of  the  invaded  region  showed  that  the  sandy  ridge  running 
north  and  south  through  the  counties  of  Polk,  Marshall,  and  Kittson  was  more  or  less 
infested  in  spots.  Without  any  exception  locusts  were  found  only  in  fields  that  had 
been  plowed  in  July  and  August,  1890,  or  before  the  invading  insects  had  deposited 
their  eggs.  In  no  case  were  locusts  found  in  the  native  prairie  nor  in  any  soil  that 
had  been  plowed  late  in  fall  or  early  in  spring.  These  observations  coincide  exactly 
with  those  made  a few  years  ago  in  Otter  Tail  County  and  indicate  very  plainly  how 
to  prevent  locusts  from  causing  injury  in  1892.  This  inspection  also  showed  that 
we  have  to  deal  not  alone  with  one  kind  of  migratory  locusts,  but  with  two  other 
species  equally  injurious.  Near  Crookston  the  Lesser  Migratory  species  is  the  most 
common  one,  but  farther  north  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locust  becomes  more  numerous, 
and  in  the  extreme  north  of  Kittson  County  the  Pellucid  Locust  is  very  abundant. 
The  two  former  species  prefer  the  dry  and  more  sandy  soil,  the  latter  the  richer  and 
moist  land. 

The  third  species,  the  Pellucid  Locust,  now  injurious  in  the  Red  River  Valley,  is 
quite  different  from  any  of  the  above  three  species.  Many  other  locusts  occur  in 
large  numbers  in  the  infested  region  and  are  frequently  mistaken  for  the  migratory 
species.  A close  inspection  of  the  illustrations  below  wall  show  that  they  are  quite 
different,  and  need  not,  with  a little  attention,  be  mistaken  for  any  of  the  migratory 
species. 


20 


The  common  native  Two-striped  Locust  is  very  numerous  throughut  the  infested 
region,  doing  considerable  damage. 

Remedies. — Besides  the  usual  methods  of  killing  locusts,  some  of  which  are  very 
valuable  if  carried  out  at  the  proper  time,  there  is  but  one  other  excellent  remedy 
left  to  prevent  further  injury:  plowing  the  ground  after  eggs  have  been  laid. 
This  remedy  has  been  applied  two  years  ago  on  a large  scale  in  Otter  Tail  County 
and  has  proved  a complete  success.  As  the  conditions  in  the  new’ly  infested  regions 
are  similar,  there  is  no  doubt  that  similar  results  will  be  obtained  if  the  same  remedy 
is  carried  out  thoroughly.  All  the  locusts  now  infesting  the  invaded  counties  came 
from  fields  that  were  not  plowed.  In  places  where  the  whole  of  the  cultivated  soil 
was  plowed,  no  locusts  could  be  found.  Of  course  at  the  time  of  writing  this  bulle- 
tin the  state  of  affairs  is  different,  as  the  insects  have  scattered  over  a much  larger 
area.  But  if  every  farmer  will  plow  all  his  stubble  land  either  this  fall,  after  the 
eggs  have  been  laid,  or  in  early  spring,  no  fears  of  losses  by  locusts  need  be  enter- 
tained. But  to  make  the  reader  understand  the  case  more  clearly,  it  is  necessary  to 
describe  in  detail  how  the  eggs  are  laid  and  what  effect  plowing  will  have.  I quote 
from  Bulletin  8,  published  by  the  Station  during  July,  1889. 

To  repeat  again : “ If  we  desire  to  get  rid  of  the  migratory  species  of  locusts  now  in- 
festing several  counties  of  the  State,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  plow  every  inch  of 
the  cultivated  ground  throughout  the  invaded  region.  Of  course  prairies  are  excepted, 
the  soil  in  them  being  filled  with  a dense  mass  of  roots,  thus  being  unsuitable  for  the 
purpose  of  egg-laying.  Simply  cultivating  in  spring,  as  advised  by  some,  is  perfectly 
useless  and  proved  a total  failure  where  tried.  Summer  fallow  invites  the  locusts 
to  deposit  their  eggs  in  soil  thus  prepared,  and  all  land  thus  treated  must  be  plowed 
again,  either  later  in  autumn  or  early  in  spring.” 

Natural  remedies. — There  are  at  this  time  many  natural  agencies  in  our  favor  and 
working  for  us,  and  no  doubt  immense  numbers  of  locusts  will  be  killed  by  them. 
Nearly  if  not  quite  all  the  parasites  known  to  infest  locusts  are  found  in  large  num- 
bers throughout  the  invaded  region.  In  some  places  the  Red  Mite  was  found  in  im- 
mense numbers  infesting  not  alone  the  bulky  Two-striped  Locust,  but  also  those  mi- 
gratory species  which  love  drier  soil.  In  some  fields  in  which  the  locusts  had  hatched 
nearly  every  individual  had  from  five  to  twenty  of  these  mites  fastened  to  its  under 
wings  and  the  locusts  were  doomed.  Evidently  they  knew  this  as  well,  as  they  did 
not  move  about  in  such  a lively  manner,  but  seemed  out  of  sorts.  But  these  were 
exceptional  cases,  as  all  the  adjoining  fields  of  wheat  were  overrun  with  healthy 
specimens — too  healthy  to  suit  the  farmer.  The  explanation  lies  in  the  fact  that  the 
healthy  locusts  had  escaped  all  danger  from  the  Red  Mites  by  migrating  to  the  land 
of  plenty,  the  wheat  fields.  Numerous  other  parasites  occurred  almost  everywhere, 
but  chief  among  them  was  one  of  the  “ old-fashioned”  Potato  Beetles,  or  Blister  Beetles. 
This  insect  (Epicauta  pennsylvanica)  was  so  numerous  as  to  seriously  injure  the  po- 
tato crop.  And  yet,  though  very  injurious  to  potatoes,  this  beetle  ought  to  be  pro- 
tected for  once,  as  in  its  earlier  stage  it  feeds  exclusively  upon  the  eggs  of  the  locust. 
Many  predaceous  insects  are  also  in  full  operation  to  reduce  to  some  slight  extent 
the  numbers  of  the  intruders.  It  was  a cruel  yet  withal  a pleasant  sight  to  see  the 
large  numbers  of  Ground-beetles  ( Calosoma  calidum ) giving  battle  to  the  locusts. 
Even  large  specimens  were  attacked,  and  notwithstanding  a most  desperate  struggle 
the  locust  was  soon  consumed.  Another  beetle  ( Pasimachus  sp.),  much  more  shy 
in  all  its  actions,  being  a nocturnal  insect,  was  found  in  large  numbers  engaged  in 
devouring  the  enemy.  Even  spiders  assist  in  this  good  work,  and  a number  of  the 
common  Wolf  Spiders  ( Phydippus  tripunctatus ) were  seen  to  attack  and  kill  locusts. 


21 


Report  to  his  Excellency  Governor  W.  It.  Merriam  in  regard  to  the  Migratory  Locusts  in- 
festing portions  of  Minnesota. 

On  August  14,  1890,  a large  swarm  of  locusts  or  grasshoppers  entered  the  State  of 
Minnesota.  They  were  observed  in  a number  of  places,  but  chiefly  at  Crookston, 
Hallock,  and  other  points  in  the  Red  River  Valley.  This  swarm  came  from  the  north- 
west and  flew  in  a southeasterly  direction.  Through  the  kindness  of  the  Great 
Northern  Railroad  I was  enabled  last  summer  to  make  close  inquiry  in  the  regions 
where  this  swarm  had  been  observed,  and  I could  follow  one  that  had  passed  Crooks- 
ton in  an  easterly  direction  to  Fosston  into  the  White  Earth  Indian  Reservation, 
where  immense  numbers  of  the  locusts  composing  it  had  perished  in  the  upper  Rice 
Lake.  Close  inspection  also  revealed  the  fact  that  eggs  had  been  deposited  in  some 
places.  At  the  time  in  which  the  above  investigation  was  made  it  was  impossible  to 
obtain  many  specimens  of  the  insects  composing  this  swarm,  but  the  mutilated  ma- 
terial obtained  indicated,  besides  the  common  native  species,  at  least  two  species  of 
locusts  not  usually  found  with  us,  one  of  which  was  the  Lesser  Migratory  Locust 
( Melanoplus  atlanis  Riley)  and  the  second  a locust  evidently  belonging  to  a different 
genus,  but  not  identified  at  the  time. 

As  our  native  locusts  do  not  form  swarms  like  the  one  invading  Minnesota  on  Au- 
gust 14,  1890,  it  was  quite  certain  that  we  had  to  deal  with  species  more  formidable 
and  dangerous,  and  I deemed  it  my  duty  to  call  attention  to  this  invasion,  stating 
that  it  was  in  the  line  of  wise  legislation  to  take  time  by  the  forelock  and  provide 
the  necessary  means  for  suppressing  another  outbreak.  This  was  done  in  the  last 
Biennial  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  page  17.  For  some  reason, 
however,  no  action  was  taken. 

When  a swarm  of  locusts  passes  a region  the  females,  heavy  with  maturing  eggs, 
are  very  apt  to  lag  behind  and  drop  to  the  ground  whenever  the  soil  is  of  such  a 
character  as  to  invite  them  to  deposit  their  eggs.  Suitable  for  such  a purpose  is  all 
soil  that  is  well  drained  and  which  contains  very  few  roots  of  plants. 

Early  in  June  of  the  present  year  a number  of  letters  were  received  from  different 
parts  of  the  State  about  exceptionally  large  numbers  of  locusts.  This  was  to  be  ex- 
pected, even  without  the  addition  of  the  migratory  species,  as  the  last  few  seasons 
had  been  greatly  in  favor  of  all  kinds  of  locusts  and  other  insects  that  thrive  best  in 
dry  and  hot  summers  following  a mild  winter.  The  first  alarm,  in  the  form  of  arti- 
cles in  some  of  our  daily  pajiers,  came  from  Pelican  Rapids,  in  Otter  Tail  County. 
My  investigation  of  this  case  showed  that  a small  area  near  that  place  had  been  in- 
fested, but  chiefly  by  various  native  species  and  the  Lesser  Migratory  Locust.  Pay- 
ing proper  attention  to  this  local  trouble  removed  cause  for  alarm. 

The  attention  of  your  Excellency  was  next  drawn  to  the  more  alarming  reports 
coming  from  the  Red  River  Valley,  and  you  ordered  me  to  proceed  at  once  to  the  in- 
fested region,  and  for  the  last  forty  days  I have  been  engaged  in  traveling  through 
the  different  counties  invaded  and  in  instructing  farmers  in  the  proper  means  to  com- 
bat their  enemy. 

In  Minnesota  five  counties  are  infested  with  migratory  species  of  locusts.  Three 
distinct  species,  besides  the  native,  are  now  causing  well-founded  alarm.  The  Lesser 
Migratory  Locust  ( Melanoplus  atlanis,  Riley)  is  the  most  abundant  species.  The 
true  Rocky  Mountain  Locust  ( Melanoplus  spretus,  Thomas)  is  also  very  common,  and 
the  Pellucid  Locust  ( Camnula  pellucida,  Scudd.)  occurs  also  in  alarming  numbers  in 
the  more  northern  part  of  the  invaded  region.  The  Two-striped  Locust  ( Melanoplus 
hivittatus,  Scudd.),  though  a native  species,  is  exceedingly  numerous  in  many  places 
and  causes  considerable  damage. 

The  Lesser  Migratory  Locust  occurs  in  very  large  numbers  in  parts  of  the  counties 
of  Polk,  Marshall,  Kittson,  Ottertail,  and  Hubbard,  and  extends  eastward  as  far 
as  the  cities  of  Duluth  and  Tower,  St.  Louis  County,  and  is  doubtless  found  in 
more  isolated  swarms  in  the  whole  northern  part  of  the  State.  The  Pellucid  Locust 


22 


occurs  only  in  the  lower  or  moister  parts  of  Kittson  County,  and  is  also  found  incon- 
siderable numbers  at  Pembina,  N.  Dak. 

We  have  to  deal  in  this  instance  with  three  of  the  worst  species  of  locusts  found 
in  the  United  States.  The  region  invaded  is  quite  well  defined,  and  the  insects  occur 
thus  far  only  in  certain  spots,  but  of  course  this  state  of  affairs  will  be  somewhat 
changed  during  the  month  of  August.  The  central  parts  of  Polk,  Marshall,  and 
Kittson  Counties  from  south  to  north  are  more  or  less  affected;  or,  in  other  words, 
the  sandy  ridge  running  from  south  to  north  in  above  counties  is  invaded  by  the 
Lesser  and  by  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locust.  Evidently  this  sandy  ridge  attracted 
the  females  to  deposit  their  eggs,  or  the  eggs  laid  elsewhere  in  the  black  and  more 
moist  soil  did  not  hatch.  The  former  theory  is  very  likely  the  true  one,  as  the  in- 
stincts of  the  female  prompt  her  to  deposit  her  eggs  wherever  there  is  good  drainage, 
an  important  factor  to  the  well-being  of  the  eggs  of  those  insects.  But  not  the  whole 
of  this  more  or  less  sandy  region  is  thus  infested,  as  the  locusts  occur  only  in  well- 
defined  small  areas.  A close  inspection  of  several  hundreds  of  fields  revealed  the 
undisputable  fact  that  all  eggs  laid  by  the  invading  swarm  were  laid  in  stubble 
fields  and  in  summer  fallow.  In  no  case  were  the  locusts  found  in  the  prairie  or  in 
fields  not  surrounded  by  or  adjacent  to  stubble  fields.  All  the  dangerous  locusts 
hatched  there  and  thence  invaded  the  neighboring  fields  of  grain.  In  a large  num- 
ber of  cases  the  young  locusts  marched  in  regular  order  to  the  fields  of  barley,  wheat, 
and  oats,  and  swept  away  every  trace  of  vegetation  for  several  rods,  in  some  cases 
many  acres.  As  they  grew  older  they  scattered  around  more,  and  the  exceedingly 
rank  growth  of  the  grain  shows  at  the  present  time  but  slight  damage.  In  badly 
infested  fields,  however,  nearly  all  the  foliage  has  been  eaten,  and  the  heads  alone 
remain.  Even  these  are  now  devoured  in  many  instances,  but  only  in  the  more  sandy 
regions.  There  is  still  considerable  danger  to  the  crops  in  some  parts  of  the  infested 
regions.  As  the  foliage  of  the  various  kinds  of  grain  becomes  older  and  riper  it  be- 
comes also  unfit  for  food,  and  the  locusts  will  be  forced  to  attack  the  growing  part 
of  the  plants,  the  heads.  In  some  fields  this  is  already  the  case,  and  the  locusts  eat 
out  the  growing  kernel,  or  even  bite  off  the  whole  ear. 

Both  the  Lesser  Migratory  and  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locust  infest  mainly  the  more 
sandy  and  drier  region  of  the  invaded  county.  The  Pellucid  Locust  seems  to  prefer 
entirely  different  localities,  and  is  at  the  present  time  only  found  in  the  lower  and 
moister  regions,  chiefly  in  the  northern  part  of  Kittson  County,  and  in  the  corre- 
sponding parts  of  North  Dakota.  There  it  is  quite  injurious,  and  may  prove  even  a 
greater  enemy  than  either  of  the  other  migratory  species. 

All  these  locusts,  although  very  numerous  in  some  regions,  are  as  yet  not  numer- 
ous enough  to  cause  very  serious  loss  to  the  general  crop.  Many  farmers  will  lose 
a large  part  of  their  crops;  some  few  may  lose  even  every  thiug. 

All  these  species  of  locusts,  being  fresh  arrivals  from  the  Northwest,  are  in  a re- 
markably healthy  condition,  and  consequently  much  more  dangerous  than  if  they 
had  been  here  some  time  longer.  The  two  species,  loving  dry  and  warm  soil,  show 
this  to  a remarkable  degree.  If  stubble  fields  in  which  the  eggs  were  laid  are  in- 
vestigated at  this  time  it  will  be  found  that  fully  one-half  of  the  locusts  are  infested 
with  their  deadly  enemy,  the  Red  Mite,  and  this  in  most  instances  to  such  a degree 
that  they  will  be  disabled  and  unable  to  deposit  eggs  for  another  generation.  But 
if  we  investigate  the  adjoining  fields,  with  their  promising  crops  of  grain,  we  soon 
discover  a very  different,  state  of  affairs.  Here  almost  every  locust  is  free  from  par- 
asites and  enjoying  life  in  grasshopper  fashion  to  the  fullest  extent,  and  the  intrud- 
ers will  be  able  to  deposit  immense  numbers  of  eggs.  Evidently  the  locusts  infested 
with  parasites  take  a gloomy  view  of  life,  and  have  lost  their  usual  energy  to  such 
an  extent  as  not  even  to  migrate  to  the  adjoining  land  of  plenty.  The  common  Two- 
striped  Locust  of  the  Red  River  Valley,  although  quite  an  injurious  insect  if  numer- 
ous, is  now  badly  infested  with  numerous  kinds  of  parasites  and  is  consequently  to 
be  considered  as  a friend,  since  the  parasites  infesting  it  will  next  spring  take  pos- 


23 


session  of  the  invading  species.  All  the  important  species  of  parasites  occur  in  fairly 
large  numbers  throughout  the  infested  region.  One  species,  the  common  Black  Blis- 
ter-beetle, is  at  this  time  so  numerous  as  to  seriously  damage  the  potato  crop ; it  is 
even  much  more  numerous  and  injurious  than  the  Colorado  Potato-beetle. 

Considering  the  locust  invasion  in  all  its  bearings,  the  true  state  of  affairs  may  be 
summed  up  in  a few  sentences.  There  are  not  enough  locusts  to  seriously  injure  the 
crop  of  1891,  though  some  farmers  will  lose  considerable.  Many  parasites  are  at 
hand  to  assist  us  in  1892.  The  great  bulk  of  the  invadiug  species  are  still  remarkably 
healthy,  and  will  lay  enough  eggs  to  produce  immense  swarms  in  1892  if  not  pre- 
vented by  artificial  or  natural  means.  They  are  still  local,  and  can  be  exterminated 
by  energetic  and  prompt  means. 

Your  Excellency,  knowing  the  great  danger  of  another  locust  trouble,  perhaps 
similar  to  that  experienced  from  1872  to  1876,  has  taken  the  only  possible  way  to 
prevent  it  by  instructing  the  county  commissioners  of  the  infested  regions  to  take 
the  proper  steps  for  fighting  these  insects.  Some  of  the  commissioners  thus  called 
upon  have  responded  cheerfully  and  have  acted  at  once,  but  others  do  not  seem  to 
consider  the  locusts  as  dangerous  enough  to  cause  serious  losses.  Such  a view  is 
very  short-sighted.  Even  if  these  injurious  insects  do  not  seriously  endanger  the 
crop  of  1891,  they  will  assuredly  do  so  in  1892  if  not  stamped  out  in  time.  “An 
ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a pound  of  cure  ” is  an  old  saying,  but  a very  true  one, 
and  ought  to  be  made  the  leading  impulse  in  our  work  against  these  intruders.  In 
Polk  County  a large  number  of  hopper-dozers  have  been  in  operation  under  the  in- 
telligent and  energetic  leadership  of  the  chairman  of  the  county  commissioners,  and 
have  done  good  execution.  As  all  the  locusts,  or  nearly  all,  were  already  winged 
when  the  machines  were  put  in  operation,  very  little  could  be  done  with  them  dur- 
ing the  warmer  parts  of  the  day,  but  late  in  the  evening,  during  the  night,  and  early 
in  the  morning,  when  the  insects  are  sluggish  and  crawl  up  to  the  highest  parts  of 
the  plants,  immense  numbers  were  killed,  and  many  fields  could  thus  be  saved.  At 
the  present  time  the  grain  is  too  far  advanced  to  use  such  machines,  except  in  ex- 
treme cases.  The  only  remedy,  and  the  only  one  that  will  effectually  do  the  work, 
is  plowing  all  the  fields  known  to  contain  the  eggs  of  locusts.  If  a good  crop  is  se- 
cured next  month  a large  portion  of  the  cultivated  land  will  be  plowed,  thus  killing 
off  immense  numbers  of  locusts  in  1892.  But  all  the  other  cultivated  land  should 
also  be  plowed  after  the  eggs  have  been  laid.  The  locusts  have  commenced  to  mate 
and  will  soon  deposit  their  eggs,  and  continue  this  work  until  sometime  in  Septem- 
ber. This  time  of  egg-laying  depends,  of  course,  upon  climatic  conditions,  and  may 
be  greatly  shortened  or  lengthened.  At  all  events,  however,  no  land  should  be 
plowed  before  all  the  eggs  have  been  deposited.  If  already  plowed,  or  plowed  be- 
fore the  eggs  have  been  laid,  a second  plowing  later  in  autumn  or  as  early  as  possible 
in  spring  will  be  absolutely  necessary.  The  locusts  prefer  ground  free  from  roots 
and  well  drained.  Such  ground  we  furnish  them  now  by  summer  fallow  and  later 
by  early  plowing.  All  fields  treated  in  this  manner  are  very  suspicious  and  ought 
to  be  plowed  again. 

I have  recommended  that  instead  of  summer  fallowing,  to  plow  now  only'fco  a depth 
of  2 inches  and  later  to  the  usual  depth.  Concerted  action  is  absolutely  necessary, 
and  the  ignorant  or  slovenly  farmer  should  not  be  permitted  to  endanger  the  future 
crops  of  his  neighbors  and  perhaps  that  of  a large  part  of  the  State.  The  county 
commissioners  can  help  greatly  in  this  good  work,  and  should,  if  necessary,  force  all 
farmers  to  do  their  duty  to  themselves  and  to  their  fellow-farmers.  In  this  connec- 
tion permit  me  again  to  call  your  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  State  of  Minnesota 
needs  some  laws  to  protect  the  good  farmers  against  injurious  insects  raised  by  the 
poor  ones.  Locusts  ought  to  be  classified  with  certain  contagious  diseases,  like  the 
smallpox,  for  instance,  and  similar  laws  ought  to  be  framed  to  suppress  these  insects 
as  such  diseases. 

Generally  speaking,  the  climatic  conditions  prevailing  this  summer  have  been 


24 


greatly  in  favor  of  the  farmer  and  have  been  and  are  against  sncli  of  the  migratory- 
species  of  locusts  as  love  and  thrive  best  in  a hot  and  dry  season.  This  will  ac- 
count for  the  fact  that  but  few  locusts  have  been  seen  flying  long  distances.  The 
great  abundance  of  moisture  has  made  them  sluggish  and  prevented  their  flight. 
Long  continued  moisture  is  very  injurious  to  insects  of  that  order,  and  may  greats y 
assist  us  by  diminishing  their  number,  by  enfeebling  many,  and  by  preventing  the 
depositing  of  eggs,  except  in  certain  regions  well  drained.  But  it  would  be  very  un- 
wise to  trust  entirely  to  such  favorable  climatic  conditions  or  to  any  other  natural 
means  to  help  us.  We  must  help  ourselves,  and  only  conscientious  work  will  attain 
that  end.  If  favorable  climatic  conditions  should  assist  us  it  will  still  be  necessary 
to  inspect  carefully  all  infested  or  even  all  suspected  fields,  and  have  them  plowed 
regardless  of  cost. 

As  usual  in  such  cases,  the  railroads  in  the  infested  regions  have  shown  their  inter- 
est in  the  war  against  the  locusts,  and  thanks  are  due  to  both  the  Great  Northern  and 
Northern  Pacific  railroads  for  furnishing  free  transportation  over  their  lines. 

Very  respectfully,  yours, 

Otto  Lugger. 


St.  Anthony  Park,  Minn.,  August  1,  1891. 


THE  LOCUST  PEST  IN  IDAHO— SUMMER  OF  1891. 

Soon  after  returning  to  Lincoln,  Nebr.,  from  the  Washington  meeting 
of  the  official  entomologists  of  the  country,  I started  for  the  West  to  in- 
vestigate the  actual  condition  of  the  locust  plague  in  central  Idaho.  Al- 
though the  season  had  advanced  beyond  the  time  for  the  best  results 
to  be  obtained  from  such  an  examination,  it  was  still  thought  advisable 
to  visit  the  region  known  to  have  been  overrun  last  year.  Especially 
was  this  thought  the  proper  thing  to  be  done  since  a number  of  appeals 
for  aid  had  been  received  by  the  Department  from  citizens  of  the  in- 
fested region.  Leaving  Lincoln  on  the  morning  of  the  27tli  of  August, 
Soda  Springs,  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Idaho,  was  reached  early  on 
the  morning  of  the  27th.  At  this  point  the  first  stop  was  made  for  the 
purpose  of  ascertaining  whether  or  not  the  locust  plague  had  reached 
this  portion  of  the  State.  Two  days  were  spent  here,  during  which 
time  much  of  the  surrounding  country  was  visited.  While  no  locust 
pest  occurred  here  it  was  plainly  noticeable  that  Camnula  pellucida  was 
greatly  on  the  increase  since  last  year’s  visit.  This  locust  was  quite 
abundant  upon  the  hay  fields  and  along  all  irrigating  ditches.  Inqui- 
ries among  the  various  ranches  from  some  of  the  surrounding  valleys 
indicated  about  the  same  condition  of  affairs  at  all  points.  On  the  29th 
I went  on  as  far  as  McCammon,  on  the  Port  Neuft*  River.  Here  pellucida 
was  also  rather  commoner  than  usual,  while  Melanoplus  atlanis  and  M. 
femur-rubrum  were  too  plentiful  to  inspire  one  with  thoughts  of  peace 
from  the  standpoint  of  locust  ravages  in  the  near  future.  Next  day  a 
stop  was  made  at  Pocatello  and  another  at  Shoshone.  At  this  latter 
place  it  was  learned  that  the  locusts  had  been  exceedingly  numerous 
about  four  to  six  weeks  previously,  having  come  down  Wood  River 
from  Camas  Prairie,  doing  much  damage  as  they  went.  A few  eggs 
were  also  reported  to  have  been  deposited  in  several  localities  below 


25 


Shoshone;  but  how  extensive  these  egg  deposits  were  could  not  be 
definitely  ascertained  at  the  time.  If  the  main  body  of  the  locusts  had 
moved  on  down  the  river  as  reported  there  were  still  plenty  of  them 
left  behind  to  mark  the  line  of  march,  although  this  could  easily  have 
been  detected  without  the  presence  of  these  stragglers.  The  bared 
fields  and  cropped  grasses  on  the  range  alone  were  sufficient  to  mark 
the  line  of  march  of  the  ravaging  army. 

At  first  the  locusts  that  were  seen  from  the  train  at  stations  along 
the  line  of  the  railroad  were  mostly  pellucida;  but,  as  the  mountains 
were  approached,  several  species  of  Melanoplus  were  also  noticed  in 
considerable  numbers.  In  the  vicinity  of  Hailey  the  pest  was  quite 
apparent  in  the  damaged  condition  of  the  grasses  on  the  range,  as  well 
as  in  the  appearance  of  the  vegetation  upon  cultivated  grounds.  The 
scourge  had  passed  through  here  before  going  down  the  river  towards 
Shoshone;  and,  as  appearances  would  indicate,  this  swarm  divided  at 
Spring  Creek,  a part  of  it  going  to  the  eastward  towards  the  Lost  Rivers 
and  Birch  Creek,  all  three  of  which  streams  with  their  valleys  were 
reached  by  the  moving  hordes  of  hungry  insects,  the  other  portion,  as 
already  indicated,  going  down  Wood  River  past  Shoshone. 

A stage  ride  of  31  miles  across  the  mountain  and  valley  brings  one  to 
the  town  of  Soldier  in  the  center  of  the  rich  Camas  Prairie  country — 
a valley  of  considerable  extent  and  wonderful  fertility.  This  valley 
has  been  the  cradle  for  the  present  locust  plague  which  is  now  spread- 
ing over  the  surrounding  portions  of  the  State.  Five  years  have 
elapsed  since  the  insect  was  first  observed  on  the  prairie  in  destructive 
numbers,  but  with  each  successive  year  the  plague  has  greatly  increased 
and  spread  over  more  territory.  At  first  the  pest  covered  but  a few 
square  miles  of  country  and  did  but  little  damage;  the  next  year  it 
became  noticeably  more  numerous  and  began  moving  outwards  in  vari- 
ous directions  from  the  center  of  its  hatching  place,  and  much  more 
damage  was  done  both  to  grasses  and  to  grain  and  other  cultivated 
crops  then  growing  upon  the  fields  of  the  few  settlers  who  had  located 
and  started  homes  for  themselves  in  the  valley.  Even  at  this  time  it 
would  have  been  possible  to  have  exterminated  the  pest  in  the  valley 
had  only  a few  determined  persons  attempted  to  do  so.  By  the  time 
the  third  summer  had  come  and  gone,  along  with  its  increase  in  the  num- 
bers of  locusts  present  and  the  amount  of  damage  wrought,  the  settlers 
began  to  become  discouraged.  Still  no  efforts  whatever  were  made  to- 
wards mitigating  the  evil.  This  third  year  of  the  pest  was  a notable  one, 
since  just  before  egg-laying  time  arrived  every  single  hopper  was  re- 
ported to  have  left  the  low  lands  in  the  valley  for  the  foothills  adjoin- 
ing, where  they  laid  their  eggs.  As  most  of  the  insects  moved  in  a 
northeasterly  direction  when  leaving  the  valley,  this  movement  gave 
some  new  hopes  to  the,  by  this  time,  nearly  discouraged  settlers,  for  it 
was  hoped  that  instead  of  reentering  the  valley  the  young,  upon  hatching 
the  following  spring,  would  pass  on  to  the  northeastward.  The  ensuing 


winter  was  one  of  uncommon  severity  even  for  this  region,  with  very 
deep  snow,  which,  upon  melting  the  following  spring,  Hooded  the  low 
lands  for  a long  time.  The  great  amount  of  water  throughout  the  re- 
gion caused  rank  growths  of  vegetation  everywhere.  Soon  after  the 
hillsides  began  to  be  denuded  of  their  mantles  of  snow  and  vegetation 
started,  the  young  locusts  began  hatching  and  feeding.  Contrary  to  the 
expectations  of  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  prairie,  the  feeding  and 
growing  hoppers  showed  little  disposition  to  move  away  from  the 
locality.  Once,  it  is  stated  by  several  persons  who  had  taken  the 
trouble  to  watch  tlieir  movements,  these  little  locusts  did  start  off 
towards  the  summits  of  the  mountain  chain  lying  to  the  north.  This 
was  just  before  they  developed  their  wings  and  while  in  the  pupal  stage. 
But  just  as  soon  as  they  had  wings,  and  these  latter  had  become  suffi- 
ciently hardened  for  use,  the  entire  swarm  turned  about  and  dropped 
upon  the  valley,  massing  upon  the  fields  of  grain  and  gardens,  which 
they  stripped  in  a remarkably  short  time.  When  all  cultivated  vege- 
tation had  disappeared  the  native  grasses  were  attacked  and  devoured. 
So  numerous  and  voracious  were  the  locusts  that,  notwithstanding  the 
rank  growths  caused  by  the  abundance  of  water  during  most  of  the 
spring  and  summer,  when  I visited  the  region  in  August  the  country 
was  pretty  well  divested  of  its  covering  of  vegetation.  Instead  of 
leaving  the  valley  for  the  hills  as  their  immediate  ancestors  of  the  pre- 
vious year  had  done,  these  locusts  of  1890  remained  and  laid  their  eggs 
in  the  valley,  choosing  gravelly  or  somewhat  sandy  places  for  the  pur- 
pose. At  the  time  of  my  visit  most  of  the  eggs  had  already  been  laid, 
and  hence  it  was  rather  a difficult  problem  to  ascertain  the  exact  extent 
of  these  depositions,  since  but  few  people  in  the  region  had  paid  the 
slightest  attention  to  the  matter,  even  after  a fourth  year  of  suffering 
had  been  passed  through.  It  appears,  however,  from  the  number  of 
young  locusts  that  were  hatched  the  past  spring  that  a great  portion  of 
the  valley  was  thus  occupied. 

My  examinations  of  the  locusts  that  remained  in  the  valley  at  the 
time  of  my  first  visit  led  me  to  believe  that  the  plague  was  about  at  its 
height,  and  I so  reported  at  the  time.  Whether  to  have  done  so  was 
the  wisest  plan  or  not  I can  not  say,  for  on  the  strength  of  ,that  report 
most  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  valley  decided  that  there  was  no  fur- 
ther necessity  for  fighting  the  plague — a thing  that  they  had  not  done 
in  the  past  nor  probably  had  any  idea  of  trying  in  the  future.  There 
certainly  were  a number  of  diseased  and  parasitized  hoppers  in  the 
country,  besides  the  entire  region  was  overrun  by  young  toads  that 
promised  to  be  of  value  the  following  spring  in  devouring  the  young 
locusts  when  they  hatched.  It  will  be  seen  by  the  following  account 
of  the  locusts  in  that  region  during  the  past  spring  and  summer  that 
my  conjectures  were  probably  correct.  Although  apparently  on  the 
decline  in  Idaho,  this  particular  species  of  locust  covers  a much  more 
extended  area  of  country  than  it  has  for  a number  of  years. 


27 


The  winter  of  1890-’91  was  milder  than  that  of  a year  before,  and 
less  show  fell  in  the  valleys  and  on  the  prairie,  while  just  as  much  or 
probably  more  fell  in  the  mountains.  Spring  was  slow  in  coming,  and 
when  it  came  heavy  rains  set  in  with  the  result  of  flooding  much  of  the 
prairie.  These  rains  continued  through  May,  June,  and  pretty  well 
into  July.  The  eggs  left  by  the  locusts  the  previous  year  began  hatch- 
ing in  due  time,  and  of  course  the  little  hoppers  to  feed.  Simulta- 
neously with  their  hatching  and  eating  they  began  moving  slowly  to- 
ward the  lower  end  of  the  valley.  Whether  all  of  these  were  inspired 
alike  with  the  desire  to  forsake  the  region  of  tlieir  debut  into  the  world 
I do  not  know,  but,  judging  from  what  little  information  on  this  point 
that  I was  able  to  obtain,  this  desire  seemed  to  be  almost  unanimous. 
Be  this  as  it  may,  perhaps  a description  of  the  general  lay  of  the  coun- 
try will  better  explain  what  followed  later  in  the  season. 

Camas  Prairie  is  composed  of  the  valleys  of  the  Malade  Biver  and 
its  tributaries,  which  form  a basin-like  region  lying  back  of  the  great 
Snake  Biver  Plain  and  separated  from  it  by  a low  range  of  volcanic 
mountains.  This  basin  averages  about  10  to  12  miles  in  widtli  and  is 
perhaps  between  50  and  00  miles  in  length.  The  trend  of  the  valley  is 
from  west  to  east,  and  its  lower  end  is  about  1,200  feet  lower  than  the 
head.  At  Soldier,  which  is  near  the  middle,  the  elevation  above  sea 
level  is  about  5,300  feet.  The  Malade  Biver,  which  is  the  main  stream 
of  the  prairie,  runs  along  quite  near  its  southern  border,  and  most  of 
its  tributaries  enter  from  the  north,  where  they  have  their  sources 
among  the  high  mountains.  Most  of  these  streams  flow  in  a south- 
easterly direction  across  the  prairie  after  leaving  the  mountains  and 
before  entering  the  Malade. 

As  before  stated,  the  young  locusts,  just  as  soon  as  they  hatched, 
began  moving  down  the  valley.  Coming  to  these  different  side  streams 
they  were  unable  to  cross  and  hence  were  obliged  to  stop.  Soon  tbeir 
increasing  numbers  from  daily  reenforcements  devoured  what  vegeta- 
tion there  was  at  hand  and  they  perished  from  starvation.  So  say 
some  of  those  with  whom  I talked  about  this  feature  of  the  subject 
under  treatment.  Others  claimed  that  the  little  ’hoppers  were  smit- 
ten by  disease  and  perished  by  the  millions  from  that  cause ; but, 
whether  from  starvation  or  on  account  of  disease,  myriads  of  them 
died  and  were  washed  away  by  the  waters  of  the  swollen  streams  and 
piled  upon  the  banks  in  great  heaps  from  which,  as  the  heat  of  sum- 
mer increased,  a stench  arose  that  was  very  disagreeable  to  say  the 
least,  if  not  actually  dangerous  to  the  health  of  the  inhabitants.  Even 
as  late  as  the  10th  of  September  remnants  of  these  heaps  of  dead 
locusts  were  visible  along  the  banks  of  Soldier  Creek  and  the  Malade 
Biver.  Notwithstanding  the  great  numbers  of  these  insects  that  per- 
ished during  the  early  part  of  the  season  when  the  country  was  flooded 
with  water,  there  were  still  enough  of  them  left  to  do  more  injury  to 
the  grain  and  grasses  than  was  done  in  the  valley  the  year  before.  Some 


28 


of  the  ranchers  lost  all  of  their  grain,  while  others  threshed  barely 
as  many  bushels  as  they  planted,  and  none  harvested  a full  crop. 

Just  as  soon  as  those  insects  which  succeeded  in  pulling  through  the 
wet  spring  obtained  their  wings  they  left  for  the  hills — and  there  was 
a host  of  them  that  did  pull  through — most  of  these  passed  oh'  to  the 
eastward ; but  others  crossed  the  low  range  to  the  southward  and  south- 
west, while  a few  lingered  in  the  hills  and  mountains  to  the  north  of 
the  prairie.  It  was  lucky,  too,  for  many  of  the  settlers,  for  the  grasses 
were  thus  allowed  to  grow  somewhat  afterwards  for  hay.  Otherwise  it 
would  have  been  impossible  to  obtain  feed  for  their  stock  during  the 
coming  winter. 

It  is  hoped  by  the  settlers  of  Camas  Prairie  that  the  greatest  danger 
from  this  pest  has  passed,  and  if  the  reports  in  reference  to  egg-laying 
for  the  past  summer  can  be  depended  upon,  I am  of  the  same  opinion. 
It  is  claimed  that  but  few  eggs  were  laid  on  the  prairie  proper,  and  not 
many  more  amongst  the  surrounding  hills  and  mountains.  I must  con- 
fess that  my  search  for  the  eggs  of  this  insect  while  in  the  region  was 
not  very  successful  ; still,  there  might  have  been  quantities  of  them  in 
districts  not  visited  or  examined.  No  one  can  more  earnestly  desire  to 
see  this  region  free  from  the  pest  than  I do,  for  my  two  visits  to  the 
region  have  brought  about  a liking  for  the  country,  and  I have  also 
made  many  friends  among  the  inhabitants  whom  I wish  to  see  prosper. 
Aside  from  these  personal  feelings  a desire  for  general  welfare  prompts 
me  to  hope  for  a speedy  relief  from  the  plague.  Eggs  are  known  to 
have  been  laid  at  three  or  four  places  upon  the  lower  mountains  to  the 
north  of  the  prairie,  and  others  in  the  hills  south  of  tlieMalade.  None 
of  these  egg  areas,  so  it  is  claimed,  comprise  more  than  a few  acres  each. 

As  would  naturally  be  supposed,  the  presence  of  the  pest  in  the  same 
region  for  a succession  of  four  or  five  years  has  resulted  in  the  produc- 
tion of  several  of  its  natural  enemies  in  rather  abnormal  numbers. 
These,  of  course,  are  doing  much  towards  mitigating  the  evil,  but  as 
yet  they  do  not  appear  to  have  made  much  of  an  impression  upon  the 
vast  throng  comprising  this  plague.  Several  natural  enemies  of  this 
locust  were  observed,  such  as  the  Locust  Egg-mite  (supposed  to  be  the 
same  species  that  worked  on  the  eggs  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locust  in 
Minnesota  and  other  sections  of  the  temporary  region),  several  of  the 
Tachinidce  or  Flesh  Flies,  three  or  four  kinds  of  Robber  Flies  ( Asilidce ), 
some  of  the  Ground-beetles  (Cicindelidce  and  Carabidce ),  a couple  of 
species  of  Blister-beetles  ( Meloidce ),  and  one  or  more  of  the  Wasps 
(Crabronidce).  Besides  these,  during  late  summer  and  early  fall,  the 
streams  of  the  region  were  full  of  one  or  more  species  of  hair  worms 
(Gordius),  which  most  likely  had  been  parasitic  within  the  bodies  of  this 
and  various  other  locusts.  If  everything  would  continue  thus  favorable 
for  the  increase  of  these  natural  enemies  of  the  locust,  they  themselves 
would  eventually  control  it;  but  as  their  existence  is  also  to  a great 
degree  dependent  upon  certain  climatic  conditions,  it  is  not  a safe  plan 


29 


to  trust  too  implicitly  in  them.  The  settlers  must  themselves  take  a 
hand  in  the  fight  if  they  would  be  sure  of  victory.  As  shrewd  as  are 
most  of  the  living  things  about  us,  man  is  shrewder  still.  Hence,  if  he 
undertakes  in  earnest  the  task  of  outwitting  any  of  these  lower  forms 
of  life,  he  is  bound  to  succeed.  True,  there  are  often  many  difficulties, 
apparent  or  real,  to  be  overcome,  but  a little  judicious  planning  in  the 
end  brings  success. 

The  habits,  life-history,  and  haunts  of  the  Pellucid- winged  Locust 
differ  materially  from  those  of  the  Eocky  Mountain  or  True  Migratory 
one  which  has  received  so  much  of  our  attention  during  the  past  twenty 
years,  and  which  has  finally  been  obliged  to  yield  the  ground  to  us  on 
account  of  the  mode  of  warfare  adopted.  Still,  the  characteristics  of 
Camnula  pellucida  are  essentially  similar,  and  slight  modifications  in 
the  mode  of  warfare  as  used  against  the  former  insect  will  be  success- 
ful with  the  latter.  The  use  of  the  u kerosene  pans”  or  hopper-dozers 
is  quite  practicable  in  most  cases  against  the  pest  upon  the  valleys, 
while  plowing  for  the  destruction  of  the  eggs  before  hatching  can  be 
resorted  to  in  a number  of  instances,  both  upon  rolling  and  level  ground. 
All  this  requires  work.  So  does  the  destruction  and  keeping  down  of 
noxious  weeds. 

While  matters  begin  to  look  more  hopeful  with  reference  to  the  Pellucid 
Locust,  upon  Camas  Prairie  at  least,  I am  sorry  to  be  obliged  to  report 
that  there  seems  to  be  a decided  increase  among  several  other  species 
of  these  insects  now  in  the  region.  Of  these  latter  there  are  the  Lesser 
Migratory  Locust  (. Melanoplus  atlanis),  the  Detestable  Locust  (M.fcedus), 
the  Two-striped  Locust  (If.  Mvittatus ),  and  Pezotettix  enigma , for  which 
there  is  no  common  name.  All  four  of  these  locusts  were  quite  plenti- 
ful at  various  points  upon  the  prairie,  and  especially  so  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  foot-hills  on  the  north  side.  In  certain  localities  they  were  suffi- 
ciently numerous  to  materially  injure  the  grasses  and  other  natural 
vegetation,  and  at  a few  points  even  did  noticeable  injury  to  cultivated 
crops  that  had  escaped  the  ravages  of  Camnula  pellucida  earlier  in  the 
season.  Of  course  the  undue  multiplication  of  these  various  other  locusts 
is  caused  by  the  same  favoring  conditions  which  allowed  the  pellucida  to 
develop  in  such  overwhelming  numbers.  Whether  or  not,  since  most 
of  the  swarm  of  that  one  has  left  the  valley,  these  latter  will  be  attacked 
by  the  great  numbers  of  enemies  which  its  presence  permitted  to  de- 
velop and  which  it  left  behind,  remains  to  be  seen. 

THE  DESTRUCTIVE  WESTERN  CRICKETS. 

While  not  exactly  locusts,  these  large  wingless  insects  which  are 
usually  known  by  the  name  of  Western  Crickets  need  mention  in  this 
connection.  A number  of  years  ago,  during  the  days  of  geological  sur- 
vey expeditions,  and  when  the  first  fieldwork  of  the  United  States  En- 
tomological Commission  was  being  done,  these  insects  were  frequently 
seen  in  immense  droves  moving  over  the  country  like  so  many  sheep. 


30 


During  more  recent  years,  however,  they  have  been  less  numerous,  and 
hence  but  little  has  been  heard  of  them.  The  true  home  of  one  of  these 
insects  is  the  great  plains  of  the  Snake  River,  where  sage  brush  reigns 
supreme  as  the  vegetable  product  of  the  country.  Beyond  this  bruited 
region  the  insect  is  only  occasionally  met  with  in  droves.  Its  distribu- 
tion reaches  over  the  Great  Salt  Lake  Basin  into  northern  Oregon,  on 
the  Spokane  Plateau  of  eastern  Washington,  into  a few  of  the  valleys 
of  western  Montana,  and  at  long  intervals  it  is  even  met  with  in  western 
Wyoming.  In  addition  to  this  species,  which  has  been  called  Anabrus 
simplex , there  are  quite  a number  of  allied  species,  to  be  met  with  in  the 
same  region  as  well  as  elsewhere.  The  most  of  them  are,  however,  den- 
izens of  the  arid  and  semi- arid  regions  of  the  West  and  Southwest,  where 
they  either  wander  about  singly  or  in  pairs,  feeding  upon  the  scant 
vegetation.  As  a rule  each  species  is  confined  to  a rather  limited  area, 
and  prefers  some  special  plant  as  its  leading  diet.  As  with  all  other 
rules,  there  are  exceptions  to  this  one  also.  A few  species  of  these 
crickets  have  a very  wide  distribution  and  enjoy  a greatly  varied  diet. 
Some  species  are  inhabitants  of  elevated  mountain  slopes  and  valleys, 
while  others  occur  far  out  on  the  grassy  plains  of  Nebraska  and  Kansas. 

As  a group  this  subfamily  Decticidince , among  the  other  Orthoptera, 
has  been  greatly  neglected  in  our  country.  But  few  of  the  forms  have 
thus  far  even  been  honored  with  a scientific  name,  to  say  nothing  of 
their  life-histories,  habits,  enemies,  etc.,  which  are  still  to  be  learned. 
Truly,  they  have  thus  far  been  a neglected  lot ! 

The  reason  for  my  speaking  of  these  crickets  now  is  the  reappearance 
of  two  species  of  them  during  the  past  season  in  great  numbers  over 
a considerable  territory.  Early  in  July  it  was  known  that  a swarm 
of  Anabrus  simplex  was  forming  somewhere  in  the  region  between 
Mountain  Home  and  the  Camas  Prairie  country,  where  they  had 
hatched  earlier  in  the  season  from  eggs  laid  last  fall.  After  forming, 
this  main  swarm  of  the  insect  started  in  a northeasterly  direction, 
crossing  the  divide  and  entering  the  prairie  nearly  south  of  the  town 
of  Soldier.  After  entering  the  valley  most  of  the  insects  kept  right  on 
their  course  which  they  had  apparently  chosen,  but  many  of  them  left 
the  main  body  and  scattered  over  the  whole  region  drained  by  the 
Malade.  Judging  from  the  information  obtainable,  this  must  have 
been  a very  large  swarm  indeed,  for  it  was  claimed  that  the  insects 
covered  a tract  nearly  or  quite  3 miles  wide  by  9 miles  long.  I first 
met  the  insect  in  considerable  numbers  a couple  of  miles  out  from 
Hailey,  and  found  them  more  or  less  plentiful  at  various  points  along 
the  road  for  20  miles.  They  were  seen  again  a couple  of  days  later  in 
the  foothills  north  and  west  of  Soldier,  where  a few  of  them  were  still 
apparently  depositing  eggs.  While  engaged  in  this  act  the  female 
becomes  so  intent  upon  her  work  that  she  can  be  approached  and 
watched  without  being  at  all  disturbed.  The  long  strong  ovipositor 
is  gradually  worked  into  the  hard  earth  by  a series  of  backward  and 


31 


forward  sliding  thrusts,  with  an  occasional  side  movement.  In  this 
manner  the  hole  thus  formed  becomes  a little  elongate  in  form  and 
somewhat  larger  at  the  lower  end  than  above,  making  an  enlarged 
cavity  for  the  reception  of  the  eggs,  which  are  irregularly  arranged. 
These  eggs  are  somewhat  curved,  of  dark  brown  color,  of  an  average 
size  for  the  insect  which  lays  them,  being  nearly  one-third  of  an  inchin 
length  and  are  somewhat  flattened,  but  otherwise  do  not  differ  much  in 
form  from  those  of  an  ordinary  grasshopper,  or  locust  as  they  should  be 
properly  called.  They  are  not  all  laid  at  one  time,  but,  judging  from 
dissections  made  of  the  female,  15  to  18  are  laid  in  one  cluster,  other 
deposits  following  at  intervals  of  several  days  during  the  fall.  Last 
summer  they  began  laying  about  the  middle  of  July  and  continued 
during  the  first  week  in  September.  It  was  not  definitely  settled  as 
to  the  arrangement  and  number  of  eggs  laid  in  a single  cavity,  but  the 
figures  given  above  can  be  taken  as  approximately  correct. 

A second,  but  much  smaller,  species  of  these  crickets  also  occurred 
in  numbers  near  and  among  the  foothills  of  the  mountains  adjoining  the 
prairie.  This  latter  species  is  evidently  the  one  described  by  Prof.  Cy- 
rus Thomas  as  Decticus  trilineatus,  though  from  its  great  variability  in 
coloration  and  markings  it  is  quite  difficult  to  decide  this  for  a certainty 
without  careful  comparisons  of  a number  of  specimens  with  the  descrip- 
tion. Contrary  to  the  clumsy  movements  of  the  large  Andbrus  simplex , 
this  smaller  cricket  is  one  of  the  most  active  insects  in  the  region,  and 
to  capture  a specimen  of  it  during  the  warmer  part  of  the  day  requires 
considerable  dexterity  on  the  part  of  the  would-be  captor.  Its  egg- 
laying  habits  were  not  ascertained  since  it  apparently  had  not  yet  be- 
gun operations  in  this  direction. 

Some  apprehension  is  felt  by  many  of  the  inhabitants  that  this  latter 
insect  will  also  become  injurious,  since  it  was  noticed  for  the  first  time 
the  present  year  in  such  numbers  as  to  cause  alarm.  I do  not  think 
that  such  is  liable  to  be  the  case,  since  it  appears  to  be  partial  to  damp 
places  covered  with  rank  vegetation  rather  than  to  the  more  dry  open 
country.  It  occurred  in  the  mountains  at  an  altitude  of  9,000  feet  above 
sea  level  or  near  timber  line,  as  well  as  down  in  the  valley  below  the 
5,000  feet  point. 

The  migratory  habit  in  Anabrus  simplex  and  several  others  of  these 
large,  wingless,  cricket-like  insects  is  very  marked  at  times $ but  much 
more  so  when  they  are  present  in  large  numbers.  As  with  many 
other  insects  when  they  develop  in  excessive  numbers,  the  desire  to 
move  in  great  crowds  seems  to  take  hold  of  these  crickets.  At  such 
times  they  move  towards  central  points  and  congregate  into  companies, 
after  which  they  strike  out  in  a body  in  some  particular  direction. 
When  moving  they  are  said  to  turn  neither  to  the  right  nor  to  the  left, 
but  to  keep  on  in  a direct  line,  climbing  over  obstacles  rather  than  going 
around,  and  even  plunging  into  streams  which  happen  to  run  across 
their  course  of  travel.  When  these  streams  are  encountered,  if  not  too 


32 


large,  they  are  soon  filled  to  such  an  extent  that  the  oncoming  hordes 
soon  are  enabled  to  cross  over  on  the  bodies  of  the  unfortunate  leaders 
that  reached  the  stream  first.  It  has  never  been  my  fortune  to  see  a 
swarm  of  these  insects  crossing  anything  larger  than  a small  irrigating 
ditch,  hence  it  is  a difficult  matter  for  me  to  accurately  describe  one  of 
these  crossings.  They  are  also  said  to  be  capable  of  being  driven  “just 
like  a drove  of  sheep ” when  they  have  stopped  to  feed ; and  at  such 
times  are  often  “ herded”  off  gardens  and  fields  of  grain. 

LOCUST  INJURIES  IN  OTHER  REGIONS  DURING  THE  SUMMER  OF  1891. 

Before  closing  this  report  it  might  be  well  to  refer  to  such  other  locust 
depredations  occurring  during  the  summer  as  have  directly  or  indi- 
rectly come  to  my  notice.  Of  course,  these  were  most  of  them  quite 
local  and  limited  in  their  extent,  and  were  occasioned  by  local  non-mi- 
gratory  species.  Taking  them  at  random  rather  than  in  accordance  with 
their  magnitude  or  importance  they  can  be  briefly  stated  as  follows : 

A region  of  considerable  extent  in  southwestern  Kansas  was  overrun 
to  some  extent  by  the  large  yellow  locust  known  as  Melanoplus  differ- 
entialis  and  several  other  species  in  fewer  numbers.  These  mostly  dam- 
aged the  alfalfa  and  materially  lessened  the  hay  crop  of  that  region. 
Professor  Osborn,  of  the  Iowa  Agricultural  College,  who  visited  the 
region  by  your  request,  has  already  given  a full  account  of  this  out- 
break in  a paper  read  before  the  meeting  of  official  Economic  Ento- 
mologists, held  in  Washington  during  the  month  of  August.  Hence,  I 
will  merely  reler  to  it  here. 

Farther  south  and  west,  in  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  locusts  were  re- 
ported as  being  very  numerous  and  moving  eastward.  It  was  claimed 
in  the  reports  that  the  damage  being  done  here  was  chiefly  to  the 
grasses  on  the  range.  Just  what  species  ot  ’hoppers  were  engaged  in 
these  injuries,  and  how  extensive  they  were,  could  not  be  learned  at 
the  time.  Possibly  it  may  have  been  the  Long- winged  Locust  which  also 
occurred  in  Colorado  and  did  like  injury  there.  At  any  rate  the  men- 
tion of  their  “ moving  in  droves  while  yet  unfledged”  would  be  quite 
characteristic  of  the  Dissosteira  longipennis.  Letters  received  from 
Professor  Townsend,  of  the  New  Mexico  Agricultural  College,  quite  re- 
cently, throw  a little  light  upon  some  of  the  locust  injuries  wrought  in 
that  particular  region  during  the  year.  He  states  that  the  Acridium 
shoslione  and  a species  of  Melanoplus  have  been  numerous  during  the 
past  summer  and  were  the  cause  of  some  slight  injury  to  certain  crops 
and  wild  plants.  The  Acridium  shoslione  worked  on  the  Mesquite  and 
other  shurbs  and  trees,  while  the  Melanoplus , which  was  probably  the 
differ  entialis,  attacked  and  slightly  injured  the  vine. 

Reports  also  reached  us  here  in  Nebraska  that  there  were  locust  depre- 
dations being  committed  in  portions  of  Texas.  These  reports  were 
found  in  the  columns  of  the  daily  newspapers.  Just  how  extensive 
and  at  what  particular  point  these  injuries  occurred  in  that  State  I 


33 


have  been  unable  to  determine.  A Government  agent  was  sent  out  to 
investigate  this  particular  region,  but,  I believe,  was  unable  to  locate 
it.  It  is  quite  possible  that  it  was  some  very  local  injury  caused  by 
the  Melanoplus  robustus , Dendrotettix  longipennis , or  Schistocerca  ameri- 
cana  that  gave  a foundation  upon  which  to  build  these  reports,  which 
afterwards  grew  as  they  traveled.  Or,  it  may  be  that  this  and  other 
reports  of  the  presence  of  grasshoppers  in  destructive  numbers  which 
agents  afterwards  failed  to  substantiate  originated  with  newspaper  cor- 
respondents who  did  not  wish  to  be  outdone  by  co-workers  in  other 
sections  of  the  country  who  had  reported  bona  fide  swarms  of  these 
insects. 

Here  in  Nebraska  there  has  been  more  or  less  injury  from  Melanoplus 
differ entialiSj  M.  bivittatus , and  M.  femur -rubrum  during  the  summer; 
but  nothing  serious  has  occurred,  nor  is  there  any  indication  of  special 
injury  for  next  year.  This  injury  during  the  present  year  has  been  con- 
fined principally  to  cities  and  towns  where  poultry  and  wild  birds  do 
not  have  access  to  old  weedy  gardens  and  vacant  lots  where  the  ’hop- 
pers are  allowed  to  deposit  their  eggs  and  hatch  from  year  to  year. 
Hence  the  increase  and  subsequent  injury. 

While  in  attendance  at  the  Washington  meeting  of  the  Association 
of  Economic  Entomologists  last  August  considerable  interest  was  man- 
ifested by  those  present  in  the  locust  question  for  the  country  at  large 
during  the  present  season.  In  the  discussion  that  followed  the  pre- 
sentation of  several  papers  bearing  upon  the  subject,  different  entomol- 
ogists reported  the  presence  of  larger  numbers  of  these  insects  than 
usual  in  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Michigan,  New  York,  Ohio,  Indiana,  and 
Iowa.  Of  course  different  species  of  these  insects  were  the  guilty  ones 
in  different  regions ; but  for  the  most  part  differ  entialis,  bivittatus , and 
femur-rubrum  were  responsible  for  such  injuries  in  these  States,  from 
which  we  have  no  special  reports. 

These  reports  of  locust  injury,  coming  as  they  do  from  almost  every 
section  of  the  country,  tend  to  show  that  the  insects  of  this  group  are 
greatly  on  the  increase,  and  that  unless  checked  by  natural  causes, 
or  unless  early  efforts  are  made  by  the  people  interested  to  check 
them,  much  greater  injury  must  be  expected  in  the  near  future.  True? 
this  excessive  increase  in  so  many  species  and  over  so  wide  a scope 
of  country  is  due  to  some  special  cause  or  combination  of  such  causes, 
which  may  seldom  or  never  occur  again.  Still  there  is  no  telling  what 
the  future  may  hold  in  store.  So  the  wisest  plan,  by  far,  as  already 
intimated,  is  to  help  ourselves  wherever  we  can.  In  the  present  case 
in  particular  it  should  be  our  aim  to  do  this,  since  it  has  been  demon- 
strated time  and  again  that  these  locusts  can  very  readily  be  kept  in 
check  by  ordinary  means. 

19539 — No,  27 3 


REPORT  ON  THE  LOCUST  INVASION  OF  CALIFORNIA  IN 

1891. 


By  D.  W.  Coquillett,  Special  Agent. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 

Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  October  15,  1891. 

I submit  herewith  a report  of  my  investigations  of  the  locust  invasions  of  Cali- 
fornia during  the  past  season.  These  investigations  were  made  principally  during 
the  month  of  August,  and  conducted  in  accordance  with  your  instructions  of  July 
27, 1891. 

Respectfully  yours, 

D.  W.  Coquillett. 

Prof.  C.  V.  Riley, 

U.  S.  Entomologist. 


According  to  directions  I proceeded,  on  July  30,  to  that  portion  of 
the  State,  invaded  by  the  locusts,  or  grasshoppers,  stated  in  the  tele- 
gram to  extend  from  Merced  on  the  south  to  Redding  on  the  north. 
South  of  Merced  County  I did  not  learn  that  any  great  amount  of 
damage  had  been  done  by  the  locusts  the  present  season.  In  portions 
of  Kern  County  I was  informed  that  the  locusts  had  attacked  Apple 
and  other  kinds  of  deciduous  fruit  trees,  but  a timely  use  of  the  bran 
and  arsenic  mixture  described  in  my  report  to  you  for  the  year  1885 
(Report  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1885,  p.  300)  effectually 
destroyed  them. 

Arriving  at  Merced  I interviewed  Mr.  J.  A.  Norvell,  the  editor  of  the 
Merced  Express,  and  learned  from  him  that  but  little  damage  had  been 
done  in  that  locality  by  locusts  the  present  season.  He  informed  me  of 
a new  colony  that  had  been  recently  started  near  the  foothills,  where  it 
was  reported  the  locusts  had  done  considerable  damage  to  the  young 
fruit  trees.  Accordingly  I paid  a visit  to  this  colony,  and  found  that 
about  100  acres  of  deciduous  fruit  trees  had  been  either  partially  or 
completely  defoliated  by  the  locusts;  all  of  these  trees  had  been  set 
out  less  than  a year  ago.  The  land  on  which  these  trees  were  growing 
had  been  previously  sown  to  wheat,  and  wheat  fields  were  on  every 
side.  Prune  and  pear  trees  had  suffered  the  most  from  the  ravages  of 
the  locusts;  peach  and  fig  trees  were  but  little  injured,  while  Eucalyptus 
34 


35 


trees  were  untouched.  It  was  reported  to  me  that  the  locusts  had  also 
injured  cabbages,  tomatoes,  and  alfalfa.  I noticed  that  the  rank  grass 
growing  in  wet  places  adjacent  to  the  defoliated  trees  gave  no  evidence 
of  having  been  attacked  by  the  locusts,  nor  did  I see  any  of  them  upon 
it.  In  the  trees  I found  a few  specimens  of  adults  of  the  Devastating 
Locust  (Melanoplus  devastator  Scudd.),  but  did  not  find  any  of  their 
larvae  or  pupae.  I was  informed  that  nothing  had  been  done  to  destroy 
the  locusts  or  to  protect  the  trees  and  plants  from  their  ravages,  except 
by  the  use  of  barnyard  fowls,  or  by  occasionally  driving  the  locusts  out 
of  the  trees  and  killing  them  with  shovels  or  other  instruments. 

I also  visited  the  Buhach  plantation,  where  the  locusts  were  so  abun- 
dant in  the  year  1885,  but  learned  from  the  foreman,  Mr.  Davis,  that 
they  had  not  appeared  in  large  numbers  the  present  season,  and  what 
few  had  appeared  were  destroyed  by  the  use  of  the  bran  and  arsenic 
mixture  above  referred  to.  A drive  over  this  and  neighboringranelies 
failed  to  disclose  any  injury  to  trees  or  plants  that  had  been  occasioned 
by  locusts  the  present  season. 

From  Merced  I proceeded  to  Sacramento,  and  on  the  way,  after  cross- 
ing the  Merced  River  near  Livingston,  we  encountered  quite  large  flocks 
of  the  Yellow  Locust  ( Trimerotropis  pseudofasciata  Scudd.);  and  this 
continued,  but  in  smaller  numbers,  until  we  reached  the  Tuolumne 
River  near  Modesto.  Next  to  the  Devastating  Locust,  this  species  was 
the  most  abundant  in  Merced  County  in  the  summer  of  1885,  and  was 
especially  injurious  to  the  leaves  of  grapevines  and  small  trees.  In 
the  present  locality  are  immense  grain-fields  stretching  away  as  far  as 
the  eye  can  reach,  dotted  here  and  there  with  a farm  house  surrounded 
by  a few  trees  and  grapevines;  still  I could  not  discover  that  any  of 
these  trees  or  vines  had  been  injured  by  the  locusts. 

Arriving  at  Sacramento,  I interviewed  Mr.  McClatchie,  one  of  the 
editors  of  the  Sacramento  Bee , and  learned  from  him  that  the  locusts 
were  very  numerous  in  the  eastern  portion  of  Sacramento  County. 
Accordingly  I went  out  to  Folsom,  where  I spent  three  days  investigat- 
ing this  subject.  In  the  town  of  Folsom  very  little  damage  had  been 
done  by  the  locusts  the  present  season;  in  fact,  I saw  only  one  orchard 
that  gave  evidence  of  having  been  visited  by  them.  To  the  northeast 
of  Folsom  are  large  vineyards  and  several  orchards  of  deciduous  fruit 
trees,  but  none  of  these  gave  any  evidence  of  having  been  attacked  to 
any  great  extent  by  locusts  the  present  season,  nor  could  I learn  that 
the  locusts  had  been  there  in  large  numbers. 

These  vineyards  and  orchards  are  located  in  the  foothills  and  are 
surrounded  on  every  side  by  trees  and  small  bushes. 

I went  as  far  eastward  as  Shingle  Springs,  in  Eldorado  County,  but 
could  not  learn  that  the  locusts  had  been  very  numerous  the  present 
season  in  any  portion  of  this  county.  West  of  Folsom  are  several  hun- 
dred acres  of  vineyard  and  orchards  that  had  been  attacked  by  the 
locusts  the  present  season,  and  in  one  of  the  vineyards  I found  the  De- 


36 


vastating  Locusts  still  present  in  immense  numbers  ; but  very  few  vines 
bad  been  completely  defoliated  by  them,  and  the  green  grapes  were 
almost  untouched,  although  large  patches  of  the  green  bark  had  been 
gnawed  from  the  vines  by  the  locusts.  The  foreman  of  this  vineyard 
informed  me  that  he  had  not  used  the  bran  and  arsenic  mixture  for  fear 
of  injuring  the  sale  of  the  table  grapes;  but  it  seems  to  me  that  there 
need  be  no  fear  on  this  account,  since  the  sugar  or  molasses  used  in 
making  this  mixture  causes  the  arsenic  to  adhere  to  the  bran,  the  whole 
forming  a compact  mass  which  is  not  easily  blown  about  by  the  wind. 
I noticed  that  the  oak  and  pine  trees  growing  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  this  vineyard  had  not  been  attacked  to  any  great  extent  by  the  locusts, 
and  in  a piece  of  weeds  adjoining  this  vineyard  on  the  west  I found 
very  few  adults  and  no  young  of  the  Devasting  Locust.  The  weeds 
along  the  sides  of  the  roads  in  this  vineyard  had  been  burned  off  when 
the  young  locusts  were  first  noticed  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  those 
that  had  hatched  out  in  such  places,  but  during  my  visit  to  the  vine- 
yard on  the  3d  of  August  I found  several  young  of  the  Devasting  Lo- 
cust on  the  grape  vines  growing  next  to  the  roads,  indicating  that  the 
burning  process  had  not  been  entirely  effectual. 

In  the  more  central  portion  of  this  vineyard,  away  from  the  roads,  I 
did  not  find  any  of  these  young  locusts,  nor  did  I find  in  such  places 
any  other  kind  than  the  Devastating  Locust.  I was  informed  that 
these  locusts  came  into  the  vineyard  from  all  directions,  while  higher 
up  in  the  air  could  occasionally  be  seen  swarms  of  locusts,  presumably 
of  this  same  species,  which  were  going  westward. 

Among  deciduous  fruit  trees,  cherry  trees  appear  to  have  suffered 
most  from  the  attacks  of  the  locusts,  which  had  not  only  completely 
defoliated  them  but  had  also  eaten  out  the  dormant  buds.  Pear  trees 
had  also  been  completely  defoliated,  while  apple,  quince,  apricot,  prune, 
and  plum  trees  had  shared  a similar  fate,  but  the  green  pears,  quinces, 
and  prunes  escaped  uninjured.  On  the  apricot  trees  large  patches  of 
green  bark  had  been  gnawed  away  by  the  locusts,  and  the  twigs  thus 
girdled  nearly  always  died.  Young  peach  trees  had  been  defoliated 
by  the  locusts,  but  the  leaves  of  the  older  trees  appeared  to  be  dis- 
tasteful to  them,  as  it  was  very  rare  to  see  a peach  tree  over  6 feet 
high  that  had  been  completely  stripped.  On  such  trees  it  was  no 
uncommon  thing  to  find  that  every  green  peach  had  been  eaten,  noth- 
ing but  the  bare  pits  being  left,  these  sometimes  still  clinging  to  the 
trees,  but  more  often  lying  upon  the  ground  beneath  them.  Orange 
and  walnut  trees  and  English  Holly  were  completely  defoliated;  pine 
and  cypress  trees  were  slightly  eaten.  I saw  several  California  palms 
( Washingtonia  filifera)  that  had  been  considerably  eaten  by  the  locusts. 
Egyptian  corn  growing  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  trees  that  had 
been  defoliated  by  the  locusts  escaped  untouched,  and  this  was  also  the 
case  with  several  mulberry  trees,  although  it  was  reported  that  the 
locusts  fed  upon  the  fruit  of  this  tree,  Eig  trees  also  were  but  little 


37 


attacked  by  tlie  locusts,  although  rarely  in  the  case  of  young*  trees  not 
only  the  leaves  but  also  the  ends  of  the  green  branches  were  devoured 
by  them.  I saw  a row  of  fig  trees  almost  surrounding  an  orchard  of 
deciduous  fruit  trees,  and  while  the  latter  had  been  nearly  defoliated 
by  the  locusts  the  fig  trees  were  almost  untouched.  It  was  also  re- 
ported to  me  that  the  locusts  would  not  attack  the  figs  upon  the  trees. 

The  above-mentioned  orchard  and  vineyard  were  nearly  surrounded 
by  wheat  fields  and  pastures,  while  but  a few  miles  east  of  them  and 
separated  by  a range  of  wooded  hills  is  a number  of  small  vineyards 
and  orchards  that  had  not  been  touched  by  the  locusts.  These  latter 
vineyards  and  orchards  were  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  woods.  Thus 
it  appeared  that  orchards  and  vineyards  located  in  the  vicinity  of  grain 
fields  suffered  more  from  the  attack  of  the  Devastating  Locusts  than  did 
those  situated  in  the  woods ; and  this  observation  was  frequently  veri- 
fied during  the  remainder  of  my  investigations  into  this  subject.  There 
appears  to  be  something  about  a grain  field  that  is  very  attractive  to 
the  locusts  while  they  are  on  the  wing  high  in  the  air ; it  may  be  the 
bright  glistening  of  the  sun  upon  the  yellow  straw  that  attracts  their 
eyes.  At  one  place  in  San  Joaquin  County  the  road  had  been  covered 
with  straw  for  a distance  of  several  hundred  yards,  and  in  driving  over 
this  in  the  middle  of  the  day  I noticed  that  hundreds  of  the  Devastating 
Locust  were  ^resting  upon  the  straw,  but  none,  or  only  a very  few  were 
to  be  found  upon  the  bare  ground  near  it.  I was  informed  by  several 
persons  who  had  witnessed  the  coming  of  these  locusts  that  the  large 
swarms  would  always  alight  in  a grain  field,  and  from  this  point  they 
spread  in  all  directions  to  the  adjacent  orchards  and  vineyards.  My  own 
observations  confirmed  this  fact,  since  in  nearly  every  instance  the  trees 
around  the  edges  of  an  orchard  had  been  injured  to  a greater  extent  by 
the  locusts  than  had  those  in  the  more  central  portion.  In  several  in- 
stances I saw  small  orchards  which  were  located  only  a few  yards  from 
the  breeding  grounds  of  the  Devastating  Locust,  but  separated  from 
them  by  trees  and  small  bushes,  and  yet  the  trees  in  such  orchards  had 
scarcely  been  attacked  by  the  locusts,  while  orchards  located  30  miles 
distant,  but  surrounded  by  wheat  fields,  had  been  almost  completely 
defoliated  by  locusts  which  had  evidently  hatched  out  in  the  breeding 
grounds  referred  to. 

From  Folsom  I returned  to  Sacramento  and  interviewed  Hon.  Edwin 
F.  Smith,  the  Secretary  of  the  California  State  Agricultural  Society, 
and  from  him  I learned  that  the  locusts  were  very  numerous  in  certain 
portions  of  San  Joaquin  County.  I therefore  proceeded  at  once  to 
Lodi,  where  I met  Dr.  E.  Armstrong,  a prominent  orchardist  of  that 
region,  who  gave  me  a great  deal  of  information  upon  this  subject,  and 
also  showed  me  over  that  portion  of  San  Joaquin  County  that  had  suf- 
fered most  from  the  attacks  of  the  locusts.  Here  the  conditions  were 
practically  the  same  as  I had  found  them  existing  in  Sacramento 
County.  The  orchards  which  had  suffered  most  were  surrounded  by 


38 


wheat  fields;  the  locusts  were  reported  to  have  eorne  into  them  from 
all  directions,  while  others  high  in  air  were  moving  to  the  westward. 
Almond  trees  had  been  almost  completely  defoliated ; in  many  instances 
the  outer  part  of  the  nuts  had  been  devoured,  and  more  rarely  the 
hard  shell  of  the  three-fourths  grown  nuts  had  been  eaten  through  and 
the  kernels  devoured.  A few  large  peach  trees  were  scattered  through 
the  almond  orchard,  but  these  had  scarcely  been  attacked  by  the  lo- 
custs. Pear  trees  had  been  completely,  and  locust  trees  nearly,  defoli- 
ated by  them. 

I went  as  far  eastward  as  Valley  Springs,  in  Calaveras  County,  but 
did  not  find  any  other  locality  where  the  locusts  had  been  unusually 
abundant  and  destructive  the  present  season. 

From  Lodi  I went  to  Marysville  and  interviewed  Mr.  G.  W.  Harney, 
President  of  the  Yuba  County  Board  of  Horticulture,  and  learned  from 
him  that  the  locusts  had  been  quite  destructive  to  some  young  fruit  trees 
and  grapevines  in  the  southern  part  of  that  county.  Accord  in  gly,  in  com- 
pany with  Mr.  Harney  I visited  the  locality  referred  to,  and  found  that 
the  trees  and  vines  had  been  planted  out  less  than  a year  ago;  many  of 
them  bore  evidence  of  having  been  attacked,  but  only  a very  few  of 
them  had  been  completely  defoliated.  Mr.  Harney  informed  me  that 
when  the  locusts  first  began  to  appear  in  destructive  numbers  he  had 
several  hundred  circulars  printed,  giving  directions  for  making  and  ap- 
plying the  bran  and  arsenic  mixture  above  referred  to,  and  these  circulars 
he  distributed  to  nearly  all  of  the  fruit  growers  in  the  county ; as  a result, 
this  mixture  was  largely  used  in  those  localities  where  the  locusts  made 
their  appearance  hi  destructive  numbers,  and  proved  very  effectual  in 
destroying  them.  We  visited  portions  of  the  county,  distant  about  15 
miles  from  Marysville,  but  did  not  find  any  other  locality  that  had  suf- 
fered from  locust  attacks. 

The  following  day  was  spent  in  visiting  various  portions  of  Sutter 
County,  in  company  with  Mr.  K.  0.  Kells,  the  president,  and  Hon. 
H.  P.  Stabler,  the  Secretary  of  the  Sutter  County  • Board  of  Horti- 
culture; Mr.  Cutts,  a prominent  business  man  of  Marysville,  and 
owner  of  a large  orchard  in  Sutter  County,  also  accompanied  us.  We 
visited  a large  portion  of  the  northeastern  part  of  this  county,  but 
found  only  one  locality  where  the  locusts  had  appeared  in  destructive 
numbers  the  present  season.  This  was  in  an  orchard  of  deciduous 
fruit  trees,  several  of  which  bore  evidence  of  having  been  attacked, 
although  none  of  the  trees  had  been  completely  defoliated.  The  owner 
informed  me  that  he  had  made  use  of  the  bran  and  arsenic  mixture  and 
this  had  effectually  destroyed  the  locusts  before  they  had  materially 
injured  his  trees.  The  next  day,  in  company  with  Mr.  G.  W.  Harney, 
I visited  portions  of  Butte  County,  in  the  vicinity  of  Oroville.  I did 
not  see  any  indication  of  locust  attack  in  this  city,  nor  could  I learn 
that  the  locusts  had  appeared  there  in  destructive  numbers  the  present 
season.  A few  miles  west  of  Oroville  several  small  orchards  had  been 


39 


planted  out  less  than  a year  ago,  and  a few  acres  of  these  trees  had 
been  completely  defoliated  by  the  locusts.  1 learned  that  when  the  lat- 
ter appeared  upon  the  trees  nothing  whatever  was  done  to  stop  their 
ravages.  They  had  also  appeared  in  large  numbers  upon  the  young 
trees  in  the  adjoining  orchards,  but  had  been  destroyed  by  the  bran  and 
arsenic  mixture  that  had  been  put  out  when  the  locusts  first  made  their 
appearance.  We  also  visited  a certain  locality  about  8 miles  south  of 
Oroville,  where  a large  tract  of  land  had  recently  been  set  out  to  fruit 
trees ; here  but  little  damage  had  been  occasioned  by  locusts. 

From  Oroville  I went  by  stage  to  Biggs,  in  the  southwestern  part  of 
Butte  County;  the  country  passed  through  was  mostly  bare  pasture 
lands,  where  very  few  locusts  of  any  kind  were  seen.  From  Biggs  I 
took  the  train  to  Bedding,  in  Shasta  County,  and  interviewed  several 
persons  there;  from  them  I learned  that  locusts  had  not  appeared  in 
large  numbers  in  that  locality  the  present  year,  nor  could  I learn  that 
they  had  been  at  all  numerous  in  this  State  north  of  Bedding.  I 
learned,  however,  that  several  small  orchards  in  the  vicinity  of  Cotton- 
wood, in  the  southern  part  of  Shasta  County,  had  suffered  from  the 
attacks  of  locusts.  Accordingly  I returned  to  Cottonwood  and  spent 
the  greater  portion  of  a day  in  that  vicinity,  and  found  that  the  injury 
to  the  orchards  occasioned  by  locusts  was  slight,  there  being  but  few 
orchards  in  that  locality  and  these  very  small  ones.  This  completed 
my  observations  in  the  field,  and  I returned  to  Los  Angeles  by  way  of 
San  Francisco.  At  the  latter  place  I visited  the  Academy  of  Natural 
Sciences  and  obtained  the  names  of  the  birds  and  plants  referred  to  in 
the  subsequent  pages  of  this  report. 

As  was  the  case  in  the  year  1885,  the  species  of  locust  that  had  pro- 
duced the  greatest  amount  of  injury  the  present  season  is  the  Devas- 
tating or  California  Locust  ( Melanoplus  devastator  Scudd.).  These 
always  have  a small  blunt  spine  in  the  middle  of  the  breast  between 
the  front  legs,  and  the  hind  or  under  wings  are  wholly  hyaline  or  glassy. 
The  colors  vary  to  a considerable  degree;  in  normally  marked  individ- 
uals the  ground  color  is  dark  gray,  and  there  is  a blackish  stripe  along 
each  side  of  the  thorax,  several  black  spots  on  the  front  wings,  and  a 
series  of  black  marks  on  the  hind  thighs,  but  in  a few  individuals  the 
ground  color  is  a very  pale  yellowish,  and  the  black  markings  above 
referred  to  are  very  indistinct  or  are  sometimes  entirely  wanting. 
These  pale  individuals  belonged  to  both  sexes  and  are  doubtless  imma- 
ture specimens,  which  later  in  the  season  will  acquire  the  normal  black 
markings  of  the  other  and  more  mature  form.  I submitted  specimens 
of  these  pale-colored  individuals  to  Professor  Biley,  who  wrote  me  that 
they  belonged  to  Melanoplus  devastator , and  he  also  referred  the  darkly 
marked  specimens  to  the  same  species.  Both  of  these  forms  have  the 
hind  tibire,  or  shins,  of  a bluish  color,  but  I found  associated  with  them, 
both  in  the  breeding  grounds  and  also  among  those  that  had  migrated 
to  the  orchards  and  vineyards,  a form  which  resembled  them  in  colors 


40 


and  markings,  except  that  tlie  kind  tibiae  were  of  a light  reddish  color. 
All  the  specimens  that  I captured  of  this  red-legged  form  are  females, 
and  Professor  Riley  writes  me  that  he  is  unable  without  the  male  to 
decide  to  what  species  they  belong.  I strongly  suspect  that  they  sim- 
ply constitute  a color  variety  of  Melanoplus  devastator , since  such  varie- 
ties are  known  to  occur  among  several  of  the  species  of  this  genus 
found  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  These  three  forms,  which,  as 
above  stated,  probably  belong  to  one  and  the  same  species,  were  the 
only  spine-breasted  locusts  with  long  wings  that  I met  with  during  my 
investigations.  I also  found  two  or  three  species  of  spine-breasted 
locusts  with  short  wings,  belonging  to  the  genus  Pezotettix;  but  these 
were  mostly  found  in  the  dry  pastures,  and  only  in  limited  numbers. 

Among  the  spineless-breasted  locusts,  the  species  I met  with  the  most 
often  is  the  Red- winged  Locust  (CEdipoda  venusta  Stal.);  this  I found 
in  almost  every  locality  visited,  but  never  in  large  numbers.  The  next 
most  abundant  species,  and  one  of  the  largest  found  in  this  State,  is  the 
Dissosteira  spurcata  of  Scudder  ; this  is  more  local  in  its  distribution 
than  the  preceding  species,  and  is  usually  found  in  dry  pasture  lands, 
sometimes  occurring  in  quite  large  numbers.  The  male  of  this  species 
is  much  darker  colored  than  the  female,  and  has  a curious  habit  of  hov- 
ering in  the  air  for  several  minutes  at  a distance  of  16  or  18  inches  above 
the  female. 

The  Pellucid-winged  Locust  (Camnula  pellucida  Scudd.,  of  which 
(Edipoda  atrox  Scudd.  is  a synonym),  which  was  reported  as  being  very 
destructive  during  several  successive  years  in  the  past  in  Sierra  V alley, 
lying  partly  in  Sierra  and  partly  in  Pimas  counties,  in  the  very  heart 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  I met  with  at  only  one  place  ; this 
was  on  an  open  hillside  in  Calaveras  County,  August  8,  but  they  were 
not  at  all  abundant,  and  I saw  only  about  two  dozen  specimens  in  an 
hour’s  search.  I dissected  several  of  the  females,  and  the  ovaries  con- 
tained nearly  fully  formed  eggs.  Several  other  species  of  spineless- 
breasted  locusts  were  also  met  with,  but  these  were  so  few  in  number 
that  no  further  mention  of  them  need  be  made  at  the  present  time. 

BREEDING  GROUNDS  OF  THE  DEVASTATING  LOCUST. 

Up  to  the  present  time  but  little  seems  to  be  known  concerning  the 
early  stages  of  the  Devastating  Locust.  I have  not  been  able  to  find 
any  published  notice  stating  that  any  observer  had  seen  these  locusts 
paired,  or  had  observed  the  females  laying  their  eggs,  or  had  found  the 
eggs  of  this  species.  During  the  present  investigation  I paid  especial 
attention  to  this  part  of  the  subject.  Although  repeatedly  sought  for, 
I never  found  any  of  the  young  of  this  species  in  the  more  central  portion 
of  cultivated  orchards  and  vineyards,  nor  in  grain  fields  that  had  been 
plowed  and  seeded  less  than  a year  previously.  I also  did  not  find 
them  in  thickly  wooded  land  where  there  was  an  abundance  of  small 
trees  and  bushes,  nor  upon  the  tops  or  the  steep  sides  of  high  hills, 


41 


nor  yet  in  the  low  wet  grass  lands.  In  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacra- 
mento valleys  and  among  the  foothills  bordering  them  on  the  east  it 
was  only  upon  land  on  which  grew  a certain  kind  of  weed  that  I found 
the  young  of  this  locust.  I submitted  specimens  of  £Iiis  weed  to  Mrs. 
Dr.  Brandegee,  the  Botanist  of  the  California  Academy  of  Sciences 
and  our  best  authority  upon  the  plants  of  central  and  northern  Cali- 
fornia, and  she  identified  it  as  the  Hemizonia  virgata , vulgarly  known 
as  “tarweed,”  from  the  sticky  exudations  which  cover  the  entire 
plant.  It  seldom  attains  a greater  height  than  2 feet,  the  stem  is  slen- 
der, and  sometimes  bears  several  small  lateral  branches,  the  leaves  are 
small,  narrow,  and  dark  green,  and  the  greater  portion  of  the  stem  is 
of  a whitish,  somewhat  silvery  color.  It  bears  at  the  tips  of  its  branches 
yellowish  composite  flowers,  which  seldom  exceed  half  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter ; the  leaves  on  the  upper  portion  do  not  exceed  a quarter  of  an  inch 
in  length.  The  plant  is  said  by  Dr.  Asa  Gray  to  be  either  an  annual  or 
a biennial. 

In  the  eastern  portion  of  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento  counties  and 
also  in  portions  of  Calaveras  and  Eldorado  counties  that  I visited,  it 
was  rare  to  find  a patch  of  these  weeds  in  which  the  young  of  the  Dev- 
astating Locust  were  not  present  in  greater  or  less  numbers ; at  the 
same  time  it  was  extremely  rare  to  find  the  young  of  these  locusts  in 
places  where  none  of  these  weeds  grew.  I found  both  these  weeds 
and  the  young  locusts  along  the  sides  of  the  roads,  and  also  upon  un- 
plowed land  about  the  orchards  and  vineyards.  They  were  also  some- 
times present  in  fields  of  volunteer  or  self-sown  grain  that  had  not  been 
plowed  for  over  a year,  but  were  most  abundant  in  the  pasture  lands 
among  the  foothills.  Here  they  usually  occurred  in  the  narrow  valleys 
or  depressions  lying  between  the  hills,  sometimes  extending  some  dis- 
tance up  the  sides  of  the  hills,  but  never  high  up  on  the  sides  of  very 
steep  hills,  nor  on  the  tops  of  hills,  nor  yet  among  the  thick  underbrush 
wherever  this  might  occur.  Among  the  foothills  of  Calaveras  County, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  town  of  Burson,  I found  a field  of  these  weeds 
covering  60  or  80  acres  of  land,  and  among  the  weeds  were  both  adults 
and  young  of  the  Devastating  Locust  in  large  numbers.  I was  informed 
by  a party  living  in  the  neighborhood  of  this  field  that  the  young  locusts 
had  been  extremely  abundant  there  early  in  the  season,  and  that  in  the 
month  of  May  he  saw  a large  swarm  of  the  winged  locusts  take  flight 
and  disappear  to  the  westward;  it  was  reported  to  me  that  about  this 
time  the  locusts  were  first  observed  to  come  into  the  orchards  in  cer- 
tain portions  of  San  Joaquin  County,  lying  in  the  same  direction  that 
the  swarm  was  said  to  have  taken ; so  it  appears  quite  certain  that  the 
large  swarms  of  locusts  that  swept  down  upon  the  above-named  county 
the  present  season  hatched  out  in  this  and  neighboring  fields  of  tarweeds. 

I dissected  a large  number  of  the  adult  females  of  the  Devastating 
Locust  which  I found  in  this  field  and  examined  the  ovaries,  but  in 
none  of  them  did  I find  any  eggs  in  an  advanced  stage  of  development, 


42 


nor  did  I see  any  of  these  locusts  paired,  nor  were  any  engaged  in  lay- 
ing their  eggs.  On  the  10th  of  August,  accompanied  by  Mr.  F.  V.  M. 
Hudson,  of  Acarnpo,  and  one  of  his  hired  men,  I spent  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  day  in  searching  for  the  eggs  of  this  locust  in  the  above- 
mentioned  and  neighboring  fields  of  tar  weeds,  but  did  not  succeed  in 
obtaining  any.  This  fact,  coupled  with  the  further  fact  that  while 
studying  this  and  other  species  of  locusts  in  Merced  County  in  the 
year  1885  I neither  saw  the  Devastating  Locusts  paired  nor  did  I ob- 
serve them  laying  their  eggs  during  all  the  time  that  I observed  them, 
extending  from  the  first  week  in  June  to  the  first  week  in  August,  and 
that  I did  not  witness  either  of  these  operations  during  the  present  in- 
vestigation which  extended  over  the  first  three  weeks  in  August,  makes 
it  almost  certain  that  this  species  is  single  brooded  and  that  the  eggs 
are  laid  some  time  during  the  fall  of  the  year,  probably  not  before  the 
month  of  October.  All  the  testimony  goes  to  prove  that  these  locusts 
hatch  out  very  early  in  the  spring.  Several  intelligent  observers  in- 
formed me  that  they  had  seen  the  young  locusts  in  immense  numbers 
early  in  April  and  that  these  began  to  acquire  wings  early  in  May. 
The  following  from  the  Folsom  Weekly  Telegraph  of  May  9,  1891,  in- 
dicates how  early  in  the  year  these  locusts  appeared  in  that  locality  the 
present  season: 


GRASSHOPPERS  COMING. 

Grasshoppers  have  appeared  in  the  vicinity  of  this  place.  They  seemed  to  come 
suddenly  and  from  where  no  one  knows.  Millions  of  them  are  destroying  everything 
they  can  get  hold  of,  and  considerable  alarm  is  felt  over  their  appearance  and  the 
result  of  their  visit.  They  came  too  late  to  do  any  great  amount  of  damage  to  the 
hay  crop,  which  is  nearly  all  in.  Other  things  will  surely  suffer  unless  they  disap- 
pear. Those  that  are  here  are,  from  what  we  can  learn,  very  small,  hut  they  are 
voracious  and  have  done  a great  deal  of  damage  already.  A few  years  ago  they  vis- 
ited the  State  and  caused  great  damage.  There  was  no  way  to  combat  them.  We 
hope  the  alarming  reports  regarding  them  are  exaggerated. 

The  editor  of  the  u Telegraph”  informed  me  that  he  sent  the  above  as 
a telegram  to  the  Sacramento  Bee  on  the  5th  of  May,  which  would  put 
the  coming  of  the  locusts  at  a somewhat  earlier  date  than  the  one  given 
above. 

Hatching  out  so  early  in  the  season  and  acquiring  wings  as  early  as 
the  month  of  May,  it  appears  somewhat  singular  that  these  locusts 
should  not  become  fully  matured  and  deposit  their  eggs  until  nearly  six 
months  later  in  the  season.  The  fact,  however,  that  among  the  migrat- 
ing Swarms  I found  very  pale-colored  specimens  that  had  not  yet 
become  sufficiently  mature  to  attain  their  normal  dark  coloring  as 
late  as  the  middle  of  August,  indicates  that  the  species  is  very  slow  in 
maturing  even  after  acquiring  wings.  The  destructive  Bocky  Moun- 
tain Locust  ( Melanoplus  spretus  Uhler),  which  has  as  yet  never  been 
found  in  this  State,  is  known  to  be  single  brooded  in  its  permanent 
breeding  grounds. 


43 


In  Los  Angeles  County,  on  the  20tli  of  September  of  the  present 
year,  I saw  a pair  of  Devastating  Locusts  united  in  coition;  this  was 
the  only  pair  I saw  in  a five-hours7  search  in  a locality  where  these 
locusts  were  quite  abundant.  I find  by  reference  to  my  note  book  that 
on  the  1st  of  October,  1888,  I also  saw  a pair  of  locusts  belonging  to  a 
closely  related,  but  apparently  unnamed  species  united  in  coition. 

On  page  21  of  Insect  Life,  Yol.  iv,  Mr.  Lawrence  Bruner,  one  of  the 
agents  of  this  Division,  in  referring  to  the  Devastating  Locust,  says: 
“This  species  also  occurs  in  two  forms,  viz,  small  and  large,  being  the 
spring  and  fall  broods,  as  nearly  as  I have  been  able  to  decide  from 
specimens  in  collections.”  This  supposition,  however,  is  not  borne  out 
by  the  facts,  since  in  the  month  of  August  of  the  present  year  I col- 
lected both  large  and  small  specimens  of  this  species  in  Sacramento 
County;  the  smallest  specimens  measured  only  16  millimeters  (about 
three-fifths  of  an  inch)  from  front  of  head  to  tip  of  abdomen,  while  the 
larger  specimens,  which  were  captured  in  the  same  locality  as  the  smaller 
ones,  measured  25  millimeters  (equal  to  1 inch)  in  length.  Specimens 
representing  both  sizes,  as  well  as  others  of  every  intermediate  grade, 
were  submitted  to  Professor  Riley,  who  referred  all  of  them  to  the 
above  species,  so  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  ther  proper  identification. 

All  the  facts  therefore  seem  to  indicate  that  the  Devastating  Locust 
is  normally  single-brooded,  and  that  the  eggs  are  laid  in  the  fall  of  the 
year. 

Although  I saw  both  the  adults  and  the  young  of  the  Devastating- 
Locusts  feeding  upon  the  tarweeds  in  the  large  field  near  Burson,  re- 
ferred to  above,  still  they  had  not  completely  devoured  these  weeds, 
which  were  still  green  and  growing.  Immediately  adjoining  this  field 
on  the  west  was  about  half  an  acre  of  plants  of  HosacMa  glabra  that 
had  been  completely  defoliated,  presumably  by  these  locusts ; 1 did  not 
find  any  young  of  the  Devastating  Locust  among  these  defoliated  plants. 
These  were  the  only  wild  plants  I saw  that  there  was  reason  to  believe 
had  been  completely  defoliated  by  these  locusts. 

North  of  Sacramento  I did  not  again  meet  with  this  tarweed;  but  in 
Yuba,  Butte,  and  Tehama  counties  it  is  replaced  by  a viscid,  glandular 
plant,  which  Mrs.  Brandegee  identified  as  Layia  glandulosa.  This  is  a 
low  growing,  loosely  branched  annual,  which  never  exceeds  a foot  in 
height;  the  leaves  are  narrow,  and  the  composite  flowers  are  white, 
with  a dark  yellow  center;  the  entire  plant  bears  numerous  short,  stiff 
hairs. 

I found  this  plant  growing  on  the  sides  of  low  hills  or  on  the  high 
mesa  land,  and  when  found  in  large  numbers  it  was  nearly  always  ac- 
conrpanied  by  the  young  as  well  as  by  the  adults  of  the  Devastating 
Locust;  and  in  the  above-named  region  I did  not  find  any  of  the  young 
of  this  locust  except  in  places  where  this  weed  grew. 

One  of  the  most  common  weeds  I met  with  growing  in  the  dry  j>as- 
ture  lands  and  in  the  open  foothill  region  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  San 


44 


Joaquin  and  Sacramento  Valleys,  extending  from  Tehama  County  on 
the  north  to  Merced  County  on  the  south,  is  a low-growing,  much- 
branched,  pubescent,  whitish  plant,  which  Mrs.  Brandegee  informs  me 
is  Uremocarpus  setigerus , sometimes  known  as  u turkey-feed,”  owing  to 
the  fact  that  the  turkeys  are  very  fond  of  it.  This  x>lant  was  present 
in  almost  every  locality  that  I visited,  but  I did  not  see  any  of  the  De- 
vastating Locusts  feeding  upon  it,  nor  were  the  young  of  this  locust 
ever  found  upon  these  plants,  nor  among  them  except  when  the  latter 
grew  in  the  vicinity  of  one  or  the  other  of  the  two  plants  referred  to 
above.  The  “ turkey-feed  ” plants  evidently  had  no  attraction  for  these 
locusts,  which  appear  to  prefer  plants  of  a viscid  or  sticky  nature. 

Of  course  it  is  possible  that,  in  certain  localities  which  I did  not  visit, 
the  Devastating  Locust  may  breed  among  other  kinds  of  weeds  than  the 
two  referred  to  above,  but  the  fact  that  I found  the  young  of  this  locust 
in  almost  every  patch  of  these  weeds  of  any  considerable  size,  taken  in 
connection  with  the  other  fact  that  I very  seldom  found  the  young 
locusts  except  in  places  where  these  weeds  grew,  makes  it  almost  cer- 
tain that  this  locust  chooses  patches  of  these  weeds  in  which  to  breed. 

CAUSE  OF  THE  LOCUST  RAVAGES. 

The  region  of  country  in  this  State  that  suffered  most  from  the  rav- 
ages of  the  Devastating  Locust  the  present  season  is  comprised  in  the 
three  counties  of  Placer,  Sacramento,  and  San  Joaquin.  In  certain 
portions  of  these  counties  it  was  reported  by  several  observers  that  the 
locusts  came  from  the  eastward  in  large  swarms,  not  all  at  once,  but  in 
two  or  three  separate  swarms  at  intervals  of  about  two  weeks  apart. 
Prom  what  has  already  been  written  it  is  almost  certain  that  these 
large  swarms  hatched  out  in  the  open  pasture  lands  among  the  foot- 
hills in  the  eastern  part  of  Sacramento  County,  and  also  in  the  western 
portion  ot  Eldorado,  Amador,  and  Calaveras  counties,  in  places  over- 
grown with  tarweeds. 

The  fact  that  these  locusts  do  not  appear  in  destructive  numbers 
every  season  has  led  some  persons  to  believe  that  these  insects — like 
the  misnamed  Seventeen-year  Locust  of  the  East  ( Cicada  septendecim 
Linn.) — pass  several  years  in  the  larva  state,  but  of  course  such  is  not 
at  all  the  case;  and  if  the  facts  were  known  it  would  evidently  be  found 
that  these  locusts  migrate  to  the  orchards  and  vineyards  every  year, 
,but  not  always  in  sufficient  numbers  to  attract  attention.  It  appears 
to  be  a settled  fact,  however,  that  the  years  in  which  they  have  been 
present  in  destructive  numbers  in  the  region  designated  above  were  in 
seasons  when  there  had  been  little  or  no  late  rains  in  the  spring  and 
when  there  had  been  heavy  and  long  continued  rains  the  previous 
spring.  In  other  words,  it  appears  that  there  must  be  a spring  of  long- 
continued  and  late  rains,  followed  by  one  in  which  very  little  rain  falls, 
in  order  to  produce  an  unusual  number  of  the  locusts.  These  condi- 
tions existed  in  the  years  1884  and  1885,  and  again  in  1890  and  1891, 


45 


and  we  find  that  the  locusts  were  unusually  abundant  and  destructive 
in  tlie  year  1885  and  again  in  1891. 

To  give  any  rational  explanation  of  this  phenomenon  would  require 
a greater  knowledge  of  the  habits  and  early  stages  of  this  insect  than 
we  at  present  possess.  It  may  be  conjectured,  however,  that  the  long- 
continued  and  late  rains  retard  the  hatching  of  the  young  locusts,  and 
at  the  same  time  produce  such  an  abundance  of  vegetation  that  the 
greater  number  of  the  locusts  would  remain  upon  the  breeding  grounds 
the  entire  season  and  would  deposit  their  eggs  in  these  grounds  late  in 
the  fall ; thus  a much  greater  number  of  eggs  would  be  deposited  in  the 
breeding  grounds  than  would  have  been  the  case  had  the  season  been 
dry  and  the  majority  of  the  locusts  migrated  from  the  breeding  grounds 
before  their  eggs  had  been  deposited.  The  following  season  being  a 
dry  one  there  would  not  be  abundance  of  vegetation,  and  the  eggs  in 
the  breeding  grounds  would  naturally  hatch  out  very  early  in  the 
spring,  and  the  immense  numbers  of  locusts  produced  would  soon  re- 
duce the  scanty  vegetation  to  such  an  extent  that  they  would  be  very 
anxious  to  migrate  to  new  fields  as  soon  as  they  had  acquired  wings. 
And  this  would  account  for  the  immense  swarms  that  occasionally  ap- 
pear in  this  region,  and  would  also  account  for  the  fact  of  their  not 
occurring  every  season. 

While  these  locusts  have  been  observed  to  migrate  in  swarms  from 
their  breeding  grounds,  no  person  has  ever  seen  them  returning  to  these 
grounds  again,  and  it  seems  very  probable  that  they  never  do  so.  The 
eggs  of  these  migrating  swarms  are  doubtless  deposited  in  cultivated 
lands,  and  the  subsequent  plowing  and  harrowing  of  these  lands  evi- 
dently destroys  the  eggs.  Thus  the  species  must  depend  for  its  con- 
tinued existence  upon  the  comparatively  few  individuals  that  remain 
upon  the  breeding  grounds  throughout  the  season,  or  at  least  until 
the  egg-laying  season  has  passed  by. 

Several  different  persons  living  in  the  locust-infested  district  stated 
to  me  that  the  earlier-migrating  swarms  of  Devastating  Locusts  had 
deposited  their  eggs  in  the  cultivated  fields  and  orchards,  and  that  they 
had  seen  the  young  of  these  locusts  in  the  above-mentioned  jfiaces. 
Questioned  closely,  they  all  admitted  that  they  had  not  seen  the  locusts 
in  the  act  of  depositing  their  eggs,  nor  could  they  refer  me  to  a single 
person  who  had  seen  them  thus  engaged ; but  the  fact  that  they  had 
found  what  they  believed  were  the  young  of  these  locusts  in  the  local- 
ities mentioned,  led  them  to  believe  that  the  earlier  broods  had  depos- 
ited their  eggs  in  such  situations.  I took  especial  pains  to  investigate 
each  of  these  reports,  but  found  that  in  not  a single  instance  did  the 
young  locusts  observed  belong  to  the  destructive  migrating  species. 
In  the  majority  of  cases  they  belong  to  the  young  of  the  spineless- 
breasted  locusts,  but  in  one  instance  the  adults  of  one  of  the  short- 
winged locusts,  the  Pezotettix  enigma  Scudd,  were  mistaken  for  the 
young  of  the  Devastating  Locusts  $ these  short-winged  locusts  have  a 


46 


spine  in  the  middle  of  their  breast,  between  the  legs  composing  the  front 
pair,  in  this  respect  resembling  the  young  of  the  Devastating  Locust; 
and  although  fully  developed  their  wings  do  not  cover  thebasalhalf  of  the 
hind  body  or  abdomen,  thus  giving  them  the  false  appearance  of  being 
young  locusts.  From  the  young  of  the  Devastating  Locust  they  can 
at  once  be  distinguished  by  never  possessing  the  conspicuous  whitish 
spot  found  near  the  base  of  the  wings;  and  if  the  wings  are  more  at- 
tentively examined  it  will  be  found  that  in  the  short-winged  Pezotettix 
the  nerves  of  the  lower  half  of  each  wing  extend  nearly  parallel  with 
the  lower  margin  of  the  wing,  whereas  in  the  young  of  the  Devastating 
Locust  the  veins  run  in  an  oblique  direction  to  the  lower  edge  of  the 
wings.  These  characters  will  enable  the  most  casual  observer  to  dis- 
tinguish the  young  of  the  Devastating  Locust  from  any  of  the  short- 
winged locusts  known  to  me  to  occur  in  this  State. 

NATURAL  ENEMIES. 

During  my  visits  to  those  portions  of  the  State  that  had  suffered 
most  from  the  attacks  of  the  locusts,  I was  struck  with  the  almost  en- 
tire absence  of  insectivorous  birds  and  insects.  Of  course  every  col- 
lector of  insects  in  this  State  is  aware  of  the  fact  that  in  the  month  of 
August  insect  life  is  less  abundant  in  the  valleys  than  it  is  at  almost 
any  other  season  of  the  year,  and  this  may  also  account  for  the  scar- 
city of  insectivorous  birds  in  the  valleys  during  this  time  of  year. 

Probably  the  bird  that  renders  the  greatest  benefit  to  our  horticul- 
turists in  the  way  of  destroying  locusts  is  the  Arkansas  Kingbird  ( Ty - 
rannus  verticalis  Say),  also  known  as  the  Arkansas  Fly-catcher,  and  lo- 
cally as  the  Bee-bird  from  its  reputed  habit  of  occasionally  feeding  upon 
Honey  Bees.  Near  the  town  of  Clements,  in  San  Joaquin  County,  I saw 
a pair  of  these  birds  perched  in  a tall  cottonwood  tree  that  grew  along 
the  edge  of  the  Mokelumne  Biver.  This  tree  stood  some  distance  from 
the  banks  of  the  river  proper,  and  just  back  of  it,  and  still  farther  from 
the  river  rose  a high  bluff,  the  sides  of  which  were  almost  perpendicu- 
lar. At  certain  intervals  the  Devastating  Locusts  would  rise  from  the 
ground  along  the  bank  of  the  river  and  proceed  to  fly  over  these  bluffs, 
but  when  nearly  opposite  the  tree  upon  which  the  Kingbirds  were 
perched,  one  of  these  birds  would  dart  forward,  seize  the  locust,  and 
return  to  the  tree  again  to  devour  its  victim.  During  the  few  mo- 
ments that  I watched  this  pair  they  captured  quire  a large  number  of 
the  locusts,  always  returning  to  the  same  tree  to  feed  upon  them.  In 
the  American  Naturalist  for  August,  1869,  Mr.  Bobert  Bidgway,  the 
well-known  ornithologist,  makes  the  statement  that  a specimen  of  this 
Kingbird,  which  he  kept  in  a cage,  devoured  120  locusts  in  a single 
day.  Were  these  birds  at  all  numerous,  it  is  evident  that  they  would 
destroy  immense  numbers  of  the  locusts  in  the  course  of  a single  sea- 
son ; but,  unfortunately,  they  were  only  occasionally  seen  in  any  of  the 
localities  that  I visited. 


47 


Another  bird  that  also  preys  upon  locusts  is  the  California  Shrike 
( Lanins  ludovidanus  gambeli  Ridg.),  locally  known  as  Butcher-bird, 
from  its  habit  ol  impaling  insects,  small  birds,  lizards,  etc.,  on  almost 
any  sharp-pointed,  thorn-like  object  within  its  reach.  At  several  dif- 
ferent places  I saw  one  of  these  birds  fly  to  the  ground,  seize  a 
locust,  and  return  to  its  former  perch  to  feed  upon  its  victim $ but  fre- 
quently it  would  impale  the  locust  upon  some  sharp-pointed  object  and 
leave  it  there  to  die.  The  sharp  barbs  of  a barbed  wire  fence  were 
frequently  used  by  these  birds  for  impaling  the  locusts  upon,  and  in 
driving  along  one  of  these  fences  it  was  no  uncommon  sight  to  see  at 
short  intervals  one  of  the  locusts  thus  impaled.  Unlike  the  Arkansas 
Kingbird,  which  invariably  captures  the  locusts  while  upon  the  wing, 
this  Shrike  appears  to  attack  them  only  upon  the  ground.  Its  habit  of 
impaling  them  upon  sharp-pointed  objects  would  allow  of  its  destroying 
an  almost  unlimited  number  of  locusts  in  a day.  Unfortunately,  this 
bird  is  not  abundant  in  any  portion  of  the  locust-infested  region. 

These  two  were  the  only  birds  that  I saw  capture  and  feed  upon 
locusts,  but  Mr.  Walter  E.  Bryant,  the  Ornithologist  of  the  California 
Academy  of  Sciences,  to  whom  I am  indebted  for  the  names  of  these 
birds,  informs  me  that  he  has  found  locusts  in  the  stomachs  of  the 
following  California  birds:  Great  Horned  Owl  (Bubo  virginianus 
Gmelin);  Burrowing  Owl  (8 'pcotyto  cunicularia  hypogcea  Bonap.) ; Spar- 
row Hawk  (Falco  sparvcrius  Linn.) 5 Road-runner  (Geococcyx  calif orni- 
anus  Lesson) ; and  Western  Lark  Finch  (Chondestes  grammacus  strigatus 
Swainson). 

While  investigating  the  locust  plague  in  Merced  County  for  the  De- 
partment in  the  year  1885, 1 saw  three  other  birds  feeding  upon  locusts  $ 
these  were:  Bullock’s  Oriole  (Icterus  bullockii  Swainson) 5 California 
Song- sparrow  (Melospiza  fasciata  samuelis  Baird),  and  another  undeter- 
mined species  somewhat  larger  than  the  latter,  and  having  a conspicu- 
ous patch  of  red  feathers  on  the  crown  of  the  head. 

The  Burrowing  Owl  was  quite  frequently  seen,  occurring  in  and  about 
the  burrows  of  the  California  Ground  Squirrel  (Spermophilus  grammurus 
bccchcyi  Richardson).  These,  however,  were  most  abundant  in  the  dry, 
level  plains,  where  but  few  locusts  occurred.  The  other  birds  mentioned 
above  were  occasionally  met  with,  but  were  not  at  all  numerous  in  the 
locust-infested  regions. 

Of  the  smaller  animals,  I have  seen  the  Western  Fence-lizard  (Scel- 
oporas  occidentalis  Baird-Girard)  catch  and  devour  locusts.  This  lizard 
is  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  Swift.  This  and  allied  species  are 
quite  commonly  found  all  over  the  locust-infested  regions  and  doubtless 
destroy  a large  number  of  the  locusts. 

Among  predaceous  insects,  the  species  which  probably  destroys  the 
greater  number  of  locusts,  and  the  one  most  frequently  met  with,  is  a 
medium-sized,  wholly  black  wasp  known  as  Priononyx  atrata  St.  Farg. 
This  wasp  digs  its  burrow  in  the  earth,  usually  in  loose  sandy  soil,  and 


48 


provisions  it  with  locusts  which  she  catches  while  on  the  wing  and  stu- 
pefies them  by  repeatedly  thrusting  her  sting  into  their  bodies,  the  point 
selected  for  thus  stinging  them  being  in  nearly  every  instance  the  under- 
side  of  the  thorax  between  the  first  two  pairs  of  legs.  After  being  stung 
a few  times  the  locust  becomes  motionless,  and  the  wasp  gets  astride 
of  her  victim,  seizes  it  by  the  antennae,  and  drags  it  to  her  burrow, 
occasionally  leaving  it  and  going  off  in  search  of  her  burrow;  after  find- 
ing it  she  again  returns  to  the  locust  and  drags  it  along  by  the  antennae 
as  before.  After  it  is  safely  landed  in  the  bottom  of  the  burrow,  the 
wasp  deposits  one  or  more  eggs  upon  it,  then  comes  to  the  mouth  of 
the  burrow  and  with  her  fore  feet  scratches  the  burrow  full  of  earth, 
somewhat  as  a dog  would  do.  All  of  her  movements  are  very  rapid,  and 
it  is  very  rare  to  find  her  idle,  being  almost  the  whole  time,  at  least 
during  the  warmer  portion  of  the  day,  engaged  in  searching  for  or  drag- 
ging along  and  burying  the  locusts.  I frequently  saw  one  of  these 
wasps  thus  dragging  along  a locust,  and  although  other  species  of 
locusts  were  present  she  always  selected  a Devastating  Locust  for  her 
victim. 

I also  saw  another  kind  of  wasp,  known  as  Polistes  variatus  Cresson, 
feeding  upon  a recently  killed  Devastating  Locust,  while  several  other 
specimens  of  the  same  kind  of  wasp  were  busily  looking  among  the 
weeds,  as  if  in  search  of  locusts.  This  wasp  is  of  about  the  same  size 
as  the  Priononyx,  referred  to  above,  but  is  of  a light-brown  color,  vari- 
ously marked  with  pale  yellow.  I have  occasionally  found  the  nest  of 
this  wasp  beneath  pieces  of  wood  lying  upon  the  ground.  The  nest  is 
constructed  of  a bluish  gray,  papery  substance,  is  of  a circular  form,  and 
measures  about  2 inches  in  diameter.  It  is  suspended  by  a rather  slen- 
der pedicel  of  the  same  papery  substance,  and  the  cells  are  on  the  un- 
derside and  open  downwards;  they  are  filled  with  a yellowish  mass, 
which  probably  consists  of  the  masticated  bodies  of  the  locusts. 

Besides  these  two  species,  I have  seen  a third  kind  of  wasp,  the 
Tachytes  rufofasciata  Cr.,  dragging  along  an  apparently  lifeless  locust, 
which  she  evidently  intended  to  bury,  to  serve  as  food  for  her  young, 
just  as  the  Priononyx  described  above  was  observed  to  do.  This  wasp 
is  considerably  smaller  than  the  Priononyx,  and  has  the  abdomen  and 
a large  portion  of  the  legs  pale  brown. 

Besides  these  wasps,  the  only  other  kind  of  predaceous  insect  that  I 
saw  feeding  upon  locusts  is  a large  slender-bodied,  two-winged  fly, 
known  as  Proctacanthus  milbertii  Macq.  This  fly  is  of  a brownish  gray 
or  drab  color,  and  the  largest  specimens  measure  nearly  1£  inches  in 
length;  the  legs  are  stout  and  covered  with  spines;  the  stout,  black 
proboscis  projects  forward  from  the  lower  portion  of  the  head,  and  the 
latter  on  the  sides  and  lower  part  in  front  is  thickly  clothed  with  rather 
long  whitish  hairs.  Biding  along  by  the  side  of  a barbed- wire  fence  in 
Tehama  County,  on  the  15th  of  August,  I saw  a great  many  of  these 
flies  resting  upon  the  upper  side  of  the  top  wire,  while  an  occasional 


49 


one  was  seen  hanging  from  the  under  side  of  the  wire,  to  which  it  was 
clinging  by  the  aid  of  its  strong  claws,  while  between  its  body  and  the 
wire,  and  firmly  held  in  its  embrace,  was  an  adult  locust,  into  whose 
body  the  proboscis  of  the  fly  was  inserted.  The  fly  was  not  particular 
as  to  the  kind  of  locust  it  captured,  sometimes  catching  and  feeding 
upon  the  Devastating  Locust,  at  other  times  attacking  an  undeter- 
mined species  of  spineless-breasted  locust.  When  not  feeding,  these 
flies  were  very  shy,  taking  wing  whenever  approached  at  all  closely, 
but  when  engaged  in  feeding  I had  no  difficulty  in  capturing  them  in 
my  hand.  On  the  same  day  above  mentioned  I saw  several  of  these  flies 
paired,  but  I know  nothing  in  regard  to  their  early  stages.  Professor 
Kiley  has  recorded  the  fact  that  the  larvae  of  an  allied  species,  the  Erax 
bastardi  Macq.,  feed  upon  the  eggs  of  locusts,  and  it  is  very  probable 
that  the  larvae  of  the  present  species  has  the  same  commendable  habit. 

Of  internal  parasites  I know  of  only  one  species  that  attacks  locusts; 
this  is  a grayish  black,  two- winged  fly  which  closely  resembles  the 
common  House  Fly  but  belongs  to  a different  family,  the  Sarcophagidae, 
and  to  the  typical  genus  Sarcophaga;  the  thorax  is  marked  with  three 
blackish,  longitudinal  lines,  and  the  abdomen  is  marmorate  with  darker 
spots  which  are  changeable  in  different  lights.  I first  met  with  speci- 
mens of  this  fly  on  the  15th  of  August  in  Tehama  County ; the  locality 
was  a small  tract  of  land  covered  with  low-growing  weeds,  among  which 
were  quite  a large  number  of  locusts  of  different  kinds.  The  flies  were 
resting  upon  dead  weeds,  stones,  etc.,  and  whenever  a locust  of  any 
kind  took  to  its  wings  one  of  these  flies  would  dart  after,  and  appear  to 
strike  it,  but  this  was  evidently  the  method  in  which  the  fly  attaches 
her  eggs  to  the  bodies  of  the  locusts.  When  thus  struck  by  one  of  the 
flies  the  locust  in  nearly  every  instance  would  at  once  close  up  its  wings 
and  fall  to  the  ground,  as  if  aware  of  danger.  I did  not  succeed  in 
breeding  the  perfect  flies  from  these  locusts,  but  among  a large  number 
of  insects  sent  me  for  names  by  Mr.  E.  M.  Ehrhorn,  of  Mountain  View, 
was  a single  specimen  of  the  same  kind  of  fly  which  he  informed  me  was 
received  with  several  others  from  a Placer  County  correspondent;  the 
locust  which  he  pointed  out  to  me  as  being  the  one  from  which  this  fly 
was  bred  belongs  to  the  destructive  California  species,  Melanoplus  devas- 
tator Scudd.  While  at  Marysville,  Mr.  Gr.  W.  Harney,  the  President  of 
the  Yuba  County  Board  of  Horticulture,  showed  me  a Dipterous  pupa 
which  he  had  bred  from  one  of  our  largest  spineless-breasted  locusts, 
Eissosteira  spurcata  Stal. ; but  as  the  fly  never  issued  from  this  pupa 
the  species  to  which  the  latter  belongs  can  not  be  ascertained,  although 
it  is  very  probable  that  it  belongs  to  the  same  species  referred  to  above. 

In  Merced  County,  in  the  summer  of  1885,  I collected  quite  a large 
number  of  specimens  of  this  same  kind  of  locust,  inclosing  them  in  a 
bottle  containing  potassium  cyanide,  and  from  one  of  these  issued  a 
Dipterous  larva,  which,  however,  was  not  observed  until  it  had  been 
killed  by  the  fumes  of  the  cyanide,  so  that  the  species  to  which  it 
belonged  could  not  be  ascertained. 


50 


These  Dipterous  parasites  appear  to  be  extremely  rare.  In  every 
locality  visited  I dissected  large  numbers  of  locusts  belonging  to  various 
species,  but  did  not  find  any  of  them  to  contain  a trace  of  these  para- 
sites. I also  brought  a large  number  of  the  locusts  home  with  me,  but 
up  to  the  present  date  no  parasites  have  issued  from  them. 

Quite  a large  number  of  locusts  were  infested  with  small  red  mites, 
presumably  Trombidium  locustarum  Riley,  but  these  did  not  occur  in 
numbers  sufficient  to  prove  fatal  to  the  locusts  they  infested. 

On  page  263  of  the  Second  Report  of  the  United  States  Entomological 
Commission,  Professor  Riley  records  having  bred  two  different  kinds  of 
Bee-flies  from  larvae  found  feeding  upon  the  eggs  of  locusts  in  Sierra 
Valley,  California,  the  two  species  being  Aphoebantus  mus  O.  S.  (of 
which  Triodites  mus  is  a synonym)  and  Systcechus  oreus  O.  S.  5 but, 
although  I was  especially  on  the  lookout  for  specimens  of  these  two 
species,  I saw  only  a single  specimen  of  the  Aphoebantus.  This  was 
in  Tehama  County,  and  the  specimen  was  resting  upon  the  doorstep 
of  a dwelling  house.  During  the  entire  three  weeks  that  I spent 
in  investigating  the  locusts,  the  greater  part  of  this  time  having 
been  spent  in  the  fields,  I did  not  see  another  specimen  of  this  species, 
nor  of  any  other  species  belonging  to  this  or  to  closely  related  genera. 
The  Bee-flies  that  I saw  belong  to  the  genera  Toxophora,  Geron,  An- 
thrax, Argyramceba,  and  Exoprosopa,  none  of  which  in  the  larva  state 
are  known  to  feed  upon  the  eggs  of  locusts  nor  to  attack  the  locusts 
themselves.  Here  in  southern  California  I have  collected  specimens 
belonging  to  twenty-two  different  species  of  Aphoebantus,  several  of 
which  occur  in  quite  large  numbers;  and  it  is  evidently  largely  due  to 
the  presence  of  these  insects  that  the  locusts  so  seldom  occur  in 
destructive  numbers  in  this  part  of  the  State. 

In  the  first  report  of  the  United  States  Entomological  Commission, 
pages  297  to  301,  Professor  Riley  gives  an  extended  account  of  the 
early  stages  of  three  different  species  of  Blister-beetles,  the  larvae  of 
which  he  found  feeding  upon  the  eggs  of  various  kinds  of  locusts  in  the 
region  of  country  lying  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  These  beetles 
belong  to  two  genera,  Macrobasis  and  Epicauta,  but  neither  of  the  three 
species  referred  to  are  found  in  California.  So  far  as  I am  aware  the 
genus  Macrobasis  is  not  represented  in  this  State,  but  of  Epicauta  and 
related  genera  my  collection  contains  representatives  of  nearly  two 
dozen  species  found  in  this  State,  but  principally  in  the  southern  por- 
tion of  it.  During  my  recent  investigating  trip  I met  with  only  one 
kind  of  Blister-beetle,  the  Epicauta  puncticollis  Mann.,  a slender,  wholly 
black  species,  which,  however,  was  not  abundant  in  any  of  the  locali- 
ties visited.  They  were  most  abundant  in  the  neighborhood  of  Oroville, 
in  Butte  County,  where  I found  them  feeding  upon  a low- growing 
weed,  Layia  glandulosa , already  referred  to  in  the  chapter  treating  upon 
the  breeding  grounds  of  the  locusts.  Since  the  Devastating  Locusts  had 
bred  in  the  same  locality,  as  was  evidenced  by  my  finding  the  young  of 


51 


these  locusts  among  the  weeds  also  infested  by  the  Blister-beetles,  it  is 
very  probable  that  the  latter  while  in  the  larva  state  had  fed  upon  the 
eggs  of  the  locusts.  This  supposition  appears  to  be  rendered  all  the 
more  probable  by  the  further  fact  that  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  these 
beetles  the  locusts  did  not  occur  in  large  numbers,  nor  had  the  orchards 
and  vineyards  in  this  locality  been  seriously  injured  by  them.  The 
fact  recorded  above  that  the  larvae  of  other  species  of  Blister-beetles 
belonging  to  the  same  genus  are  known  to  feed  upon  the  eggs  of  locusts 
renders  it  almost  certain  that  the  present  species  while  in  the  larva 
state  also  feeds  upon  the  eggs  of  these  insects,  and  would,  if  sufficiently 
plentiful,  keep  the  locusts  so  reduced  in  numbers  that  it  would  be  im- 
possible for  them  to  become  numerous  enough  to  occasion  any  wide- 
spread injury  to  cultivated  trees  and  plants.  Unfortunately  there  ap- 
pears to  be  no  method  whereby  we  can  secure  the  more  rapid  propaga- 
tion of  these  and  the  other  natural  enemies  of  the  locusts,  and  our 
only  recourse  therefore  is  to  subdue  these  pests  by  artificial  means. 

REMEDIES. 

I have  already  stated  the  fact  that  when  the  locusts  appeared  in  or- 
dinary numbers  they  were  effectually  destroyed  by  the  use  of  the  bran 
and  arsenic  mixture,  composed  of  the  following  ingredients  in  the  pro- 
portions here  given : 


Pounds. 

Bran . 100 

Arsenic 16 

Sugar 16 


Water  sufficient  to  thoroughly  wet  the  mixture. 

The  bran  is  placed  in  any  convenient  receptacle,  and  the  arsenic 
added  to  it  dry ; the  two  are  then  thoroughly  mixed  together  with  a 
shovel,  spade,  or  other  instrument.  The  sugar  is  then  dissolved  in  cold 
water  and  afterwards  added  to  the  bran  and  arsenic  mixture  and  the 
whole  thoroughly  stirred;  if  this  is  not  sufficient  to  wet  the  mixture, 
enough  cold  water  should  be  added  to  accomplish  this,  and  after  being 
thoroughly  stirred,  the  mixture  is  ready  for  use.  In  applying  it,  some 
persons  sow  it  broadcast  by  hand  in  the  orchards  and  vineyards,  while 
others  simply  drop  about  a teaspoonful  of  the  mixture  at  the  base  of 
each  vine  or  tree.  By  the  latter  method  about  10  pounds  of  the  bran 
and  If  pounds  each  of  sugar  and  arsenic  will  be  required  for  each  acre 
of  grapevines.  The  cost  of  the  materials  and  of  the  labor  in  preparing 
and  applying  this  mixture  will  not  much  exceed  50  cents  per  acre  of 
grapevines,  while  in  the  orchards  the  cost  will  be  much  lower  than 
this. 

The  addition  of  the  sugar  is  simply  for  the  purpose  of  causing  the 
arsenic  to  adhere  to  the  particles  of  bran,  and  not  for  the  purpose  of 
rendering  the  mixture  more  attractive  to  tlie  locusts,  since  I ascertained 


52 


by  experiments  that  the  bran  is  much  more  attractive  to  the  locusts 
than  sugar  is.  Some  persons  informed  me  that  they  had  used  molasses 
in  place  of  the  sugar,  and  with  equally  good  results.  A few  had  added 
a quantity  of  glycerin  to  the  mixture  in  order  to  prevent  it  from  dry- 
ing out  and  forming  a solid  mass  that  the  locusts  can  not  readily  feed 
upon,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  this  is  any  great  improvement  over  the  ordi- 
nary way. 

I met  several  persons  who  reported  that  they  had  not  obtained  sat- 
isfactory results  by  the  use  of  this  mixture,  but  I learned  from  them 
that  they  had  used  only  2 pounds  of  arsenic  to  100  pounds  of  bran; 
this,  of  course,  would  make  a very  weak  mixture,  containing  only  one- 
eighth  as  much  arsenic  as  it  should  have  contained,  and  therefore  it  is 
not  to  be  wondered  at  that  it  did  not  produce  the  same  results  as  the 
stronger  mixture  would  have  done.  The  arsenic  in  this  mixture  is  very 
slow  in  its  actions  upon  the  locusts.  I have  seen  locusts  feeding  upon 
it  quite  early  in  the  morning,  and  these  were  still  alive  in  the  evening, 
but  died  during  the  night. 

There  has  been  some  objection  made  to  the  use  of  this  mixture  on  ac- 
count of  the  danger  attending  its  use,  but  with  only  ordinary  precautions 
no  danger  need  be  apprehended  from  it.  Although  it  has  been  quite 
extensively  used  in  various  parts  of  this  State  during  the  last  six  years, 
still  1 have  not  learned  of  a single  instance  where  human  beings  or 
domestic  animals  of  any  kind  have  been  poisoned  by  it.  It  is  advisable 
to  prepare  the  mixture  in  a closed  room  in  order  to  prevent  the  arsenic 
from  being  blown  about  by  the  wind,  but  after  the  mixture  has  once 
been  thoroughly  saturated  with  water  there  is  no  danger  of  its  being 
blown  about,  nor  is  there  any  great  danger  of  its  being  carried  about 
upon  the  feet  of  birds  or  insects.  Of  course  it  should  never  be  placed 
within  the  reach  of  poultry  or  of  domestic  animals  of  any  kind;  these, 
however,  are  seldom  allowed  to  run  in  the  orchards  or  vineyards,  so 
that  little  or  no  additional  trouble  would  result  from  the  use  of  the 
jioisoned  mixture  in  such  places. 

Several  persons  informed  me  that  they  had  sprayed  their  trees  with 
Paris  green  and  water  at  the  rate  of  1 pound  of  this  poison  to  about  200 
gallons  of  water,  but  this  did  not  deter  the  locusts  from  feeding  upon 
the  leaves  of  the  trees  thus  sprayed;  nor  could  it  be  discovered  that 
any  of  the  locusts  had  been  destroyed  by  feeding  upon  the  poisoned 
leaves.  This  is  scarcely  to  be  wondered  at,  since  it  would  not  be  possi- 
ble in  this  manner  to  cause  a sufficient  quantity  of  the  poison  to  adhere 
to  the  leaves  without  at  the  same  time  severely  injuring  the  latter.  A 
far  better  plan  is  to  use  the  bran  and  arsenic  mixture  described  above, 
as  there  is  no  danger  of  injuring  the  trees  by  its  use. 

I was  also  informed  that  trees  had  been  sprayed  with  various  sub- 
stances to  deter  the  locusts  from  feeding  upon  them,  but  all  that  I con- 
versed with  upon  this  subject  reported  unsatisfactory  results.  The  fol- 
lowing from  the  Folsom  Weekly  Telegraph  of  August  1?  1891,  would 


53 


seem  to  indicate  that  at  least  one  person  had  obtained  good  results  in 
this  direction: 


A WAY  TO  FIGHT  GRASSHOPPERS. 

Editor  Telegraph:  While  on  business  at  Capt.  Russell's  ranch,  about  5 miles 
northeast  of  this  place,  in  Placer  County,  I found  his  fine  orchard  and  vineyard  all 
safe  from  the  ravages  of  the  grasshopper  pests,  although  they  have  played  sad  havoc 
with  other  orchards  near  by.  Upon  inquiry  of  the  Captain  I was  informed  that  he 
had  used  a remedy  that  did  not  suit  the  tastes  of  the  hoppers,  and  therefore  they 
chose  other  localities  in  which  to  locate.  He  used  the  following  preparation : One 
pound  of  aloes  to  5 gallons  of  water.  Dissolve  well  in  warm  water  and  then  spray 
with  a fine  spray  pump.  A simple  taste  of  this  liquid  seems  to  discourage  the  opera- 
tor and  he  moves  to  other  quarters.  Capt.  Russell  thinks  that  his  discovery  is  good 
when  well  applied.  I give  this  information  for  what  it  is  worth,  and  hope  some 
good  may  be  derived  from  it.  The  condition  of  Capt.  Russell's  orchard  justifies  the 
confidence  he  expresses  in  the  remedy  mentioned. 

G.  S.  Tong. 

Folsom,  Cal.,  July  28,  1891. 

The  fact  that  the  locusts  feed  upon  such  a great  variety  of  trees  and 
plants,  including  such  offensive  ones  as  tarweeds  and  Conifers,  which 
most  other  leaf-eating  insects  pass  by,  would  seem  to  indicate  that  it 
would  be  extremely  difficult  to  find  a substance  so  disagreeable  and 
offensive  to  the  locusts  that  they  would  not  feed  upon  the  leaves  of 
plants  sprinkled  with  it.  It  is  possible  that  blood  obtained  from  the 
slaughterhouses  might  answer  this  purpose,  since  it  has  been  found 
that  rabbits  will  not  feed  upon  the  bark  of  trees  on  which  blood  had 
been  rubbed. 

Quite  a number  of  persons  employed  turkeys  for  the  purpose  of  free- 
ing their  orchards  and  vineyards  of  the  locusts,  and  I learn  from  one 
of  the  members  of  a certain  firm  in  San  Joaquin  County  that  they  em- 
ployed a flock  of  766  turkeys  in  their  orchard,  which  contains  about 
800  acres  of  fruit  trees  of  various  kinds.  One  turkey  will  destroy  an 
almost  incredible  number  of  locusts  in  a single  day,  and  a flock  of  the 
size  of  the  one  above  described  must  necessarily  destroy  large  numbers 
of  the  pests  in  the  course  of  an  entire  season.  I was  informed  of  sev- 
eral instances  where  turkeys  had  eaten  too  freely  of  the  locusts,  having 
partaken  of  them  to  such  an  extent  as  to  result  in  the  death  of  the  tur- 
keys, but  it  was  asserted  that  this  never  happened  if  the  turkeys  had 
been  fed  grain  before  being  turned  into  the  orchard  in  the  morning. 
Several  persons  objected  to  having  the  turkeys  in  their  orchards  owing 
to  a fondness  which  these  birds  develop  for  ripe  fruit,  as  it  was  found 
that  when  the  turkeys  once  took  to  feeding  upon  the  fruit  they  forgot 
all  about  the  locusts  and  proved  quite  as  great  a pest  as  did  the  in- 
sects which  they  were  expected  to  annihilate,  rather  than  to  aid,  in 
their  destructive  work.  Owing  to  this  undesirable  habit  of  the  turkey 
it  would  be  advisable  to  allow  them  the  freedom  only  of  nonbearing 
orchards  and  vineyards,  or  at  least,  of  those  not  containing  ripe  or 
nearly  ripe  fruit. 


54 


Besides  turkeys,  the  common  barnyard  fowls  also  prove  to  be  very 
efficient  destroyers  of  locusts.  This  fact  was  abundautly  attested  in 
the  case  of  an  almond  orchard  containing  about  360  acres;  this  orchard 
had  been  attacked  by  the  migrating  swarms  which  had  spread  over  the 
greater  portion  of  it.  The  house,  barn,  and  other  buildings  were  situ- 
ated nearly  in  the  center  of  this  orchard,  and  the  barnyard  fowls  had 
been  allowed  to  range  among  the  trees  immediately  surrounding  them; 
these  trees  covered  perhaps  6 or  8 acres  of  land,  and,  at  the  time  of  my 
visit  to  this  place  on  the  7th  of  August,  presented  a very  different  ap- 
pearance from  those  in  the  remaining  portion  of  the  orchard,  remind- 
ing one  somewhat  of  an  oasis  in  the  desert.  All  about  them  the  trees 
had  been  nearly  stripped  of  their  leaves  by  the  voracious  locusts,  while 
upon  those  growing  in  the  area  designated  above  but  few  of  the  leaves 
upon  the  trees  had  been  eaten,  owing  to  the  persistent  attacks  of  the 
barnyard  fowls  upon  the  invading  locusts. 

In  some  localities  the  practice  of  driving  the  locusts  out  of  the  orchard 
was  resorted  to,  and  resulted  in  some  cases  in  a fair  degree  of  success. 
To  accomplish  this  a band  of  men  armed  with  clubs,  shovels,  etc., 
started  in  at  the  eastern  side  of  the  orchard,  and  forming  a continuous 
line  north  and  south,  proceeded  to  drive  the  locusts  before  them,  driv- 
ing them  from  tree  to  tree  until  they  were  driven  completely  out  of  the 
orchard.  It  was  stated  that  after  the  locusts  had  been  driven  a certain 
distance  they  refused  to  go  any  farther,  as  if  too  tired,  but  after  being 
allowed  to  rest  for  a short  time  they  then  permitted  themselves  to  be 
driven  before  the  advancing  line  of  men.  This  driving  was  repeated 
six  or  seven  times  at  short  intervals,  and  in  the  majority  of  cases  re- 
sulted in  preventing  the  locusts  from  defoliating  the  trees. 

Some  persons  employed  a somewhat  different  method  of  driving  the 
locusts  out  of  their  orchards.  A small  pile  of  dry  straw  was  placed  on 
the  west  side  of  each  tree  in  the  orchard,  and  a small  quantity  of  sul- 
phur thrown  upon  each  pile;  the  most  eastern  piles  of  straw  were  first 
ignited,  and  the  wind,  blowing  from  the  west,  blew  the  sulphur  smoke 
through  the  trees  standing  to  the  eastward  of  the  burning  straw;  this 
caused  the  locusts  to  fly  out  of  these  trees,  and  as  they  always  go  almost 
straight  against  the  wind,  they  would  fly  to  the  trees  in  the  rows  west 
of  those  they  were  smoked  out  of.  The  next  row  of  straw  piles  was 
then  set  on  fire,  and  this  process  was  continued  until  the  locusts  had 
been  driven  entirely  out  of  the  orchard.  In  conversation  with  several 
persons  wffio  had  tried  this  method  I was  informed  that  it  resulted  in  a 
fair  degree  of  success,  while  several  others,  who  had  also  tried  it,  in- 
formed me  that  it  was  a complete  failure,  and  that  the  locusts  paid  no 
heed  whatever  to  the  sulphur  smoke. 

The  practice  of  driving  the  locusts  out  of  one  orchard  into  another 
can  hardly  be  approved  upon  general  principles,  as  it  is  hardly  fair  for 
any  man  to  drive  the  pests  out  of  his  own  orchard  into  that  of  a neigh- 
bor. 

In  the  opening  paragraph  of  the  present  chapter  occurs  the  state- 


ment  that  the  locusts  could  be  effectually  destroyed  by  the  use  of  the 
bran  and  arsenic  mixture  when  they  occurred  in  ordinary  numbers,  but 
I was  informed  that  where  they  came  in  large  swarms  this  mixture 
scarcely  produced  any  appreciable  effect  in  lessening  their  numbers, 
dozens  of  individuals  coming  to  take  the  place  of  each  of  their  fallen 
comrades,  and  these  new  comers  succeeded  in  almost  completely  defoli- 
ating the  trees  in  spite  of  the  presence  of  the  poisonous  mixture.  Un- 
fortunately,  1 had  no  opportunity  of  testing  this  matter  myself  and 
therefore  am  unable  to  decide  in  regard  to  the  truthfulness  of  this  state- 
ment from  personal  experience. 

Much  might  be  accomplished  in  the  matter  of  preventing  the  appear- 
ance in  the  cultivated  orchards  of  the  migrating  swarms  by  destroying 
either  the  eggs  or  the  young  locusts  in  their  natural  breeding  grounds. 
In  a previous  chapter  I have  given  my  reasons  for  believing  that  the 
swarms  of  locusts  that  occasionally  appear  in  portions  of  the  San  Joa- 
quin and  Sacramento  Valleys  hatch  out  in  the  pasture  lands  among  the 
foothills  along  the  western  base  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  in 
land  overgrown  with  tarweeds.  The  eggs  in  these  breeding  grounds 
might  be  destroyed  either  by  burning  over  these  grounds  late  in  the 
autumn  after  all  of  the  eggs  are  laid,  or  by  plowing  under  the  eggs  to 
a depth  of  6 or  8 inches  at  any  time  before  they  hatch  out  in  the  spring. 
The  eggs  of  the  migrating  California  locust  have  never  been  seen  by 
me,  but  there  is  every  reason  for  believing  that  they  are  deposited  in 
the  same  manner  as  those  of  other  species  belonging  to  the  same  genus. 
These  are  deposited  in  a mass,  the  upper  part  of  which  is  nearly  on  a 
level  with  the  surface  of  the  ground,  while  the  lower  part  is  within  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  of  the  surface.  It  is  very  probable,  therefore,  that 
where  there  is  any  considerable  quantity  of  dry  weeds  and  other  litter 
scattered  over  the  breeding  ground,  by  setting  fire  to  this  litter  the 
heat  generated  from  it  would  be  sufficient  to  destroy  all  of  the  eggs 
existing  in  the  ground  thus  burned  over. 

Instead  of  thus  destroying  the  eggs  it  might  be  advisable  to  wait 
until  the  young  locusts  have  hatched  out  in  the  following  spring,  and 
then  destroy  these  young  ones  before  they  have  acquired  wings  and 
migrated  from  the  breeding  grounds.  This  could  evidently  be  accom- 
plished with  the  least  trouble  and  expense  by  scattering  the  bran  and 
arsenic  mixture  over  the  breeding  grounds  shortly  after  the  young 
locusts  first  make  their  appearance.  In  case  that  these  breeding 
grounds  occur  in  pasture  lands  it  might  be  advisable  to  fence  them  in, 
so  as  to  prevent  the  stock  from  being  poisoned  by  this  mixture  put  out 
for  the  locusts.  I am  not  aware  that  stock  of  any  kind  will  feed  upon 
the  tarweeds,  so  that  but  little  loss  in  pasturage  would  be  experienced 
if  the  stock  were  to  be  prevented  from  ranging  over  patches  of  them. 
I have  been  credibly  informed  that  this  method  of  poisoning  the  young 
locusts  in  their  natural  breeding  grounds  has  been  practiced  in  Fresno 
County  for  several  years  past,  and  that  since  it  was  first  adopted  no 
serious  outbreaks  of  locusts  have  occurred  in  that  county. 


56 


The  fact  as  above  stated  that  the  Devastating  Locust  breeds  only  or 
almost  wholly  in  places  overgrown  with  tarweeds  would  indicate  that 
if  these  weeds  were  destroyed  by  being  plowed  under,  and  later  by 
thoroughly  cultivating  the  soil,  so  that  those  appearing  afterward 
would  be  destroyed,  the  locusts  would  no  longer  choose  such  places  for 
oviposition;  and  just  in  proportion  as  this  practice  was  extended, 
in  the  same  proportion  would  there  be  a less  number  of  the  locusts  pro- 
duced in  the  localities  operated  in.  And  if  it  were  possible  to  wholly 
eradicate  these  patches  of  tarweeds,  that  would  evidently  settle  the 
question  of  locust  ravages  in  that  section  of  country  for  all  time  to 
come.  Not  only  should  the  tarweeds  in  the  pasture  lands  among  the 
foothills  be  destroyed,  but  also  those  growing  along  the  roadsides  and 
in  waste  places  about  cultivated  fields,  since  the  locusts  which  hatch 
out  in  such  places  aid  in  no  small  degree  the  devastating  work  of  the 
migrating  swarms.  Too  much  stress  can  not  be  laid  upon  this  subject 
of  preventing,  as  far  as  possible,  the  breeding  of  the  locusts,  and  of 
destroying  the  young  ones  before  they  acquire  wings.  It  has  been  the 
unfortunate  experience  of  many  of  our  orchardists  in  the  region  of 
country  subject  to  these  locust  invasions,  that  after  once  the  locusts 
have  acquired  wingr,  and  come  into  the  orchards  in  immense  swarms, 
one  following  the  other,  little  or  no  headway  can  be  made  against 
them;  our  greatest  efforts,  therefore,  should  be  directed  against  these 
pests  before  this  stage  of  their  existence  is  reached,  and  while  it  is 
still  within  our  power  to  successfully  cope  with  them.  In  this  respect, 
an  ounce  of  invention  is  worth  many  pounds  of  cure. 

In  the  case  of  small  trees  these  can  be  protected  from  the  ravages  ot 
the  locusts  by  being  covered  with  sacks  of  cloth  or  of  paper,  allowing 
these  to  remain  upon  the  trees  until  all  of  the  locusts  have  passed  away. 
For  this  purpose  common  barley  or  gunny  bags,  oat-meal  sacks,  and 
paper  sacks  of  various  kinds  have  been  used.  These  were  simply  slipped 
over  the  young  trees  from  above  and  the  mouth  of  the  sack  tied  about 
the  trunk  of  the  tree.  In  place  of  sacks  some  persons  employed  old 
newspapers,  which  they  wrapped  around  the  trees  and  fastened  with 
strings.  I saw  several  hundred  young  orange,  prune,  and  various  other 
kinds  of  deciduous  trees  which  were  inclosed  in  barley  sacks,  and  I was 
informed  that  the  sacks  had  been  on  the  trees  for  over  five  weeks,  still 
when  several  of  them  were  removed  the  trees  appeared  to  be  as  healthy 
and  vigorous  as  any  I ever  saw.  It  was  reported  that  a large  number 
of  trees  had  been  killed  by  thus  being  covered  with  sacks,  but  I was 
unable  to  find  a single  case  where  this  had  occurred.  The  following 
paragraph  on  this  subject  is  from  the  California  Fruit  Grower , of  San 
Francisco : 

During  the  recent  grasshopper  invasion  A.  J.  Lloyd,  who  has  an  orange  orchard 
near  town,  covered  his  young  trees  with  gunny  sacks,  to  prevent  damage,  as  re- 
ported by  the  Oroville  Mercury.  The  effect  has  been  most  disastrous,  for  upon  re- 
moving the  sacks  it  was  found  that  about  900  trees  had  been  killed. 


57 


One  orchardist  who  had  used  barley  sacks  successfully  for  the  pur- 
pose of  protecting  his  young  orange  and  prune  trees  from  the  attacks 
of  the  locusts,  informed  me  that  some  of  his  neighbors  had  used  paper 
sacks  with  the  result  of  killing  the  trees,  but  I was  unable  to  ascertain 
how  much  truth  there  was  in  this  assertion.  I saw  quite  a large  num- 
ber of  prune  and  olive  trees  that  were  wrapped  in  papers  which  I was 
informed  had  been  on  the  trees  for  three  or  four  weeks,  but  these  trees 
had  not  been  injured  in  the  least  by  this  treatment.  A lady  owning 
an  orchard  of  young  fruit  trees  near  Pasadena  found  that  the  leaves 
of  several  of  the  trees  had  been  eaten  by  a kind  of  May -beetle,  Serica 
fimbriata  Lee.,  which  remained  hidden  from  sight  in  the  daytime  and 
came  forth  only  at  night  to  feed  upon  the  leaves.  Having  been  applied 
to  for  advice  I recommended  that  the  trees  be  inclosed  in  barley  sacks, 
and  that  they  be  allowed  to  remain  upon  the  trees  for  a period  of  about 
three  weeks,  or  until  the  May-beetles  had  passed  away.  Accordingly 
this  was  done,  and  during  a recent  visit  to  this  orchard  I found  that  the 
sacks  had  been  duly  removed  and  the  trees  were  now  growing  vigor- 
ously, being  to  all  appearances  none  the  worse  for  their  temporary  im- 
prisonment. This  would  at  once  disprove  the  assertion  that  trees  are 
injured  by  being  confined  in  sacks  of  this  hind. 

Of  course,  this  method  could  only  be  employed  for  the  protection  of 
small  trees;  on  large  trees  it  would  be  altogether  too  expensive. 


REPORT  OP  A TRTP  TO  KANSAS  TO  INVESTIGATE  RE- 
PORTED DAMAGES  PROM  GRASSHOPPERS.* 


By  Herbert  Osborn,  Special  Agent. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 


Ames,  Iowa,  August  19,  1891. 

Sir  : I beg  to  submit  herewith  my  report  of  a trip,  made  in  accordance  with  in- 
structions received  July  24,  1891,  to  investigate  reported  damages  by  grasshoppers 
in  Kansas  during  the  current  year. 

Very  respectfully, 

Herbert  Osborn. 


Prof.  C.  Y.  Riley, 

U.  S.  Entomologist. 


In  accordance  with  instructions  received  July  24,  to  visit  and  report 
on  grasshopper  injury  in  western  Kansas,  I started  the  following 
morning  for  Kansas  and  improved  every  opportunity  on  the  way  to 
learn  of  grasshopper  injury.  At  Des  Moines,  where  I waited  a few 
hours  for  the  Kansas  City  train,  I went  through  a large  number  of  Kan- 
sas papers,  kindly  placed  at  my  service  in  the  office  of  the  State  Register 
and  Iowa  Homestead , without,  however,  getting  any  information  ex- 
cept assertions  in  some  places  that  there  were  no  hoppers  in  Kansas. 

From  a gentleman  lately  through  Arizona  I learned  of  the  appearance 
of  considerable  numbers  in  that  Territory  and  the  expectation  that 
these  might  be  traveling  eastward.  At  Kansas  City  I was  equally 
unsuccessful,  the  only  information  received  there  being  the  statement  of 
railroad  men  as  to  the  occurrence  of  hoppers  on  the  railroad  in  Colo- 
rado (the  case  investigated  by  Professors  Snow  and  Popenoe),  and  of 
some  in  Arizona,  along  the  line  of  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe 
Kailroad. 

At  Topeka  I went  first  to  the  office  of  the  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 
The  Secretary,  Mr.  Mohler,  was  absent,  but  the  gentlemen  present, 
Messrs.  Longshore  and  Kyswander,  kindly  gave  me  a full  statement  as 
to  the  information  the  office  contained. 

They  receive  reports  from  over  six  hundred  correspondents  who  are 
scattered  over  the  entire  State,  the  western  portion  being  well  repre- 


ss 


Repriuted  from  Insect  Life,  vol.  iv,  p.  49. 


sented.  They  assured  me  that  not  a single  report  had  been  received  by 
them  which  mentioned  injury  from  grasshoppers,  and  they  were  positive 
that  no  damage  was  being  done. 

At  the  newspaper  offices  I received  similar  replies,  except  that  in  the 
office  of  the  Kansas  Democrat  I learned  of  a report  that  some  damage 
had  been  done  in  Kearney  County.  As  this  report,  however,  was  some- 
what indefinite,  I hesitated  to  make  it  the  basis  of  a special  trip  to  the 
extreme  southwest  part  of  the  State,  and,  Lawrence  being  so  near  at 
hand,  I concluded  to  go  there  to  see  if  Professor  Snow  had  any  recent 
information. 

Professor  Snow  was  absent,  but  his  assistant,  Mr.  Y.  L.  Kellogg, 
kindly  gave  me  all  the  information  he  could.  He  said  that  they  had 
heard  nothing  from  the  region  that  had  been  examined  by  Professors 
Snow  and  Popenoe  in  Colorado,  except  that  the  winged  insects  were 
moving  south,  and  he  was  sure  that  none  of  these  had  entered  Kansas. 

He  also  informed  me  that  they  had  received  information  of  injuries 
at  Garden  City,  and  showed  me  specimens  of  Caloptenus  differentialis 
and  Mvittatus  received  from  there. 

This  information  tending  to  substantiate  the  report  of  damage  in 
Kearney  County,  I decided  to  visit  Garden  City  and  took  the  first  train 
for  that  place.  On  the  way  I kept  careful  outlook  for  any  signs  of 
damage,  and  improved  the  opportunity  of  occasional  stops  to  collect 
specimens  and  inquire  of  residents  as  to  the  prevalence  of  grasshoppers. 
All  answers  agreed  in  denial  of  any  unusual  numbers  of  grasshoppers 
or  of  injury  from  them,  and  it  was  not  till  I reached  Garden  City  that 
I learned  of  any  damage.  Here  I was  told  that  the  alfalfa  fields  were 
being  ruined,  and  it  was  only  a short  time  after  my  arrival  that  I was 
in  a field  a mile  from  town  where  the  conditions  showed  at  once  the 
state  of  affairs  to  be  serious. 

The  alfalfa  was  badly  stripped,  the  blossoms  and  seed  entirely  eaten 
up,  and  in  many  patches  the  stems  were  stripped  bare  of  leaves,  look- 
ing brown  and  dead. 

The  grasshoppers,  mostly  differentialis , with  a considerable  number 
of  Mvittatus , when  rising  in  front  of  me  as  I walked  through  the  field, 
formed  a cloud  8 or  10  feet  high  and  so  dense  as  to  hide  objects  beyond 
them.  Here  I noticed  a number  of  grasshoppers  dead  from  the  attacks 
of  parasitic  Tachinids. 

From  this  field  I went  to  another,  owned  by  the  same  man,  which  was 
also  well  filled  with  grasshoppers,  but  the  injury  here  was  less,  espe- 
cially around  the  buildings,  where  a large  number  of  turkeys  were  doing 
excellent  service  in  killing  the  hoppers  and  at  the  same  time  adding 
rapidly  to  their  own  weight. 

In  a field  of  sorghum  directly  adjoining  there  was  also  considerable 
injury,  but  differentialis  seemed  scarce,  while  a bright  green  species, 
Acridium  frontalis  Thos.,  was  abundant  and  apparently  the  principal 
agent  of  destruction.  This  species  was  also  noticed  here  and  in  other 


60 


places  occurring  in  great  abundance  on  tbe  Wild  Sunflower  so  common 
on  these  plains,  and  the  question  arose  whether  this  was  not  its  natural 
food  plant  and  its  attacks  on  sorghum  incidental. 

The  day  following  I spent  the  forenoon  with  Dr.  Sabin,  who  kindly 
furnished  a horse  and  cart  and  accompanied  me  in  examining  a num- 
ber of  farms  within  5 miles  of  Garden  City,  where  alfalfa  fields  and 
orchards  were  injured.  I met  and  talked  with  a number  of  farmers  who 
had  suffered  from  grasshopper  depredations,  and  the  information  re- 
ceived from  them  with  what  I gained  by  personal  observation  satisfied 
me  that  losses  could  be  avoided  by  proper  measures. 

I learned  that  the  same  injuries  extended  farther  west  along  the  river 
where  alfalfa  was  grown,  and  I proceeded  from  Garden  City  to  Lakin, 
observing  on  the  way  that  all  alfalfa  fields  showed  presence  of  grass- 
hoppers, but  that  in  some  cases  the  bloom  was  still  free  from  serious 
injury  or  destroyed  only  in  patches.  At  Lakin  I learned  that  injury 
had  been  serious,  especially  on  the  place  of  Mr.  Longstreth,  some  two 
miles  from  town.  Some  fields  near  the  river  and  occupying  low  land 
were  noticed  in  full  bloom  and  showing  little  damage,  but  still  grass- 
hoppers could  be  found  in  abundance  by  closer  inspection  of  the  fields. 

Mr.  Longstretli’s  son,  being  in  town,  drove  me  out  to  his  father’s  farm, 
and  accompanied  me  on  a tour  through  his  extensive  orchard  of  10  acres, 
his  oat  field  and  alfalfa  fields,  in  all  of  which  the  damage  had  been  seri- 
ous. Many  of  the  trees  in  the  orchard  were  entirely  stripped  of  leaves, 
and  in  some  cases  the  bark  had  been  eaten  from  the  limbs.  The  alfalfa 
presented  the  same  appearance  as  observed  * in  other  fields.  I found 
here  a great  many  dead  grasshoppers,  whose  empty  shells  attested  the 
activity  of  Tachinse. 

I was  told  by  Mr.  Longstreth  that  skunks  were  amongst  the  most 
active  enemies  of  the  grasshoppers,  and  he  believed  played  an  important 
part  in  reducing  them.  He  had  even  seen  one  up  in  an  apple  tree  catch- 
ing hoppers  on  the  limbs. 

I learned  at  Lakin  that  alfalfa  was  also  grown  in  the  next  county 
west,  at  Syracuse,  and  that  damage  was  also  reported  there,  but  on 
reaching  the  place  found  the  injury  slight  as  compared  with  the  other 
places  visited.  In  fact,  aside  from  one  farm  on  which  some  damage  to 
alfalfa  and  orchard  had  occurred  I could  learn  of  no  loss.  Caloptenus 
differentialis  I found  in  some  numbers,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that 
unless  some  effort  is  made  this  fall  and  next  spring  to  destroy  eggs  and 
young  they  will  multiply  as  in  other  localities,  and  probably  by  next 
season  prove  as  destructive  as  in  them. 

As  this  point  carried  me  into  the  westernmost  row  of  counties  in  the 
State,  and  there  was  no  report  of  damage  farther  on,  I determined  to 
cross  northward  to  the  Missouri  Pacific  Eoad,  in  order  to  follow  up  some 
rumors  regarding  damage  from  grasshoppers  at  some  points  intervening, 
and  which,  from  the  descriptions  given,  seemed  possibly  to  be  due  to 
Dissosteira  longipennis.  No  point  where  serious  loss  occurred  was  found, 
however,  and  this  species  occurred  but  sparingly  at  points  between 


61 


Syracuse  and  Tribune,  and  occurred  at  Horace  only  in  small  numbers, 
too  few  to  cause  any  apprehension  for  the  immediate  future  at  least. 
Taking  the  Missouri  Pacific,  I passed  through  to  Kansas  City  without 
finding  any  evidence  of  damage  from  grasshoppers,  and  as  I could  learn 
of  no  other  localities  in  the  State  than  in  the  three  counties  examined 
where  such  damage  was  reported,  I returned  to  Ames,  and  will  now  pro- 
ceed to  a detailed  account  of  the  territory  examined,  the  species  ob- 
served, and  the  special  measures  needed  to  meet  the  outbreak  in  this 
section. 

THE  TERRITORY  AFFECTED. 

The  damaged  territory  is  quite  easily  defined  and  might  very  prop- 
erly be  said  to  coincide  with  the  irrigated  portion  of  the  Arkansas 
Valley  lying  in  Finney,  Kearney,  and  Hamilton  counties  in  southwest 
Kansas.  The  entire  irrigated  district,  however,  is  not  equally  injured 
and  there  are  some  fields  much  less  damaged  than  others.  The  whole 
area  covered  extends  with  occasional  breaks  a distance  of  about  50 
miles  along  the  river  and  forms  a strip  from  1 to  5 miles  wide  but 
limited  entirely  to  areas  where  irrigation  has  been  practiced,  and  within 
this  limit  is  dependent  upon  the  kind  of  crops  raised. 

The  greater  damage  was  observed  at  Garden  City,  though  nearly  as 
bad  was  seen  at  Lakin,  and  but  little  was  found  at  Syracuse,  corre- 
sponding as  near  as  I could  learn  pretty  closely  with  the  length  of 
time  since  alfalfa  has  been  made  a principal  crop  on  the  irrigated 
lands. 


THE  CROPS  AFFECTED. 

Alfalfa  is  the  crop  in  which  there  is  the  most  loss,  but  orchards  are 
suffering  badly,  and  were  they  extensive  throughout  the  district  would 
very  probably  present  the  heavier  loss. 

The  alfalfa  crop  is  a very  profitable  one  and  easily  grown  with  irriga- 
tion,  and  has  been  very  extensively  planted,  the  fields  devoted  to  it 
covering  many  thousands  of  acres. 

The  injury  to  this  crop  is  of  such  a nature  that  I believe  practical 
remedies  may  be  adopted,  and,  as  will  be  stated  later,  active  measures 
should  be  adopted  this  fall  and  next  spring. 

THE  AMOUNT  OF  INJURY. 

The  great  loss  this  year  has  resulted  from  the  destruction  of  the  seed 
crop.  In  many  fields  this  has  been  a total  failure,  and  the  loss  may  be 
considered  as  covering  thousands  of  acres  and  involving  many  thou- 
sands of  dollars.  One  man  who  had  something  over  100  acres  in  alfalfa 
considered  that  his  loss  amounted  to  about  $2,000.  While  he  expected 
to  cut  and  use  the  crop  for  hay,  the  damage  had  been  such  that  the  hay 
would  be  little  better  than  after  the  seed  crop  had  been  secured,  and 
he  reckoned  the  full  loss  of  the  seed  crop  for  the  season.  In  some  cases 


62 


farmers  were  cutting  for  hay  when  they  had  intended  to  allow  the  crop 
to  go  to  seed,  and  in  this  way  were  reducing  the  amount  of  their  loss 
by  the  value  of  the  crop  of  hay  cut  early  over  what  the  hay  would  be 
worth  after  maturing  seed,  the  latter,  of  course,  being  much  less  valua- 
ble than  the  hay  cut  before  seed  matures.  In  many  cases  the  farmers 
had  been  depending  largely  upon  the  crop  of  seed  to  help  them  out  of 
debt,  and  the  loss  from  the  grasshopper  injury  falls  heavily  upon  them. 

THE  SPECIES  DOING-  THE  DAMAGE. 

The  Differential  Locust  is,  I think,  chargeable  with  fully  nine- tenths 
of  the  destruction,  both  in  alfalfa  and  orchards,  and  the  reasons  for  its 
increase  in  this  section  seem  to  me  quite  evident.  Tlie  irrigated  fields 
of  alfalfa  furnish  it  with  favorite  food  in  abundance  throughout  the 
year  and  have  given  it  an  opportunity  to  multiply  rapidly  without  ex- 
hausting its  food  supply. 

The  ditches  which  traverse  the  fields  and  possibly  parts  of  the  fields 
themselves  furnish  a most  excellent  location  for  the  deposition  of  eggs, 
the  ground  being  compact  and  for  the  most  part  undisturbed  through- 
out the  year.  That  the  eggs  are  deposited  in  or  alongside  the  ditches 
is  indicated  by  several  facts,  though  at  the  time  of  my  visit  the  locusts, 
while  pairing,  Avere  none  of  them  ovipositing.  In  the  first  place,  the 
greatest  damage  has  occurred  in  strips  on  either  side  of  the  ditehes, 
and  only  in  the  worst  fields  extends  over  the  entire  field ; second,  at 
the  time  of  my  visit  the  pairing  individuals  were  quite  evidently  collect- 
ing more  particularly  in  these  locations;  third,  the  testimony  of  those 
who  seemed  to  have  observed  most  closely  agreed  in  placing  the  greatest 
number  of  young  hoppers  in  spring  along  the  borders  of  the  ditches,  a 
point  Avhieh  is  clearly  supported  by  the  injured  strips  so  plainly  to  be 
seen.  No  one  whom  I,  questioned  had  seen  the  locusts  in  the  act  of 
ovipositing. 

The  ditches  contain  no  Avater  during  a large  part  of  the  year,  and  in 
fall  the  compact  bottom,  which  doubtless  affords  more  moisture  than 
the  fields  in  general,  would  seem  an  excellent  place  for  the  deposition 
of  eggs,  as  well  as  the  banks  on  either  side.  Judging  by  the  habits  of 
these  and  allied  species  in  other  locations  it  would  be  hard  to  conceive 
a more  favorable  place  for  the  deposition  of  eggs,  and  it  seems  to  nie 
very  probable  that  this,  as  well  as  the  suitability  and  abundance  of  the 
food,  may  be  considered  an  important  factor  in  the  rapid  increase  of 
the  species  in  the  last  three  or  four  years,  an  increase  that  has  taken 
place  directly  with  the  cultivation  of  alfalfa  by  irrigation. 

It  would  seem  also  that  this  habit  renders  the  insect  especially  open 
to  attack,  and  1 see  no  reason  why  concentrated  effort  may  not  entirely 
prevent  a repetition  of  the  damage  another  year. 

MEASURES  RECOMMENDED. 

The  situation,  it  seems  to  me,  is  one  deserving  serious  attention,  but 


63 


one  which  offers  every  hope  for  successful  work,  if  the  residents  of  the 
affected  localities  can  but  be  induced  to  make  a little  effort  at  the 
proper  time. 

The  means  which  appear  to  me  from  inspection  of  the  ground  to  prom- 
ise most  successful  results  would  be  as  follows: 

(1)  To  thoroughly  break  up  the  surface  of  the  ground  in  and  along 
the  ditches  before  winter  by  harrowing  thoroughly,  cultivating  or  shal- 
low plowing,  thus  exposing  the  eggs  to  winter  weather  and  natural 
enemies. 

(2)  Wherever  practicable,  to  flood  the  ground  for  a day  or  two  at  the 
time  young  locusts  are  hatching.  I was  told  that  the  young  hoppers 
were  entirely  unaffected  by  water,  as  they  would  crawl  up  the  alfalfa 
stems  and  escape,  and  it  is  probable  that  sufficient  flooding  to  accom- 
plish much  good  in  this  region  is  out  of  the  question.  My  only  hope  in 
this  line  would  be  in  watching  carefully  for  the  time  of  hatching,  and 
using  the  water  before  the  hoppers  had  obtained  any  growth,  and  if 
abundant  along  the  ditches,  putting  a little  kerosene  on  the  water. 

(3)  A use  of  the  hopperdozer  as  early  in  the  season  as  possible,  when 
I believe  the  treatment  of  a strip  8 or  10  feet  wide  on  each  side  of  the 
ditches  would  destroy  so  large  a part  of  their  numbers  as  to  prevent 
any  serious  damage.  As  I learned  from  a number  of  parties  the  hop- 
pers are  scarcely  half  grown  when  the  first  crop  is  cut,  it  would  seem 
that  immediately  after  cutting  the  first  crop  would  be  the  best  time  to 
use  the  hopperdozer.  The  hoppers  would  be  large  enough  to  jump 
readily  and  the  dozers  could  be  run  very  easily.  It  would  be  difficult 
to  use  them  at  any  other  time  than  directly  after  a crop  was  cut,  as  the 
dense  growth  of  alfalfa  would  obstruct  their  movement. 

My  strongest  recommendation  would  be  the  urging  of  effort  in  break- 
ing up  egg  masses  before  winter,  and  then  in  case  locusts  still  appear 
in  any  number  in  spring  to  resort  to  the  dozers  at  first  opportunity.  I 
believe  active  use  of  these  measures  will  be  effectual,  with  a cost  but 
trilling  compared  with  the  value  of  the  crop  to  be  saved. 

The  information  as  to  the  species  and  the  measures  needed  are  cov- 
ered very  fully  in  your  Bulletin  on  Destructive  Locusts,*  and  with  some 
specific  instruction  regarding  the  treatment  of  ditches  in  this  special 
locality  would,  I think,  give  the  people  of  the  district  affected  all  the 
information  necessary  to  protect  themselves,  and  it  would  seem  advisa- 
ble to  send  a number  of  copies  of  that  bulletin  to  the  postmasters  at 
Garden  City,  Lakin,  and  Syracuse,  to  distribute  to  farmers,  who  would 
make  use  of  them,  as  well  as  to  those  whose  names  I will  furnish  for 
this  purpose. 

OTHER  SPECIES  OBSERVED. 

The  species  next  to  differentialis  that  I should  call  most  abundant  in 
the  injured  fields  was  bivittatus ; but  taken  alone  its  damage  would 

* Bull.  25,  Div.  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture. 


64 


have  been  insignificant.  Its  habits  are  so  nearly  like  those  of  differ- 
entials that  I see  no  occasion  to  give  it  further  mention,  and  I have 
little  doubt  that  any  measures  adopted  against  differ  entialis  will  prove 
as  effective  against  this  species. 

Dissosteira  longipennis  was  taken  in  some  numbers  at  all  points  vis- 
ited in  Finney,  Kearney,  Hamilton,  and  Greeley  counties,  and  as  this 
species  has  caused  so  much  injury  in  eastern  Colorado  this  season,  I 
took  rather  special  pains  to  note  its  abundance  and  inquire  as  to  any 
destruction  resulting  from  it.  At  no  point  did  it  occur  in  destructive 
numbers,  and  I should  not  look  for  any  injury  from  it  in  these  localities 
in  the  near  future  at  least. 

PARASITES  AND  DISEASES. 

The  many  parasitized  grasshoppers  noted  indicated  a multiplication 
of  such  forms,  and  these  will  undoubtedly  accomplish  much  in  reducing 
the  numbers  that  can  deposit  eggs  this  fall,  but  I should  deem  it  un- 
wise to  depend  on  them  and  to  omit  the  active  measures  already  urged. 

The  most  general  parasites  were  apparently  the  Tachina  flies,  as  the 
great  majority  of  dead  hoppers  were  found  to  be  completely  devoured 
within. 

Some  of  the  dead  grasshoppers  had  the  appearance  of  having  been 
affected  with  Entomoyhthora,  and  I gathered  a number  in  order  to  make 
an  effort  to  cultivate  the  disease,  but  as  yet  have  nothing  to  report  in 
this  line.  The  dead  hoppers  will  be  kept  with  living  ones,  and  if  the 
latter  take  the  disease  we  may  hope  to  still  further  multiply  the  dis- 
ease by  inoculating  still  others,  and  then  an  effort  can  be  made  to  dis- 
tribute the  disease  in  the  fields.  Its  spread,  however,  is  evidently 
slow,  and  I do  not  think  other  measures  should  be  neglected  this  season 
for  a plan  which  is  still  uncertain. 

Among  the  natural  enemies  observed,  toads  were  perhaps  the  most 
common,  some  of  the  fields  containing  great  numbers  of  them,  espe- 
cially of  half-grown  individuals,  and  these  would  seem  capable  of  greatly 
reducing  the  number  of  hoppers.  A dead  one,  which  saved  me  the 
necessity  of  making  a dissection  to  get  positive  proof,  showed  in  the 
partly  decomposed  stomach  the  legs  and  other  parts  of  grasshoppers, 
proving  that,  as  would  be  inferred  from  presence  of  toads  in  the  fields, 
their  mission  was  to  feed  upon  the  grasshoppers. 

The  attacks  of  skunks  upon  grasshoppers,  as  stated  by  Mr.  Long- 
streth,  have  already  been  mentioned. 

As  the  tendency  is  for  natural  enemies  to  multiply  with  the  increase 
of  any  species  of  insect,  we  may  look  for  increased  assistance  from  this 
source  by  another  year,  and  in  connection  with  the  measures  already 
urged,  these  ought  by  another  year  to  keep  the  insect  entirely  within 
the  limits  of  destructiveness. 


O 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

DIVISION  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Bulletin  No.  28. 


THE 


MORE  DESTRUCTIVE  LOCUSTS 

OF 

AMERICA  NORTH  OF  MEXICO. 

BY 

LAWRENCE  BRUNER. 


(PUBLISHED  BY  THE  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE.) 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 

1893. 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OE  AGRICULTURE. 

DIVISION  O F ENTOMOLOGY. 

Bulletin  No.  28. 


THE 


MORE  DESTRUCTIVE  LOCUSTS 


OF 


AMERICA  NORTH  OF  MEXICO. 


BY 


LAWRENCE  BRUNER. 


(PUBLISHED  BY  THE  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE.) 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 

1893. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 

Letter  of  transmittal 5 

Letter  of  submittal 7 

Introduction 9 

The  American  Locust  ( Schistocerca  americana ) 10 

The  Large  Green  Bush-locust  ( Acridium  shoshone) 11 

The  Small  Green  Locust  (Acridium  frontalis) 12 

The  Long- winged  Forest  Locust  ( Dendrotettix  longipennis) 14 

The  Differential  Locust  ( Melanoplus  differentialis ) 15 

The  Robust  Locust  ( Melanoplus  robustus) 17 

The  Two-striped  Locust  ( Melanoplus  bivittatus) 19 

The  Detestable  Locust  (Melanoplus  focdus) 21 

The  Devastating  Locust  (Melanoplus  devastator ) 22 

The  Narrow-winged  Locust  (Melanoplus  angustipennis ) 24 

The  Herbaceous  Locust  (Melanoplus  herbaceus ) 25 

The  Rocky  Mountain  Locust  (Melanoplus  spretus) 27 

The  Lesser  Migratory  Locust  (Melanoplus  atlanis) 29 

The  Red  legged  Locust  (Melanoplus  femur -rubrum) 30 

The  Lead-colored  Locust  (Melanoplus  plumb eus) 32 

Pezotettix  enigma 33 

The  Pellucid- winged  Locust  (Camnula  pellucida) 34 

The  Long- winged  Locust  (Dissosteira  longipennis) 36 

The  Pale- winged  Locust  (Dissosteira  obliterata) 39 


3 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Division  of  Entomology, 
Washington , D.  0.,  October  15 , 1892. 

Sir  : I have  the  honor  to  submit  for  publication  Bulletin  No.  28  of 
this  Division.  It  comprises  an  account  of  the  destructive  locusts  of  the 
United  States,  and  of  those  species  which  are  liable  to  become  destruc- 
tive, and  may  be  looked  upon  as  supplementary  to  Bulletins  25  and  27 
of  this  Division.  It  has  been  prepared  by  Mr.  Lawrence  Bruner,  the 
agent  of  the  Division  at  Lincoln,  Nebr.,  who  has  been  associated  with 
me  in  the  study  of  the  family  to  Avliicli  these  insects  belong,  and  since 
the  completion  of  the  work  of  the  Entomological  Commission  has  made 
a special  study  of  the  true  locusts  of  North  America,  materially  aiding 
in  the  investigations  of  the  injuries  caused  by  them  of  late  years. 
Respectfully  yours, 

C.  V.  Riley, 

Entomologist. 

Hon.  J.  M.  Rusk, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 


Lincoln,  Nebr.,  October  20, 1892. 

Sir  : Since  there  has  been  an  apparent  increase  in  the  number  of  cer- 
tain of  the  destructive  locusts  in  many  parts  of  the  country  during  the 
past  two  or  three  years,  it  has  been  deemed  advisable  to  prepare  a 
brief  account  of  all  of  the  species  that  have  been  connected  with  these 
depredations.  The  following  pages  on  the  Destructive  Locusts  of  Amer- 
ica North  of  Mexico  are  therefore  submitted  for  approval  and  for  publica- 
tion, if  thought  worthy.  As  will  be  seen,  this  paper  covers  all  of  the 
forms  that  have  been  the  cause  of  injury  in  the  past,  as  well  as  those 
that  are  liable  to  do  injury  in  the  future. 

The  manuscript  which  forms  this  paper  was  originally  prepared  as  a 
part  of  another  report,*  but  at  your  suggestion  has  been  somewhat  re- 
arranged so  as  to  make  a separate  bulletin,  if  thought  desirable.  The 
excuse  for  offering  this  paper  at  the  present  time  is  that,  although  all 
of  the  insects  herein  mentioned  have  been  previously  described,  the 
literature  in  which  the  descriptions  originally  appeared  is  so  scattered 
and  difficult  of  access  that  the  general  reader  would  have  trouble  in 
refer  ring  to  it.  Besides,  many  of  these  works  are  now  out  of  print. 
Then,  too,  a paper  treating  of  the  entire  group  of  these  destructive 
insects  of  the  region  included  is  in  demand  by  both  the  working  ento- 
mologists and  the  general  reader.  The  short  sketches  relative  to  the 
food  habits  and  distribution  of  each  of  the  species  treated  have  been 
compiled  from  previous  writings  and  field  notes  gathered  by  the  various 
agents  of  the  United  States  Entomological  Commission  and  the  Division 
of  Entomology,  and  are  supposed  to  be  approximately  correct,  at  least  as 
nearly  so  as  could  be  made  at  present,  while  the  life  histories  are  chiefly 
from  your  own  notes  and  observations. 

Through  your  kindness  and  interest  in  the  undertaking  a number  of 
the  forms  are  herewith  figured  for  the  first  time.  Other  courtesies  are 
also  gratefully  acknowledged. 

Lawrence  Bruner, 

Special  Field  Agent. 

Prof.  C.  Y.  Riley, 

U.  S.  Entomologist , 

Washington , D.  C. 

* Reports  on  the  Damage  by  Destructive  Locusts  during  the  season  of  1891.  (Bull. 
No.  27,  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Division  of  Entomology,  pp.  9-33.) 

7 


THE  MORE  DESTRUCTIVE  LOCUSTS  OF  AMERICA 
NORTH  OF  MEXICO. 


If  one  were  to  describe  or  even  to  mention  all  of  the  locusts  that  are 
injurious  to  vegetation  in  this  country  every  species  would  have  to  be 
included  in  such  a list.  Taken  as  a group  there  are  no  exceptions  to 
the  general  rule  in  this  particular  case.  Every  member  of  the  family 
is  a vegetable  feeder,  and  hence  is  to  be  considered  as  harmful  from  the 
agricultural  standpoint.  As  certain  restrictions  are  absolutely  neces- 
sary in  the  preparation  of  this  report,  only  a few  from  among  the  many 
of  these  insects  will  be  treated,  and  these  briefly.  Accordingly  here- 
with is  appended  a list  of  the  different  locusts  or  grasshoppers  that 
have  been  known  to  occur  in  destructive  numbers  within  the  limits  of 
North  America  north  of  the  Mexican  boundary  during  the  past  twenty 
or  thirty  years,  together  with  such  other  species  as  are  liable  to  become 
destructive  in  the  future. 

Every  warm  or  temperate  country  of  any  extent  of  which  a consider- 
able portion  is  arid  or  semidesert,  or  where  the  climate  is  liable  to  var- 
iation, has  its  locust  swarms.  Of  all  insect  pests  these  swarms  of  lo- 
custs are  generally  most  dreaded,  because  of  their  manner  of  attack 
and  the  rapidity  with  which  they  can  and  do  lay  waste  a country  or 
district.  Other  insect  enemies  may  do  an  equal  amount  of  injury  dur- 
ing the  year,  but  as  it  is  not  done  u right  before  our  very  eyes,”  we  do 
not  think  so  much  of  it. 

These  destructive  locusts  may  be  divided  into  two  classes  with  re- 
spect to  their  habits,  viz,  they  are  either  migratory  or  they  are  non- 
migratory.  When  the  former,  they  move  about  over  the  country  from 
one  region  to  another  and  drop  upon  us  without  much  warning.  When 
the  latter,  they  simply  multiply,  do  their  injury,  and  remain  where  they 
are.  Likewise,  these  destructive  locusts  may  belong  to  either  the  one 
or  the  other  of  two  subfamilies,  i.  e .,  the  (Edipodime  and  the  Acrid i in ge. 
Here  in  North  America  most  of  the  destructive  species  belong  to  the 
subfamily  Acridiinse,  while  in  the  Orient  the  reverse  is  probably  the 
rule. 

The  members  of  the  subfamily  CEdipodinse  are  at  once  recognizable 
by  their  colored  hind  wings,  the  unarmed  sternum  of  the  prothorax, 
and  in  having  the  cushions  between  the  claws  of  the  feet  very  small. 
The  Acridiinse,  on  the  other  hand,  usually  have  the  hind  wings  trans- 
parent, the  prosternum  always  spined,  and  the  feet  provided  with  a 
rather  large  cushion  between  the  claws.  The  members  of  the  group 
(Edipodinse  are  usually  further  recognizable,  from  the  fact  that  they 

9 


10 


are,  as  a rule,  provided  with  a more  or  less  prominent  median  carina  or 
ridge  upon  the  pronotum,  while  in  the  Acridiime  this  character  is  usually 
very  obscure. 


THE  AMERICAN  LOCUST. 

( Schistocerca  amerieana  Drury.) 

The  accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  1)  of  a female  specimen  of  this 
large,  handsome  insect  will  at  once  indicate  to  the  reader  which  one  of  all 
our  locusts  should  bear  the  above  name.  The  following  description  will 
facilitate  the  identification  of  the  species : 

Female  (large  size). — Vertex  between  the  eyes  hexagonal,  with  a central  depression ; 
frontal  costa  solid  and  somewhat  prominent  above  the  ocellus,  sides  nearly  parallel. 
Eyes  elongate  oval,  rounded  behind;  straight  in  front.  Pronotum  expanding  at  the 
posterior  lobe ; median  carina  but  slightly  prominent  ; humeral  angles  subdistinct 
on  the  posterior  lobe,  obtusely  rounded;  anterior  and  middle  lobes  marked  with 
minute  shallow  cells,  each  having  a very  minute  tubercle  in  the  center;  posterior 


Fig.  1. — Schistocerca  amerieana — natural  size  (after  Riley). 


lobe  densely  punctured;  posterior  margin  about  right-angled;  apex  rounded.  Teg- 
mina  and  wings  passing  the  abdomen  about  one-third  of  their  length.  Posterior 
femora  reaching  the  apex  of  the  abdomen.  Prosternal  spine  large,  curved  backward 
and  hairy. 

Reddish-brown,  with  a slight  vermilion  tint.  A yellow  stripe  extends  from  the 
vertex  along  the  middle  of  the  head  and  pronotum,  and  also  upon  the  suture  of  the 
closed  tegmina  as  far  as  the  tip  of  the  abdomen.  A dark  brown  line  down  the 
cheeks  below  the  eyes.  On  the  sides  of  the  pronotum  is  a yellow  stripe  extending 
from  the  submarginal  to  the  last  cross-incision,  directed  a little  obliquely  downward ; 
below  this  is  a brown  stripe;  then  anarrow  yellow  stripe  directed  obliquely  upward; 
lower  margin  yellow.  The  tegmina  are  opaque  and  reddish  at  the  base,  the  rest, 
semi-transparent;  a narrow  white  stripe  on  the  lower  margin,  next  the  base;  the 
disk  and  apical  half  marked  with  large  cellular,  fuscous  spots.  Wings  transparent; 
the  nerves  at  the  base  and  inner  portion  yellowish-white,  on  the  outer  portions 
black.  Legs,  bright  \ermilion  red.  Posterior  femora  have  a row  of  black  dots 
along  the  upper  and  lower  margins  of  the  disk  and  one  through  the  middle ; spines 
of  posterior  tibiae  yellow,  tipped  with  black.  Each  segment  of  the  abdomen  has  a 
ring  of  dusky  dots  on  its  posterior  margin. 

Male. — The  male  differs  from  the  female  in  being  much  smaller.  It  has  the  sub- 
anal  plate  prolonged  and  deeply  notched  at  the  apex;  the  cerci  are  very  broad, 
straight,  and  truncate  at  the  apex. 

Length  of  body — male,  1.7  inches;  female,  2.1  inches;  tegmina  in  both  sexes  same 
as  body. 


11 


This  handsome  locust  is  most  commonly  met  with  in  the  region  lying 
south  of  the  fortieth  degree  of  north  latitude,  hut  is  by  no  means  ab- 
sent from  all  the  territory  north  of  that  parallel.  It  occurs  north  of 
this  line  in  Nebraska,  South  Dakota,  Iowa,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Michigan, 
Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  and  perhaps  even  New  York.  It  does 
not,  hoAvever,  become  destructive  much  beyond  the  Gulf  States.  It  is 
the  chief  destructive  species  of  Yucatan,  Central  America,  and  south- 
ern Mexico.  In  fact,  it  is  very  closely  allied  to  the  large  Wandering 
Locust  of  the  Orient  ( Schistocerca  peregrina ),  and  by  some  authors  is 
claimed  to  be  only  a variety  of  that  species.  Be  this  as  it  may,  every 
warm  country  of  the  globe,  island,  or  continent  lying  within  the  trop- 
ics or  within  the  adjoining  15  degrees  of  the  temperate  zones  has  one 
or  more  of  these  large  locusts  that  show  a wonderfully  close  relation- 
ship to  our  Schistocerca  americana.  Most  of  them  are  also  frequently 
destructive,  while  a number  of  them  are  exceedingly  migratory  in  their 
habits. 


THE  LARGE  GREEN  RUSH-LOCUST. 
( Acridium  shoshone  Tlios. ) 


# 


Fig.  2. — Acridium  shoshone— natural  size  (original). 


This  insect  is  described  by  Prof.  Thomas  as  follows  in  his  report  on 
the  Orthoptera  collected  by  the  Wheeler  Expedition  in  the  Southwest : 

Female. — Vertex  nearly  horizontal ; sides  angularly  expanding  in  front  of  the  eyes ; 
flat  frontal  costa  prominent,  sides  parallel,  sulcate  from  the  ocellus  downward,  above 
the  ocellus  somewhat  gibbous  and  punctured ; lateral  carinse  very  prominent,  parallel. 
Pronotum  slightly  expanding  posteriorly,  coarsely  and  reticulately  punctured; 
midian  carina  distinct,  severed  by  the  three  transverse  impressions.  Tegmina  and 
wings  passing  the  abdomen.  Cerci  very  short,  broad  at  the  base,  narrowed  and 
rounded  at  the  apex.  Posterior  femora  much  enlarged  at  the  base;  posterior  tibhe 
considerably  enlarged  at  the  apex.  Prosternal  spine  robust,  cylindrical,  and  nearly 
straight.  Pectus  punctured.  Abdomen  of  the  male  somewhat  elongated;  cerci  very 
* broad  and  flat,  very  slightly  and  obtusely  notched  at  the  apex,  which  is  bent  upward 
over  the  last  segment ; subanal  plate  elongate,  turned  upward,  with  a distinct  square 
notch  at  the  apex. 

Dark  olive-green.  Ocelli  bright  transparent  umber;  eyes  brown;  cheeks  yellow- 
ish, with  a dark  green  stripe  extending  downward  from  the  eyes.  The  pronotum 


12 


has  some  pale  spots  on  the  sides,  and  sometimes  the  posterior  lobe  is  tinged  with 
brown.  Tegmina  uniform  green,  somewhat  transparent  at  the  apex,  and  in  some 
specimens  faintly  tinged  with  brown.  Wings  hyaline;  nerves  and  nervules  dark 
brown.  Posterior  femora  greenish  above  and  below;  pinnae  of  the  disk  alternately 
white  and  green,  the  white  occupying  the  flat  interspaces;  inner  face  greenish  yel- 
low. Posterior  tibiae  bright  vermilion,  the  under  surface  being  striped  with  yellow; 
spines  yellow  at  the  base,  tipped  with  black.  Venter  and  pectus  dark  green,  some- 
times varied  with  dark  brown. 

Length  of  body — male,  1.6  to  1.75  inches;  female,  2 to  2.25  inches;  tegmina  and 
wings  about  one-fifth  less. 

This  magnificent  locust,  which  is  fully  as  large  as  americana , was 
first  described  from  Nevada  and  Arizona,  but  has  since  been  taken  in 
Utah,  California,  New  Mexico,  Texas,  and  across  the  border  in  the 
States  of  Chihuahua  and  Durango  in  Mexico.  Several  years  ago  the 
writer  found  it  quite  abundant  in  the  vicinity  of  El  Paso,  Tex. ; and 
Prof.  C.  H.  T.  Townsend,  of  the  New  Mexico  Agricultural  College,  re- 
ports it  as  destructive  to  the  Mesquite  bushes  and  probably  also  to 
grape-vines  in  portions  of  New  Mexico.  Being  strictly  an  arboreal  in- 
sect, shoshone  is  liable  to  become  more  or  less  of  a tree  pest  when 
numerous.  In  Utah  this  insect  was  taken  by  me  upon  various  low 
trees  growing  on  the  lower  mountain  slopes  back  of  Ogden,  Salt  Lake 
City,  and  near  Garfield  Beach.  It  was  also  occasionally  taken  in  the 
valleys  on  Willows,  and  even  upon  some  of  the  rank-growing  herbs; 
but  I have  never  seen  or  taken  a specimen  of  it  upon  the  ground. 

It  has  been  treated  here  because  of  its  occurrence  in  destructive 
numbers  in  1891  in  portions  of  New  Mexico,  and  because  its  life  as  a 
tree-dweller  is  sure  to  favor  its  greater  multiplication  with  the  advance 
of  civilization. 

THE  SMALL  GREEN  LOCUST. 

( Acridium  frontalis  Tbos.) 

Another  one  of  our  locusts  belonging  to  the  genus  Acridium  that  has 

quite  recently  shown  a tendency 
towards  becoming  a pest  is  the  one 
bearing  the  above  name.  It  was 
found  by  Prof.  H.  Osborn  in  south- 
western Kansas  the  past  summer, 
where  it  was  doing  considerable  in- 
jury to  the  sorghum  crop  of  that 
„ _ , ...  , . . . . . . . ..  region.  It  was  also  observed  by  me 

Fig.  3.— Acridium  frontalis— natural  size  (original).  & J 

in  central  Texas  in  the  spring  of 
1887,  where  it  occurred  in  more  than  common  numbers. 

The  insect  appears  to  be  growing  more  and  more  fond  of  cultivated 
grounds,  as  is  shown  by  its  habit  of  congregating  along  wagon  roads 
and  the  edges  of  fields  among  the  ranker  growths  of  the  vegetation  that 
is  common  to  such  places.  In  its  haunts  and  food  habits  Acridium 


13 


frontalis  is  inclined  to  be  a little  particular,  just  as  are  a number  of 
other  species  of  our  North  American  insects  belonging  to  this  family; 
but  its  tastes  can  not  be  considered  refined  when  it  is  known  that  chief 
on  its  bill  of  fare  conies  the  wild  Sunflowers  so  common  throughout  that 
portion  of  the  West  to  which  the  insect  is  characteristic.  It  also  seems 
to  relish  the  Sorghum  plant,  which  latter  is  entirely  ignored  by  the 
Rocky  Mountain  Locust. 

This  locust  can  be  recognized  by  the  following  description : 

Vertex  subeonical.  Small  size.  Tegmina  and  wings  not  passing  the  abdomen. 
General  color,  green. 

Closely  allied  to  A.  unilineatum  Walk.;  caloptenoid  in  general  appearance.  Ver- 
tex regularly  hexagonal,  standing  out  in  the  form  of  a very  short,  truncated  cone, 
the  tip  depressed  in  the  center;  face  slightly  oblique,  straight,  quadricarinate;  car- 
ime  nearly  parallel,  the  middle  pair  approaching  each  other  immediately  below  the 
ocellus.  Eyes  elongate,  oblique,  straight  in  front.  Pronotum  scarcely  enlarged  be- 
hind ; anterior  lobes  reticulately,  and  posterior  lobe  longitudinally,  rugulose ; median 
carina  very  distinct.  Tegmina  and  wings  narrow,  rather  shorter  than  the  abdomen. 
Valves  of  the  ovipositor  prominent,  lower  pair  much  slenderer  than  the  upper  pair, 
and  much  exserted.  Male  cerci  slender,  tapering,  and  turned  up ; subanal  plate  (last 
ventral  segment)  narrow,  tapering;  subtruncate  at  the  apex,  entire.  Prosternal 
spine  subquadrate,  pointed,  and  straight.  Antennae  passing  the  pronotum  slightly. 
Posterior  femora  passing  the  abdomen. 

Nearly  uniform  grass  green.  Face  and  pronotum  sprinkled  with  dusky  dots.  The 
elevated  lines  of  the  pronotum  pale  yellow,  more  or  less  tinged  with  red.  The  upper 
edges  of  the  posterior  femora  also  more  or  less  tinged  with  red.  Antennae,  orange 
color.  Tegmina  somewhat  lighter  green  than  body;  transparent.  Wings,  pellucid. 

Length  of  body — female,  1.06  inches ; male,  0.82  inch.  Length  of  tegmina — female, 
0.63  inch;  male,  0.5  inch. 

Although  frontalis  is  found  as  far  north  as  Bismarck,  N.  Dak.,  it  is 
essentially  a southern  insect.  Especially  is  this  true  with  respect  to 
its  presence  in  destructive  numbers.  It  is  a common  species  in  Ne- 
braska in  certain  localities,  is  found  in  eastern  Wyoming  rarely,  and  in 
eastern  Colorado  and  northeastern  New  Mexico  more  frequently,  while 
in  Kansas  and  southward  it  becomes  quite  numerous,  especially  upon 
rolling,  more  or  less  sandy  soil.  To  the  eastward  it  reaches  into  west- 
ern Iowa  and  central  Missouri. 

We  have  several  other  species  of  these  large  Acridians  within  the 
limits  of  the  United  States,  all  of  which  occasionally  show  a tendency 
toward  uncommon  multiplication. 

These  are  Acridium  appendiculatum,  A.  rubiginosum , A . alutaceum , 
A.  obscurum , A . unilineatum , and  A . albolineatum.  The  Schistocerca  vaga 
also  should  be  included  among  the  latter  species.  All  of  these  insects 
are  arboreal  in  their  habits,  and  live  the  greater  portion  of  their  lives 
above  ground  in  wooded  districts,  and  on  this  account  are  rather  hard 
to  deal  with. 


14 


THE  LONG- WINGED  FOREST  LOCUST. 

( Dendrotettix  longipennis  Riley.) 

This  particular  species  is  the  one  mentioned  in  Bulletin  13  of  the  Divi- 
sion of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  as  the  Post-oak 
Locust.  I quote  Prof.  Riley’s  specific  description  of  the  insect : 

Dendrotettix  longipennis  Riley.— General  color  testaceous  witli  slight  olivaceous 
hue,  varied  with  faint  yellow  and  piceous  hands  and  lines;  face  dull  olivaceous 
brown;  occiput,  especially  back  of  the  eyes,  darker.  Pronotum  olivaceous  with 
more  or  less  yellow ; median  carina  and  the  transverse  impressed  lines  on  the  lateral 

bands  piceous,  generally  darkest 
and  most  continuous  in  the  $ . 
Tegmina  dull  olivaceous  brown, 
the  veins  being  testaceous  and 
giving  the  basal  half  a decidedly 
lighter  coloring.  Wings  rather 
dark,  becoming  somewhat  pel- 
lucid near  their  base,  the  veins 
dusky,  especially  on  their  apical 
half.  Posterior  femora  with  their 
outer  face  dull  olivaceous  and  marked  with  brown  and  black  along  their  upper  edges 
and  crossing  to  the  inner  surface,  which,  with  the  lower  sulcus,  is  bright  sanguin- 
eous, this  coloring  showing  through  the  somewhat  transparent  walls  even  on  the 
outside;  the  apex  black,  preceded  by  a rather  wide  and  very  distinct  lemon-yellow 
annulus;  hind  tibiae  with  a wide  post-basal  annulus  of  the  same  bright  color;  an- 
terior and  middle  legs,  also  the  tarsi  of  the  hind  legs  gamboge-yellow,  with  the 
spines  and  claws  black ; antennae  fuscous,  olivaceous  towards  tip.  Venter  gamboge- 
yellow. 

Average  length  $ 25mm,  9 30mm. 

The  short-winged  forms  agree  in  all  other  respects  except  that,  as  is  the  case  with 
other  genera,  the  tegmina  do  not  ordinarily  extend  much  beyond  the  second  abdom- 
inal joint,  and  may  be  either  perfectly  rounded  or  slightly  twisted  at  the  apex.  In 
some  cases,  however,  they  extend  to  one-half  the  length  of  the  abdomen. 

Described  from  2 $ $ and  3 9 $ of  the  long-winged  form,  and  4 $ and  7 9 $ of 

the  short-winged  form.  Received  from  E.  H.  Hill,  Manor,  Travis  County,  Tex.,  July 
13,  1887,  as  injuring  post  oaks,  and  collected  by  Mr.  Bruner. 

The  Long- winged  Forest  Locust  or  “ Post-oak  Locust’’  of  Texas,  as 
the  name  would  imply,  is  also  an  arboreal  insect.  It  is  shown  in  the 
accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  4). 

This  locust  was  first  noticed  by  the  inhabitants  of  Washington 
County,  Tex.,  about  the  year  1885,  when  it  attracted  their  attention  by 
defoliating  the  post-oak  trees  over  a considerable  extent  of  territory 
lying  to  the  eastward  of  the  town  of  Brenham.  In  the  spring  of  the 
following  year  I had  the  privilege  of  studying  the  species  to  some  ex- 
tent while  visiting  the  region  to  examine  into  a local  outbreak  of  an- 
other locust  that  threatened  the  cotton  and  corn  crops.  The  following 
in  reference  to  its  habits  and  mode  of  life  l copy  from  a report  made  at 
the  time : * 

“The  egg  pods  are  deposited  in  the  ground  about  the  bases  of  trees 
or  indifferently  scattered  about  the  surface  among  the  decaying  leaves, 


Fig.  4.  —Dendrotettix  longipennis — natural  size  (original). 


Bull.  No.  13,  U.  8.  Dept,  of  Agriculture,  Division  of  Entomology. 


15 


etc.,  like  those  of  all  ground-laying  species.  The  young  commence 
hatching  about  the  middle  of  March  and  continue  to  appear  until  into 
April.  After  molting  the  first  time  and  becoming  a little  hardened 
they  immediately  climb  up  the  trunks  of  the  trees  and  bushes  of  all 
kinds  and  commence  feeding  upon  the  new  and  tender  foliage.  They 
molt  at  least  five  or  six  times,  if  we  may  take  the  variation  in  size  and 
the  difference  in  the  development  of  the  rudiments  of  wings  as  crite- 
ria. The  imago  or  mature  stage  is  reached  by  the  last  of  May  or  dur- 
ing the  first  part  of  June. 

“The  species  is  very  active  and  shy  in  all  its  stages  of  growth  after 
leaving  the  egg.  The  larva  and  pupa  run  up  the  trunks  and  along  the 
limbs  of  trees  with  considerable  speed,  and  in  this  respect  differ  con- 
siderably from  all  other  species  of  locusts  with  which  I am  acquainted. 
1 am  informed  that  the  mature  insects  are  also  equally  wild  and  £ fly 
like  birds.’  They  feed  both  by  day  and  night;  and  I am  told  by  those 
who  have  passed  through  the  woods  after  night  when  all  else  was  quiet, 
that  the  noise  produced  by  the  grinding  of  their  jaws  was  not  unlike 
the  greedy  feeding  of  swine. 

“ Aside  from  its  arboreal  nature  there  is  but  a single  instance  men- 
tioned of  its  preference  for  growing  crops.  This  was  a small  field  of 
either  cotton  or  corn,  or  perhaps  both.  If  the  nature  of  the  crop  was 
told  me  at  the  time,  I have  forgotten.  At  any  rate  the  crop  of  one  or 
the  other  of  these  two  staples  grew  in  a small  clearing  in  the  very  midst 
of  the  most  thickly  visited  area.  The  mature  insects  alone  were  the 
offenders  in  this  instance.  During  the  daytime  they  would  leave  the 
trees  in  swarms  and  alight  upon  the  growing  crop  and  feed  until  even- 
ing, when  they  would  return  to  the  trees.  If,  during  the  day,  they  were 
disturbed,  they  immediately  took  wing  and  left  for  the  tops  of  the  sur- 
rounding trees,  to  return  shortly  afterwards.” 

Mature  specimens  of  this  locust  have  since  been  obtained,  which  show 
the  insect  to  be  congeneric  with  Dendrotettix  guercus  Riley  MS.,  a species 
found  upon  the  oaks  of  Missouri,  southeastern  -Nebraska,  and  southern 
Iowa  and  Illinois.  Longipennis  occurs  in  two  forms,  i.  e .,  with  either 
well -developed  wings  or  with  those  appendages  in  a rudimentary  con- 
dition. 


THE  DIFFERENTIAL  LOCUST. 

( Melanoplus  differentialis  Thos.) 

Very  conspicuous  among  the  “native  species”  of  locusts  in  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley  and  south  westward  is  the  one  which  entomologists  call 
Melanoplus  differentialis.  This  insect  is  fully  as  large  as  the  common 
two-striped  species  that  is  familiar  to  everybody  who  has  noticed  any 
insects  of  this  class,  but  differs  from  it  in  being  yellowish  throughout 
and  lacking  the  two  stripes  along  the  sides  of  the  back  and  wings.  The 
Differential  Locust  is  also  less  robust  in  form  than  the  one  with  which 


16 


it  is  here  compared.  The  accompanying  figure  (Fig.  5),  that  of  a female 
specimen,  is  not  quite  typical  of  the  species,  but  will  greatly  aid  in  its 
recognition.  The  following  description  of  this  locust  is  that  given  by 
Prof.  Cyrus  Thomas,  who  named  it : 

Large  size,  robust;  tegmina  passing  the  abdomen,  unspotted;  olive  brown  above, 
yellow  beneath. 

Vertex  elongate,  depressed,  broadly  sulcate,  closed  in  front;  frontal  costa  broad, 
flat,  or  slightly  sulcate;  sides  parallel;  lateral  carime  distinct,  slightly  divergent. 
Antenna}  of  males  half  as  long  as  the  body.  Pronotum  quadrate ; sides  perpendicular, 
parallel;  lateral  carinse  or  humeral  angles  obtusely  rounded ; median  carina  distinct, 
except  on  post-median  lobe  of  the  female;  third  transverse  incision  very  distinct  and 
deeply  indented,  others  distinct.  Posterior  femora  much  enlarged  near  the  base,  the 
disk  convex,  about  as  long  as  the  abdomen;  posterior  tibiae  enlarged  toward  the 
apex,  hairy.  Prosternal  spine  cylindrical,  bent  slightly  backward.  Subanal  plate 
of  the  male  triangular;  apex  blunt,  entire;  cerci  with  basal  half  broad,  an  obtuse 
tooth  about  the  middle  of  the  posterior  margin,  above  this  bent  and  tapering. 

Color  {male). — Head  and  anterior  lobes  of  the  pronotum  reddish  or  olive  brown; 
sides  paler,  with  from  one  to  three  oblique,  black  lines;  transverse  incisions  dark  on 

the  sides.  Tegmina  unspot- 
ted, olive  brown;  reddish  at 
the  base,,  semi-transparent. 
Wings  pellucid ; nerves  of  the 
apical  and  front  portions  dark, 
rest  yellowish.  Posterior  fem- 
ora yellow ; three  black  spots 

Fig.  5. — Melanoplus  differentialis— natural  size  (after  Riley) . ou  uPPer  edge ; interspaces 

of  the  disk  black,  ribs  pale  yel- 
low; tibiae  yellow,  spines  black.  Abdomen  yellow,  with  small,  black  spots  and 
stripes.  Venter  and  pectus  yellow.  The  female  differs  from  the  male  in  having 
the  head  and  thorax  olive;  the  legs  and  venter  a brighter  yellow  than  her  mate. 

Length  of  body — male,  1.2  inches;  female,  1.5  to  1.7  inches;  of  tegmina  —male,  1 
inch;  female,  1.25  inches. 

This  insect  lias  very  frequently  multiplied  in  such  numbers  in  limited 
areas  over  its  range  as  to  do  considerable  injury  to  cultivated  crops 
growing  upon  low,  moist  ground;  and  has  even  been  known  very  fre- 
quently to  spread  over  higher  and  dryer  lands  adjoining  these,  its  cus- 
tomary haunts.  It  is  one  of  the  few  species  of  locusts  that  has  thus 
far  shown  a tendency  toward  civilization.  This  it  has  done  readily, 
since  its  habits  are  in  unison  with  the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  It  is 
only  since  the  settlement  of  the  country  where  it  originally  occurred 
that  it  has  multiplied  so  as  to  become  sufficiently  numerous  to  become 
a serious  pest.  Differentialis  frequents  plowed  ffelds,  and  is  a lover  of 
rank  growing,  juicy  food,  just  such  as  is  offered  in  Corn,  Clover,  Alfalfa, 
etc.,  as  well  as  various  garden  products. 

The  eggs  of  differentialis  are  laid  in  cultivated  grounds  that  are  more 
or  less  compact,  preferably  old  roads,  deserted  fields,  the  edges  of  weed 
patches,  and  well-grazed  pastures  adjoining  weedy  ravines.  Egg-lay- 
ing begins  about  the  middle  of  August  and  continues  into  October, 
varying,  of  course,  according  to  latitude  and  climatic  conditions.  Usu- 
ally, but  not  always,  only  a single  cluster  of  eggs  is  deposited  by  each 


17 


female.  Frequently  there  are  two,  and  in  extreme  cases  perhaps  even 
three,  of  these  clusters  deposited  by  a single  female. 

The  range  of  this  insect  is  not  so  extended  as  that  of  the  Two-striped 
Locust,  but  nevertheless  it  is  quite  general  west  of  the  Allegheny  Moun- 
tains and  south  of  the  forty- third  degree  of  north  latitude.  1 1 is  common 
in  Illiuois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Missouri,  and  is  met  with 
more  or  less  frequently  in  southeastern  Colorado,  Indian  Territory, 
New  Mexico,  Texas,  Arizona,  and  California.  In  Kansas  and  Nebraska 
we  often  find  black  or  nearly  black  specimens,  while  in  California  many 
of  the  insects  of  this  species  have  the  hind  tibhe  bright  coral  red.  Aside 
from  these  color  variations  the  species  is  very  true  to  its  typical  char- 
acters. 

THE  ROBUST  LOCUST. 

( Melanoplus  robustus  Scudd.) 

Next  to  Melanoplus  differ entialis  and  very  similar  to  it  in  general  ap- 
pearance and  size  is  the  large  yellowisli-brown  and  gray  locust  that  is 
known  by  the  name  of  Melanoplus 
robustus.  This  insect  appears  to  be 
of  rather  local  distribution  since  it 
occurs  only  in  Texas,  so  far  as  I am 
at  present  aware.  It  was  this  insect 
that  was  chiefly  concerned  in  the 
injuries  wrought  in  central  Texas 
during  the  years  1885  and  1886,  and 
upon  which  I reported  in  Bulletin 
No.  13  of  the  Division  of  Entomol- 
ogy. 

The  habits  of  this  locust  are  given 
in  that  paper,  and  are  briefly  as  fol- 
lows: 

u While  the  Kocky  Mountain  or 
Migratory  Locust  prefers  rather 
solid  soil  upon  somewhat  elevated 
open  fields  and  closely  grazed  pas- 
tures for  depositing  its  eggs,  all  of 
these  species  now  infesting  central  Texas  appear  to  find  more  suitable 
conditions  among  rank  herbage  for  the  deposition  of  their  eggs  and 
subsequent  development  of  the  young  larvie.  The  large  species  espe- 
cially finds'the  protected  roots  of  grasses  and  corn  best  adapted  to  the 
sheltering  of  its  eggs,  and  almost  invariably  selects  the  varieties  which 
grow  in  clumps  for  this  purpose.  In  digging  I have  found  as  many  as 
8 or  10  egg-pods  inserted  among  the  root-stalks  of  a single  clump  of 
grass.  Possibly  the  sheltered  nature  of  these  eggs  protects  them  from 
the  numerous  parasites  which  attack  those  of  the  Migratory  Locust 
and  other  species  which  deposit  in  open  or  unprotected  ground.  It  is 
10666— No.  28 2 


Fig.  6. — Melanoplus  robustus — natural  size 
(original). 


18 


asserted  by  different  persons  in  this  region  that  the  present  species 
lays  an  average  of  150  eggs  to  the  pod,  which,  judging  from  the  frag- 
ments of  egg-shells  found  by  digging,  is  nearly  correct 5 at  any  rate 
the  estimate  is  not  too  high.  Egg-depositing  with  this  species  com- 
mences rather  later  than  with  some  of  the  other  representatives  of  the 
genus, but  just  at  what  date  I did  not  learn.  There  is  but  a single  pod 
formed  by  each  insect,  the  entire  complement  of  eggs  being  deposited 
at  once. 

“The  larvae  commence  hatching  during  the  latter  part  of  March  and 
continue  to  appear  up  to  the  middle  of  April,  according  to  the  forward- 
ness or  backwardness  of  the  season.  Wet,  warm  weather  favors  the 
hatching,  while  dry  weather  rather  retards  the  process.  The  young 

molt  five  times,  at  intervals  of 
from  twelve  to  twenty  days,  ac- 
cording to  the  condition  of  the 
weather.  Dry  weather  with 
hot  days  retards,  while  damp 
or  wet  weather  favors,  this 
process  among  insects  by  keep- 
ing the  exuviae  pliable  during 

Fig.  7. — Melctnoplus  robustus — natural  size  (original).  Ill ol ting,  US  Well  US  ill  lurilisll- 

ing  the  necessary  moisture  re- 
quired in  growth.  The  winged  or  mature  insects  appear  about  the 
middle  of  July  or  a little  earlier  and  begin  to  copulate  soon  afterward, 
thus  completing  the  cycle. 

“Their  mode  of  attack  does  not  differ  greatly  from  that  of  If.  spretus , 
save  in  that  the  latter  begin  upon  the  crops  immediately  after  hatch- 
ing, while  this  species  does  not.  They  wait  until  they  are  from  three 
to  four  weeks  old  before  venturing  far  from  the  places  of  hatching. 
Like  that  species  they  have  the  habit  of  huddling  together  upon  plants 
and  among  grasses  and  debris  during  cool  nights  and  cloudy  days. 
This  appears  to  be  a trait  common  to  all  insects  Avhen  present  in  large 
numbers,  and  must  be  the  result  of  some  special  instinct  When  about 
half  grown  the  larvae  become  pretty  well  scattered  over  the  fields  and 
do  not  hop  back  to  the  weed  patches  on  the  outskirts  in  the  evening,  as 
they  do  while  younger  and  when  beginning  their  attacks  upor  the 
crops.  The  molting  is  the  same  as  with  other  locusts,  and  need  not  be 
described  here.  The  grown  hoppers  do  not  migrate  by  flight,  but  do 
sometimes  move  in  concert  in  certain  directions  by  jumping.  This  can 
hardly  be  termed  migration,  since  the  change  of  location  is  merely  per- 
formed for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  food,  while  the  act  of  migrating  is 
toward  obtaining  more  decided  results.  When  feeding  they  can  be 
driven  like  other  locusts,  and  this  trait  in  their  nature  has  been  taken 
advantage  of  at  different  times  and  by  many  of  the  planters  as  a means 
of  partial  protection  to  crops.” 


19 

The  description  of  this  locust,  as  given  by  Mr.  Scudder,  is  as  follows : 

• 

Brownish  fuscous  with  more  or  less  of  a cinereous  tint.  Front  of  head  livid,  very 
heavily  mottled  with  dark  brown ; mouth  parts  pale,  the  tip  of  last  palpal  joint  black, 
antemue  pale  at  base,  beyond  dull  reddish  more  or  less  tinged  with  yellow,  toward 
the  tip  infuscated.  A slender  blackish  stripe  passes  from  behind  the  eyes  to  the 
hind  lobe  of  pronotum,  sometimes  interrupted,  sometimes  accompanied  by  an  infus- 
cation  beneath,  broadening  the  band;  upper  suriace  more  or  less  flecked  with  dark 
brown,  sometimes  collected  into  a V-sliaped  catch  opening  forward,  the  apex  at  the 
middle  of  the  posterior  lobe;  hind  border  dotted  with  blackish;  posterior  lobe  pro- 
fusely, rest  of  upper  surface  sparsely,  all  shallowly,  punctate;  sides  of  metathorax 
with  a pale  oblique  stripe  narrowing  upward  to  a point;  tegmina  blackish  or  brown- 
ish fuscous,  flecked  rather  distantly  with  brownish  spots,  relieved  by  similar  pale 
ones  along  the  middle ; legs  of  the  color  of  the  under  surface,  the  fore  and  middle 
femora  a little  deeper  or  duskier;  hind  femora  broadly  bifasciate  with  blackish,  the 
apex  black  at  the  sides ; hind  tibiae  and  tarsi  yellow,  occasionally  tinged  with  red, 
paler  next  the  base,  with  a black  annulus;  spines  black.  Vertex  broader  ( $ ) or 
much  broader  ( 9 ) than  the  first  antennal  joint,  the  fastigium  with  a scarcely  per- 
ceptible depression  ( 9 ) or  slightly  sulcate  ( $ ),  broadening  in  front;  frontal  ridge 
broad,  nearly  equal,  a little  sulcate  below  the  ocellus.  Median  carina  of  pronotum 
slight,  distinct  only  on  the  posterior  and  anterior  lobe,  cut  by  all  the  transverse  fur- 
rows; lateral  carime  rather  distinct,  rounded.  Last  abdominal  segment  of  the  male 
a little  produced,  rounded ; cerci  very  large  and  stout,  compressed,  broadening  api- 
cally,  well  rounded,  very  similar  to  those  of  M.  ponderosus,  but  not  so  broad  at  the 
tip. 

Length  of  body — male,  29.5tnm ; female,  34.5mm ; of  tegmina — male,  21mm ; female, 
24mm ; Gf  antennse — male,  13.5mm;  female,  15mm;  of  hind  femora — male,  17.6  mm;  fe- 
male, 21mm. 

Melanoplus  robustus  is  also  quite  closely  related  to  the  insect  described 
by  Prof.  Cyrus  Thomas  as  Pezotettix  viola , which  occurs  in  Illinois,  Indi- 
ana, and  Missouri.  It  is  also  related  to  Melanoplus  po7iderosus  Scudd., 
of  central  Texas. 

THE  TWO- STRIPED  LOCUST. 

( Melanoplus  bivittatus  Say.) 

Perhaps  the  most  familiar  locust  to  the  greatest  number  of  people  in 
the  United  States  is  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  8,  unless  it  should  be  the 
ordinary  Carolina  Locust,  Disso- 
steira  Carolina.  Although  the 
illustration  is  a pretty  fair  rep- 
resentation of  this  insect,  the  fol- 
lowing description  is  inserted  for 
the  benefit  of  those  who  wish  to 
see  it : 

Fig.  8. — Melanoplus  bivittatus — natural  size  (after 

In  this  very  common  species  the  Riley) 

vertex  of  the  female  is  convex  or  but 

slightly  depressed,  and  the  frontal  costa,  not  sulcate;  in  the  male  the  frontal  costa  is 
more  or  less  distinctly  sulcate.  Tegmina  and  wings  but  little  longer  than  the  abdo- 
men. The  last  ventral  segment  of  the  male  has  the  apical  margin  entire  and  circular. 
Pronotum  with  the  sides  straight,  very  slightly  expanding  posteriorly ; posterior 
cross-inci3ion  distinct ; posterior  femora  equal  to  or  passing  the  abdomen. 


20 


Dull  green  or  dull  brown  in  color,  with  a distinct  yellowish  or  pale  stripe  along 
each  side  extending  from  the  upper  angle  of  the  eye,  along  the  lateral  angle  of  the 
body  to  the  extremity  of  the  tegmina.  Mouth  pale,  face  varies  from  pale  yellowish 
to  dark  olive  brown ; as  also  do  the  tegmina ; the  latter  sometimes  have  a few  quite 
small  dusky  spots  on  the  disk,  but  generally  they  are  unspotted.  Wings  transparent, 
tinged  with  greenish  or  greenish  yellow;  nerves  greenish  brown  or  blackish.  Hind 
femora  generally  with  a dark  stripe  along  the  upper  edge  of  the  disk;  yellow  below; 
upper  margin  with  two  pale  spots ; posterior  tibia;  variable,  ranging  from  yellow  to 
dark  leaden  brown. 

Length  of  body — male  1 inch  to  1.4  inches ; female,  about  1.7  inches,  but  frequently 
larger  or  smaller. 

This  locust  occurs  in  nearly  every  locality  over  the  entire  country 
from  the  Saskatchewan  River  in  the  north  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  at 
the  south,  and  from  ocean  to  ocean.  It  is  found  in  the  low  valleys 
near  the  seashore  and  upon  the  mountain  slopes  of  the  Rocky  range 
and  the  interior  t>lateaus  to  an  elevation  of  nearly  10,000  feet  above 
tide  water.  In  fact,  this  particular  species  appears  to  be  able  to  with- 
stand more  climatic  variations  than  any  other  of  our  North  American 
species,  without  showing  marked  variations  in  color  and  form.  In  size 
it  varies  more  than  do  some  of  the  allies.  No  wonder,  then,  that  it 
occasionally  becomes  sufficiently  numerous  over  limited  areas  to  do 
considerable  injury  to  crops. 

The  Two- striped  Locust,  although  it  enjoys  so  wide  a range,  is  usually 
limited  over  this  range  to  certain  favorite  haunts.  Like  the  femur - 
rubrum  and  differ entialis,  bivittatus  is  a lover  of  rank  and  succulent  veg- 
etation such  as  is  found  upon  bottom  lands,  along  the  edges  of  cultivated 
fields,  at  the  margins  of  woodlands,  and  on  the  shaded  mountain  slopes. 
When  nature  has  specially  favored  the  species,  as  it  sometimes  does,  in 
the  way  of  favorable  climatic  conditions,  the  absence  of  enemies,  etc., 
and  it  develops  in  large  numbers,  then  these  haunts  are  forsaken  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent  and  it  spreads  over  cultivated  fields,  eating  the 
choicest  of  everything.  Unlike  some  of  the  other  locusts  of  the  genus 
Melanoplus,  bivittatus  seldom  exhibits  the  migratory  habit  in  any 
marked  degree;  hence,  is  always  with  us  and  its  enemies. 

The  egg-laying  habits  of  bivittatus  differ  considerably  from  those  of 
the  smaller  migratory  species,  insomuch  as  but  one  or  two  clusters  or 
pods  are  deposited  by  a single  female.  Nevertheless,  just  as  many 
eggs  are  laid  by  each  female  insect.  These  eggs  are  deposited  in 
prairie  sod  or  any  compact  soil  in  the  vicinity  of  the  regular  haunts  or 
feeding  places.  Old  roads  and  closely- cropped  pastures  when  located 
handily  are  favorite  resorts  for  the  heavily-laden  females  when  attend- 
ing to  this  mission  of  theirs. 

Melanoplus  bivittatus  was  very  common  in  a number  of  localities  over 
the  country  during  the  past  summer.  In  fact,  it  was  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal ones  that  was  the  cause  of  grasshopper  injuries  in  the  Red  River 
Valley  of  the  North,  in  Iowa,  Indiana,  Ohio,  Michigan,  New  York, 
Mississippi,  Alabama,  Kansas,  and  Nebraska.  Conditions  which  favor 
the  rapid  multiplication  of  other  locusts,  such  as  the  migratory  kinds, 


21 


also  favor  the  increase  of  this  one  and  others  of  onr  u native”  species. 
Hence  when  we  hear  of  the  increase  and  spread  of  the  former,  we  may 
also  look  for  the  latter  to  become  more  numerous. 

By  keeping  down  weed  patches  and  by  plowing  waste  places  about 
fence  corners,  along  ravines,  the  edges  of  groves  and  old  roads,  this 
insect  can  usually  be  kept  moderately  scarce  and  harmless. 


THE  DETESTABLE  LOCUST. 


( Melanoplus  focdus  Scudd. ) 


The  locust  which  is  known  b^ 
recognized  as  one  of  those  which 
ence  in  unusual  numbers  during 
the  past  two  years  in  portions  of 
Idaho  are  sufficient  grounds  for 
including  it  with  these  injurious 
species.  Even  if  it  has  not  yet 
committed  such  devastation,  it 
is  apt  to  do  so  in  the  near  future 
should  climatic  and  other  condi- 
tions continue  favorable.  It  can 
at  once  be  recognized  from  the  a 
the  following  description : 


the  above  name  has  not  yet  become 
is  considered  injurious;  but  its  pres- 


Fig.  9.—  Melanoplus  foedus:  a,  male — natural  size; 
b,  female  anal  characters — enlarged  (original). 

ccompanying  illustration  (Fig.  9)  and 


Of  medium,  or  rather  large  size.  Head  rather  large,  not  elevated,  slightly  arched. 
Eyes  pretty  large,  but  not  prominent ; vertex  between  the  eyes  as  broad  or  half 
as  broad  again  as  the  first  antennal  joint;  foveola  shallow  or  moderate,  with  low, 
stout,  nearly  parallel  hounding  walls,  and  scarcely  expanding  in  front;  frontal 
ridge  stout,  well  advanced,  subequal,  scarcely  enlarged  downward,  above  flat  at 
the  ocellus,  and  below  a little  and  broadly  sulcate.  Pronotum  simple,  the  posterior 
lobe  coarsely  and  faintly  punctate,  expanding  very  slightly,  and,  on  either  side 
anteriorly,  depressed  a little  above;  the  anterior  lobe  narrowed  a little  in  front, 
but  above  only;  both  the  transverse  sulci  equally  distinct  and  continuous  through- 
out, median  carina  slight  and  confined  to  the  posterior  lobe,  lateral  earinae  sub- 
obsolete.  Tegmina  extending  a little,  or  considerably  beyond  the  tip  of  the  abdo- 
men. Terminal  ventral  segment  of  the  male  abdomen  scoop-shaped,  but  slightly 
produced  at  the  apex,  the  edge  entire;  supra-anal plate  triangular,  bluntly  pointed, 
considerably  longer  than  broad,  the  sides  nearly  straight,  slightly  puckered  in  the 
middle;  the  marginal  apophyses  of  the  preceding  segment  consist  of  a wavy,  de- 
pressed, conical,  pointed  projection  diverging  at  nearly  right  angles,  about  half  as 
long  as  the  cerci.  Anal  cerci  forming  very  simple  compressed  laminae,  the  basal 
three-fifths  straight,  tapering  a little  and  directed  backward  and  a little  upward, 
the  apical  two-fifths  also  straight,  enlarging  slightly,  keeping  the  same  direction 
but  bent  a little  inward,  the  outer  surface  a little  concave,  the  extremity  squarely 
docked,  its  corners  rounded ; basal  tooth  of  lower  valves  of  the  ovipositor  of  the 
female  sharp,  triangular,  but  much  broader  than  long. 

The  general  color  is  a dirty  cinereous  above,  a dingy  clay  below;  antennae  dull 
testaceous,  becoming  somewhat  ferruginous  toward  the  tip;  a pretty  broad  and 
usually  distinct  blackish  brown  or  piceous  band  extends  from  behind  the  eye  along 
the  upper  border  of  the  deflected  lobes  of  the  pronotum  as  far  as  the  posterior 
sulcus,  and  sometimes  as  a blurred  and  expanded  continuation  of  it,  across  the  pos- 


22 


terior  lobe  also.  Tegmina  brownish  cinereous,  the  anal  field  sometimes  a little 
lighter,  the  median  field  enlivened  to  a greater  or  less  extent,  but  seldom  conspicu- 
ously, by  an  alternation  of  blackish  and  pallid  longitudinal  quadrate  spots.  Hind 
femora  dirty  clay  brown  with  dusky  incisures,  above  with  a median  and  subapical 
dusky  or  dark  fuscous  patch;  hind  tibiae  red,  with  Idack-tipped  spines. 

Length  of  body — male,  24mm,  female,  30mm;  of  antennae — female,  12mm,  male, 
13.5nim;  of  tegmina — male,  21mm,  female,  24mm;  of  hind  femora — male,  14mm,  female, 
16.5,nm. 

This  locust  is  in  reality  a mountain  form  that  occurs  at  an  elevation 
of  about  5,000  feet  above  sea-level,  and  that  frequents  the  edges  of 
valleys  and  sunny  slopes  within  the  semiarid  portion  of  the  United 
States.  It  is  met  with  in  suitable  localities  in  Colorado,  Kansas,  Ne- 
braska, Wyoming,  Utah,  Nevada,  Idaho,  Montana,  and  the  Dakotas, 
along  with  New  Mexico. 

Although  the  habits  and  life-history  of  this  insect  has  never  as  yet 
been  followed  out,  it  is  supposed  that  it  does  not  differ  materially  from 
that  of  such  other  species  of  the  genus  as  inhabit  the  same  regions, 
and  with  which  we  are  more  or  less  familiar.  In  its  general  appear- 
ance and  structure  M.  fcedus  is  very  much  like  the  insect  which  is  known 
by  the  name  of  Melanoplus  packardi  Scudder.  In  fact  there  is  but 
little  difference  save  in  color  between  the  two  species. 

THE  DEVASTATING  LOCUST. 

( Melanoplus  devastator  Scudd.) 

Quite  prominent  among  the  destructive  species  of  the  country  is  the 
one  known  as  the  Devastating  Locust  of  California.  This  particular 
species  is  of  about  the  same  size  as  the  lesser  migratory  one,  and  has 


Fig.  10. — Melanoplus  devastator:  a,  large  female  from  California,  1885;  b,  small  female,  Reno,  Nev., 
1880;  c,  male,  Fort  Keogh,  Mont.,  1880;  rf,  same  as  c,  all  natural  size  (after  Trouvelot). 

something  of  the  same  general  form  and  appearance.  The  differences, 
however,  can  very  readily  be  detected  by  the  description  which  follows 
and  by  the  illustrations  given  herewith  (Figs.  10  and  11): 

About  the  size  of  M.  atlanis,  and  of  the  same  general  appearance.  Head  moder- 
ately large  and  bread,  with  large  but  not  prominent  eyes ; vertex  somewhat  depressed, 
of  medium  width,  quite  deeply  sulcate  in  the  male,  or  but  geutly  so  in  the  female; 
frontal  costa  not  very  prominent  but  quite  broad,  the  sides  gently  divergent  below, 


23 


reaching  to  the  clypeus,  shallowly  sulcate  at  the  ocellus.  Pronotum  rather  short 
and  broad,  slightly  expanding  on  posterior  lobe;  median carina  prominent  through- 
out, cut  about  the  middle  by  the  last  transverse  impressed  line;  lateral  carime  also 
quite  prominent  and  forming  right  angles  with  the  disk  and  sides.  Tegmina  and 
wings  reaching  beyond  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  in  both  sexes,  but  quite  variable  in 
this  respect,  the  former  quite  narrow.  Last  ventral  segment  of  the  male  abdomen 
somewhat  tapering,  with  the  apex  gently  notched;  super-anal  plate  triangular,  the 
apex  acute,  middle  narrowly  grooved  one-lialf  its  length;  marginal  apophyses  of 
preceding  segment  about  half  as  long  as  the  supra-anal  plate,  tapering  to  a point,  the 
inner  edges  attingent  for  about  one-third  their  length,  their  outer  edge  furnished 
with  a blunt  tooth  near  the  base ; cerci  slender,  equal,  straight,  nearly  four  times  as 
long  as  broad,  the  apex  gently  sulcate  from  the  outside.  Prosternal  spine  broad, 
stout,  the  apex  rounded.  Posterior  femora  reaching  beyond  the  tip  of  the  abdomen 
in  both  sexes. 

General  color  light  testaceous  to  dull  cinereous,  more  or  less  varied  with  brown  and 
dull  black.  Band  back  of  the  eyes  very  obscure,  never  continuous,  but  confined  to 


Fig.  11. — Melanoplus  devastator:  .anal  characters  of  male ; a , fromabove;  b,  from  side;  c,  from  below — 
enlarged  (after  Emerton). 

the  upper  edges  of  the  lateral  lobes  as  two  small  tapering  patches  and  along  the 
impressed  lines.  Tegmina  provided  with  a row  of  discal  quadrate  spots  and  also 
usually  a few  others  scattered  above  and  below  the  central  field.  Posterior  femora 
with  the  usual  oblique  dark  bands;  the  hind  tibiae  either  dull  red  or  various  shades 
of  green  and  blue  more  or  less  obscured  with  brown,  usually  greenish,  the  spines 


black. 


Length  of  body  (average  specimens) — male,  20mm,  female,  22m,n ; of  pronotum — 
male  and  female,  5mm ; of  tegmina — male  and  female,  18mm ; of  hind  femora,  male, 
12mm,  female,  11.5nim. 

Melanoplus  devastator  is  known  to  occur  at  suitable  localities  through- 
out the  entire  region  west  of  the  main  divide  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  even  to  extend  beyond  this  limit  in  portions  of  Montana  and  Col- 
orado. Notwithstanding  this  rather  extended  range,  the  insect  has 
never,  to  my  knowledge,  been  reported  in  destructive  numbers  beyond 
the  confines  of  California,  Arizona,  Nevada,  and  Oregon.  Like  several 
others  of  our  North  American  insects  that  are  included  in  this  brief 
report,  devastator  is  rather  inclined  to  frequent  the  country  adjacent 
to  or  among  the  foot-hills  of  mountain  ranges.  It  does  not  usually 
deposit  its  eggs  high  up  the  hillsides  and  mountain  slopes,  but  rather 
seeks  for  this  purpose  waste  lands  low  down  in  the  valleys  that  are 
more  or  less  wet.  Its  growth  and  transformations  are  practically  the 
same  as  those  of  spretus  and  the  other  species  that  have  so  frequently 
been  described. 


24 


During  the  latter  part  of  the  dry  season  as  the  herbage  and  grasses 
ripen  and  dry  up  these  insects  gather  from  the  surrounding  hills  upon 
the  moist  grounds  at  the  margins  of  the  valleys  to  feed  upon  the  green 
vegetation  still  found  at  such  places.  Here  also  and  close  at  hand  the 
eggs  for  the  spring  brood  are  laid.  Those  for  the  fall  brood  are  laid  at 
random  among  the  hills.  In  portions  of  California  and  Arizona  there 
are  two  broods  of  this  insect  annually.*  Wherever  this  is  the  case, 
there  is  considerable  difference  in  the  size  and  general  appearance  of 
the  members  that  make  up  these  two  distinct  broods.  Those  of  the 
spring  brood  are  larger  and  of  a brighter  color  than  those  of  the  fall 
brood. 

The  difference  in  size  and  u freshness”  in  general  appear  an  ce  between 
individuals  of  the  two  broods  in  this  and  other  double-brooded  lo- 
custs is  evidently  due  to  the  climatic  conditions  and  to  the  nature  of 
the  food  supply  at  different  times  of  the  year. 

THE  NARROW- WIN (tED  LOCUST. 

{MeJanoptus  angustipennis  Dodge.) 

Quite  closely  related  to  the  preceding  is  another  of  our  North  Ameri- 
can locusts  of  the  genus  Meianoplus  which  should  be  included  with  the 
destructive  species.  While  this  insect,  which  we  will  call  the  Narrow- 
winged  Locust,  has  never  yet,  to  my  knowledge,  been  sufficiently  numer- 
ous to  materially  injure  cultivated  crops  or  even  the  grasses  on  the 

prairies,  it  has  been  greatly  on 
the  increase  for  the  past  seven 
or  eight  years.  As  stated  in  a 
former  report,  u Meianoplus  an- 
gustipennis, which  only  a few 
years  ago  was  quite  rare  and 
confined  to  low  land  along  the 
Elkliorn  River,  is  now  becoming 
quite  numerous.  If  the  species  continues  to  increase  as  rapidly  during 
the  next  four  or  five  years  as  it  has  during  the  past  few,  it  will  be 
equally  as  destructive  as  femur-rubrum,  devastator , atlanis , and  differ- 
entialis.  When  first  described  it  seemed  to  be  confined  almost  exclu- 
sively to  Artemisia  ludoviciana  as  a food  plant.  Now  it  seems  to  take 
to  almost  any  food  plant  that  presents  itself.  This  Narrow- winged 
Locust  is  more  nearly  related  to  M.  devastator  than  to  any  of  our  other 
especially  injurious  species.  Should  it  really  become  a pest,  as  present 
indications  would  suggest,  its  arboreal  habit  will  render  it  rather  a dif- 
ficult enemy  with  which  to  deal. 

* Mr.  D.  W.  Coquillett  in  Bull.  No.  27,  Div.  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agri- 
culture (p.39),  states  that  lie  lias  taken  both  forms  of  this  species  in  August,  1891, 
and  believes  the  species  to  be  single-brooded,  and  not  double-brooded,  as  stated  by 
Mr.  Bruner. — C.  V.  R. 


Fig.  12.— Meianoplus  angustipennis— normal  size 
(original). 


25 


Tlie  following  description  is  that  given  by  the  author  of  the  species: 

Frontal  costa  depressed  at  the  ocellus.  Head  but  slightly  elevated  above  the  pro- 
notum.  Foveola  of  the  vertex  scarcely  depressed.  Carinae  of  the  pronotum  nearly 
obsolete;  the  median  cut  by  the  three  transverse  incisions.  Hind  lobe  of  pronotum 
slightly  rugulose.  Tegmina  extending  beyond  the  abdomen,  unusually  narrow. 
Male  cerci  small,  narrow,  straight,  tip  rounded  and  sulcate.  Tip  of  abdomen 
notched,  as  in  M.  spretns  but  the  notch  is  wider. 

General  color  light  brown.  Upper  part  of  pronotum  and  hind  femora  with  a red- 
dish tinge.  Face  sometimes  mottled.  Antenna?  light  brown,  infuscated  apically. 
The  usual  black  band  behind  the  eye,  broad  and  distinct,  and  reaching  last  division 
of  pronotum,  hounded  below  by  a narrow  white  stripe.  A broad  white  stripe  from 
base  of  tegmina  connects  with  a white  stripe  at  insertion  of  posterior  femora,  form- 
ing a right  angle.  Outside  of  hind  femora  crossed  by  two  indistinct  dusky  bands 
that  extend  upon  the  upper  edge.  Lower  sulcation  reddish.  Knees  black.  Hind 
tibia?  blue.  Tegmina  light  brown,  Avith  very  small  black  spots  in  the  disk. 

Length  of  body — male,  22.5mm,  female,  24mni;  of  tegmina — male,  17mm,  female, 
19mm;  of  hind  femora — male,  12.5mm,  female,  I4mm. 

As  intimated  above,  this  locust  at  first  appeared  to  be  one  of  the 
few  species  that  are  confined  to  special  food  plants;  but  now  it  has  for- 
saken the  single  plant  and  takes  up  with  a great  variety  of  others. 
Since  its  food  was  originally  the  Artemisia  ludoviciana  its  distribution 
was  necessarily  limited  to  regions  where  that  plant  flourished.  With 
the  change  in  its  food  habits  so  as  to  take  in  other  plants  it  also  was 
permitted  to  spread  over  more  country.  Now  it  occurs  both  on  high 
and  low  lands,  but  appears  to  be  somewhat  partial  to  old  breakings 
and  well-fed  pastures  of  many  years’  use.  It  occurs  in  eastern  Montana, 
North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Iowa,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  and  Texas. 

THE  HERBACEOUS  LOCUST. 

( Melanoplus  lierbaceus  Bruner.) 

During  the  fall  of  1887  the  writer,  while  spending  a few  days  at  El 
Paso,  Tex.,  took  a large  number  of  a rather  large  but  slender  Melano- 
plus upon  various  kinds  of  weeds  and  other  low  vegetation  growing  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  town  along 
the  banks  of  the  Pio  Grande. 

This  locust  was  present  in  large 
numbers  and  did  some  damage. 

Like  the  M.  angustipennis , it  is 
rather  an  above-ground  insect 
than  a ground  frequenter,  and 
for  that  reason  would  be  more 
difficult  to  fight,  were  it  to  be- 
come numerous,  than  are  many  others. 

Aside  from  these  few  notes  nothing  further  of  its  life  history  and 
habits  are  known  to  me,  but  it  is  presumed  that  the  insect  does  not 
differ  greatly  from  the  species  of  the  genus  with  which  we  are  familiar. 

The  following  description  of  the  present  species  is  herewith  added, 


Fig.  13. — Melanoplus  herbacevs:  a , female — natural 
size;  b , male  anal  characters — enlarged  (original). 


26 

that  the  insect  can  the  more  readily  be  determined  by  those  who  care 
to  do  so  for  themselves : 

A rather  large  but  slender  species.  About  the  size  of  M.  spretus,  but  with  much 
narrower  wings  and  tegmina.  Usually  of  a light  transparent  grass-green  color,  but 
changing  to  a dull  olive  brown  in  some  specimens  during  late  fall.  Related  to  M. 
Jiavidus,  M.  cinereus,  and  M.  bowditchi,  from  which  species  it  differs  in  its  smallerhead 
and  more  oblique  face. 

Vertex  between  the  eyes  quite  narrow,  somewhat  prominent,  the  foveola  elongate 
spatulate,  rather  deep  in  the  male,  less  so  in  the  female,  the  lateral  walls  strong, 
rounded;  frontal  costa  very  broad  and  prominent  above,  less  prominent  below,  where 
its  sides  converge  very  perceptibly  in  the  female,  parallel  in  the  male,  deeply  and 
roundly  silicate  from  just  above  the  ocellus  ( 9 ) or  throughout  ( $ ).  Antennae  very 
long  in  both  sexes,  longest  in  the  male.  Eyes  large  and  prominent,  those  of  the 
male  subelliptical,  of  the  female  with  the  anterior  edges  nearly  straight.  Prouotum 
rather  slender,  rounded  above  and  with  the  sides  nearly  parallel  or  gradually 
widening  posteriorly;  anterior  lobes  plain,  posterior  lobe  minutely  and  closely 
punctate;  anterior  edge  nearly  straight,  posterior  edge  roundly  angulate;  median 
carina  present  only  on  the  posterior  lobe,  lateral  carinae  obsolete;  transverse  im- 
pressed lines  plain,  continuous,  the  last  a trifle  back  of  the  middle.  Tegmina  and 
wings  reaching  beyond  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  in  both  sexes,  the  former  rather  nar- 
row, lanceolate.  Terminal  segments  of  the  male  abdomen  but  slightly  enlarged, 
gently  upturned ; the  last  ventral  segment  prow-shaped,  the  outer  edge  entire ; supra- 
anal  plate  subquadrate,  the  lateral  edges  raised  and  somewhat  sinuous,  “the  apex 
gently  depressed  and  slightly  produced;  in  the  middle  there  is  a broad  median  carina 
terminating  between  two  shorter  ones  near  the  apex;  marginal  apophyses  of  preced- 
ing segment  very  large,  broad  and  fleshy,  covering  fully  one-half  of  the  underlying 
supra-anal  plate,  their  inner  edges  touching  for  the  first  two-fifths  of  the  distance 
from  their  bases  and  again  at  their  apices,  leaving  a small,  narrow,  elliptical  opening, 
their  outer  edges  parallel,  obliquely  docked  at  the  apex.  Anal  cerci  a little  more 
than  twice  as  long  as  the  basal  width,  the  apical  half  finger-like,  plain,  the  apex 
rounded,  directed  backwards  and  slightly  inwards.  Prosternal  spine  conical,  rather 
long  and  slender,  the  point  directed  gently  forward.  Posterior  femora  normal,  not 
quite  reaching  ( $ ),  or  slightly  suppressing  ( $ ) the  tip  of  the  abdomen ; anterior 
and  middle  femora  but  very  little  enlarged  in  the  male. 

General  color  varying  with  the  season  and  in  different  individuals  from  light  grass 
green  to  dull  olive  brown,  varied  beneath  and  along  the  sides  of  the  face,  prouotum 
and  thorax  with  dull  white,  yellow,  and  brown.  The  usual  piceous  band,  which  in 
this  species  reaches  to  the  last  transverse  incision,  is  more  or  less  plainly  visible 
along  the  sides  of  the  prouotum  in  different  individuals.  The  tegmina  are  either 
pale  green,  dull  olive,  or  drab,  without  spots;  the  wings  with  the  apical  veins  and 
nerves  more  or  less  infuscated.  Posterior  femora  without  indications  of  bands  along 
their  upper  edges  and  outer  faces,  a rather  wide  whitish  line  along  the  lower  edge 
of  the  outer  face,  and  also  a tinge  of  light  orange  yellow  below  and  on  the  inner  face; 
posterior  tibiae  deep  sea-green,  the  spines  with  their  extreme  tips  black.  Antennae 
reddish  inclining  to  brown  apically. 

Length  of  body — male, '22mm,  female,  28.5mm;  of  antennae — male,  13mm,  female, 
1 lmm ; of  pronotum — male,  5lllin,  female,  6. 15mm ; of  tegmina — male,  20mm,  female,  24mm ; 
of  hind  femora — male,  12.2inil‘,  female,  15mra ; of  hind  tibiae — male,  10mm,  female, 

13mm. 

The  present  species  is  confined  to  the  river  bottoms  in  the  compara- 
tively arid  regions  of  our  southwestern  States,  and  also  occurs  across 
the  line  in  Mexican  territory  for  some  distance. 


27 


THE  ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  LOCUST. 

( Melanoplus  spretus  Tlios.) 

Of  all  our  destructive  locusts  native  to  North  America  this  is  the 
one  that  has  caused  the  greatest  amount  of  damage,  and  consequently 
attracted  to  itself  the  general  attention  of  the  public.  It  is  likewise 
the  best  known  when  life-history,  range,  habits,  etc.,  are  considered. 
As  already  mentioned,  its  distribution  is  so  well  known  that  it  is  only 
necessary  to  refer  to  this  feature  here.  In  Bulletin  No.  25  of  the  Divis- 
ion of  Entomology,  a brief,  but  at  the  same  time,  very  comprehensive 
account  of  this  and  several  other  locusts  is  given.  The  reader  is  there- 
fore referred  to  that  publication  for  a more  complete  treatise  upon  the 
species  now  under  consideration,  also  to  the  reports  of  the  U.  S.  Ento- 
mological Commission  for  an  extended  account  of  its  life-history  and 
habits. 

Briefly,  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locust  can  be  said  to  be  a permanent 
resident  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  from  northern  New  Mexico 
northward  as  far  as  the  North  Saskatchewan  River,  or  coincident  with 
the  northern  limits  of  the  prairies.  This  range  also  extends  out  upon 
the  adjoining  plains,  and  beyond,  so  as  to  include  the  greater  portion 
of  Wyoming,  a little  of  northwestern  Nebraska,  more  of  the  western 
part  of  South  Dakota,  nearly  half  of  North  Dakota,  and  much  of  Mani- 
toba and  other  parts  of  British  America  west  of  Lake  Manitoba.  Of 
course  the  insect  is  not  always  to  be  met  with  in  destructive  numbers 
over  this  entire  region;  but  it  is  within  these  limits  that  it  is  always 
to  be  found  in  a healthy  condition.  Adjoining  this  u permanent”  re- 
gion on  the  east  is  a strip  of  country  of  varying  width  of  a hundred  or 
more  miles,  that  is  termed  the  u sub-permanent”  region.  The  insect  is 
nearly  as  healthy  and  possibly  equally  as  often  to  be  met  with  here  as 
in  the  permanent  region.  Beyond  this  secondary  habitat  is  a still 
greater  extent  of  country  which  is  only  occasionally  visited  by  the 
moving  swarms  of  the  locust.  This  last  region  has  on  that  account 
been  termed  the  u temporary  ” region.  This  temporary  region  covers 
all  of  the  remaining  portions  of  the  States  mentioned  above,  besides 
extending  into  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Missouri,  Kansas,  Arkansas,  Indian 
Territory,  and  Texas.  This  region  is  the  one  that  has  suffered  most 
during  past  years  from  the  ravages  of  this  locust. 

The  description  of  this  insect  is  herewith  appended: 

Female. — The  face  nearly  perpendicular,  sloping  under  toward  the  breast  very 
slightly.  The  vertex  between  the  eyes  the  same  width  as  the  frontal  costa  just 
above  the  ocellus;  that  portion  in  front  of  the  eyes  more  or  less  distinctly  channeled 
and  deflexed  at  an  angle  of  about  40  degrees  from  horizontal.  Eyes  nearly  straight 
in  front,  about  semicircular  behind.  Antennae  quite  slender,  reaching  little  if  any 
beyond  the  tip  of  the  pronotum.  Pronotum,  with  the  sides  of  the  anterior  lobes 
parallel,  the  posterior  lobe  expanding  rapidly  backward ; median  carinae  thread- 
like, but  always  distinct  on  the  posterior  lobe,  usually  obsolete  on  the  anterior 
lobes;  lateral  carinae  obtuse  but  distinct  on  the  posterior  lobe  and  usually 


so  on  the  middle  one,  but  becoming  obsolete  toward  the  front ; posterior  lateral  mar- 
gin, perpendicular  from  the  humeral  (entering)  angle  one-third  the  way  down, 
then  curving  forward  to  the  posterior  lateral  angle  which  is  obtuse  and  rounded ; 
the  (entering)  humeral  angle  is  sharply  defined,  and  in  this  respect  differs  from  M. 
femur -rubrum  and  M.  atlanis;  the  apex  is  obtuse-angled  (about  100°)  rounded  at  the 
point ; posterior  lobe  minutely  and  shallowly  punctured  throughout ; the  anterior 
lobes  smooth  with  a few  or  no  punctures  except  along  the  lower  margins  of  the  sides. 
Tegmina  and  wings  extending  beyond  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  from  one-fourtli  to 
one-third  their  length;  the  tegmina  are  of  nearly  uniform  width  throughout, 
slightly  curving  upward  at  their  extremity;  wings  a little  shorter  than  the  tegmina, 
very  thin  and  delicate ; nerves  and  nervules  very  slender.  Abdomen,  aud  in  fact 
the  whole  insect  more  slender  than  usual  in  this  genus;  but  this  appearance  is 
partly  due  to  the  elongated  wings;  cerci  very  small,  triangular  or  tooth-shaped, 
not  extending  across  the  segment  on  which  they  rest;  valves  of  the  ovipositor  quite 
prominent,  especially  the  Upper  pair  which  are  more  than  usually  exserted,  sharp  at 
the  tips  and  deeply  excavated  above.  The  posterior  femora  usually  extend  to  or 
about  to  the  tip  of  the  abdomen. 

Color. — Reddish  brown  with  fuscous  spots.  Head  and  pronotum  back  to  the  pos- 
terior sulcus,  reddish  brown,  varying  in  depth  of  color  in  individuals ; the  face  some- 
times of  a lighter  and  brighter  red  than  the  pronotum,  sometimes  darker,  assuming 
a dark  purplish  hue ; the  posterior  lobe  of  the  pronotum  is  generally  a pale  olive 
brown,  its  lighter  color  contrasting  somewhat  distinctly  with  the  darker  shades  of 
tho  anterior  portion.  Some  individuals  exhibit  much  lighter  colors  than  here  de- 
scribed, varying  from  dark  brown  to  a dull  yellow.  The  dark  line  on  the  side  of  the 
head  and  pronotum,  usually  so  conspicuous  in  the  closely  allied  species,  is  generally 
obliterated  in  this  species  by  the  dark-brown  color;  but  it  usually  appears  distinctly 
in  specimens  which  have  been  immersed  in  alcohol,  and  is  also  manifest  in  the  pale 
individuals,  but  is  broken  up  by  pale  spaces  and  lines,  and  is  rather  narrow ; the 
eyes,  shining  black ; tegmina,  ash  brown,  more  or  less  tinged  with  reddish  brown  at 
the  base  and  fading  toward  the  apex;  in  the  middle  field,  commencing  near  the  base, 
where  this  field  comes  to  a point,  is  an  irregular  row  of  fuscous  dots,  usually  single 
to  where  the  thin  portion  commences,  now  and  then  a double  dot  appearing;  from 
this  point  to  the  apex  they  decrease  in  size  and  distinctness,  and  spread  over  the  en- 
tire width;  as  a general  rule  the  inner  field  is  marked  with  a few  fuscous  dots;  in 
some  individuals  a few  quite  distinct  are  seen,  in  others  they  are  very  minute  and 
dim,  and  not  unfrequently  they  are  entirely  wanting.  Wings  transparent,  with  a 
very  slight  yellowish  tinge  at  the  base ; nerves  and  nervules  of  the  costal  area  and 
apex  black ; rest  pale.  The  abdomen  is  generally  a glossy  brown,  with  the  posterior 
margins  of  the  segments  pale ; venter  yellowish  or  pale  brown ; sternum  pale  brown 
or  yellow-;  anterior  and  middle  legs  usually  rufous,  but  varying  from  reddish  brown 
to  pale  honey  yellow.  Posterior  femora  with  the  disk  reddish  brown,  sometimes 
showing  dim  outlines  of  oblique  bands ; the  inner  face  and  lower  carinae  yellowish, 
the  latter  usually  tinged  with  red;  the  upper  carina  and  upper  portion  of  inner  face 
yellowish,  marked  with  three  large  black  spots  or  partial  bands — one  at  the  base, 
the  other  two  equally  spaced  in  the  middle  area;  apex  or  knee  black,  or  with  a black 
crescent  each  side.  The  posterior  tibiae  vary  in  color  from  bright  red  to  pale  yel- 
low, and  in  some  cases  to  bluish. 

Male. — Differs  from  the  female  as  follows : Is  somewhat  smaller  and  shorter,  but 
the  wings  are  about  as  long  as  those  of  the  female;  the  abdomen  is  enlarged  or 
widened  posteriorly  and  strongly  curved  upward  at  the  apex;  the  last  ventral  seg- 
ment being  elongated,  rounded  and  narrowed  upward  like  the  prow  of  a boat,  and 
is  distinctly  notched  at  the  tip,  the  lips  or  lobes  somewhat  tubercular  in  form.  This 
part  of  the  apical  segment  is  covered  with  minute  scattering  hairs.  This  notch 
forms  one  of  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  species,  at  least  the  most  important  one 
in  distinguishing  it  from  femur-rubrum.  The  supra-anal  plate  or  triangular  piece 
above  the  anal  opening  is  sharply  bicarinate  longitudinally;  the  tooth-like  append- 


29 


ages  at  the  base,  above,  are  narrow  and  slender.  The  cerci  are  somewhat  longer 
than  the  width  of  the  preceding  segment,  are  broad  and  flat  throughout,  the  width 
equalling  two-thirds  the  length,  not  suddenly  narrowed  or  constricted,  moderately 
curved  upwards  and  inwards;  roundly  narrowed  and  depressed  at  the  apex.  The 
prosternal  spine  (in  both  sexes)  is  subquadrate  and  large  at  the  base,  but  distinctly 
transverse;  robust  and  decidly  conical,  gradually  lessening  to  a blunt  point. 

Dimensions:  Length  of  body — male,  22-24mm,  female,  25-27mm;  of  tegmina — male 
24-26mm,  female,  25-27mtn ; of  hind  femora — male  12mm,  female,  14mm. 

THE  LESSER  MIGRATORY  LOCUST. 


(Melanoplus  atlanis  Riley.) 

Next  to  Melanoplus  spretus  this  is  the  most  destructive  of  our  North 
American  locusts.  It  is  the  insect  that  has  been  known  to  devastate 
portions  of  the  New  England  States  at  various  times  during  the  past 
hundred  years.  It  has  also  been  known  to  occur  in  destructive  num- 
bers in  various  parts  of  the  interior,  but  chiefly  northward. 

This  Lesser  Migratory  Locust,  as  the  name  implies,  is  somewhat 
smaller  than  spretus , to  which  it  is  much  more  closely  related  than  to 
any  of  the  other  destructive  locusts  described  in  the  present  paper.  It 
is  to  be  distinguished  from  that  species  by  such  characters  as  are  shown 
in  Fig.  14  ; and  also  by  its  proportionately  shorter  and  narrower  wings. 


Fig.  14. — Melanoplus  atlanis : anal  characters  of  male ; a,  from  above;  b,  from  side;  c,  from  behind, 
enlarged  six  times  (after  Emerton). 


As  is  also  implied  in  its  name,  it  is  migratory  in  habit,  but  to  a much 
less  degree  than  is  spretus.  In  its  distribution  atlanis  enjoys  a much 
greater  range  than  does  the  preceding,  and  for  that  matter,  perhaps, 
than  any  other  of  our  North  American  locusts,  unless  it  be  the  femur- 
rubrum.  While  it  occurs  over  such  an  extended  territory,  it  appears 
to  be  more  partial  to  hilly  or  mountainous  regions  rather  than  elsewhere. 
It  seems  also  to  prefer  a wooded  or  mixed  country  to  the  open  prairie 
or  plains.  It  is  common  in  all  suitable  localities  from  the  Mexican 
boundary  to  the  53d  degree  of  north  latitude,  and  even  beyond — in 
some  instances  nearly  reaching  the  Arctic  Circle — while  it  occurs  both 
along  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts. 

The  following  original  description,  along  with  the  illustrations  referred 
to  above,  will  at  once  enable  the  readers  to  distinguish  the  species  from 
all  others  of  our  North  American  insects  of  this  family : 

At  once  distinguished  from  femur -rubrum  by  the  notched  character  of  the  anal  ab- 
dominal joint  of  the  male  and  by  the  shorter,  less  tapering  cerci ; also  by  the  greater 


30 


relative  length  of  wings  which  extend  on  an  average  nearly  one-third  their  length 
beyond  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  in  the  dried  specimens;  also  by  the  larger  and  more 
distinct  spots  on  the  wings — in  all  of  which  characters  it  much  more  closely  resem- 
bles spretus  than  femur-rubrum.  From  spretus,  again,  it  is  at  once  distinguished  by 
the  smaller  size,  the  more  distinct  separation  of  the  dark  mark  running  from  the 
eyes  on  the  prothorax  and  of  the  pale  line  from  base  of  wings  to  hind  thigh  ; also  by 
the  anal  joint  in  the  male,  tapering  more  suddenly,  and  by  the  two  lobes  forming  the 
notch  being  less  marked.  From  both  species  it  is  distinguished  not  only  by  its 
smaller  size  but  by  the  deeper,  more  livid  color  of  the  dark  parts,  and  the  paler  yel- 
low of  the  light  parts,  the  colors  thus  more  strongly  contrasting. 

Just  as  the  typical  femur-rubrum  is  at  once  distinguished  from  the  typical  spretus 
by  the  characters  indicated,  so  atlanis,  though  structurally  nearer  spretus,  is  distin- 
guished from  it  at  a glance  by  its  much  smaller  size  and  darker,  more  marbled  color- 
ing. The  contrast  is  all  the  greater  in  the  living  specimens,  and  I have  seen  no 
specimens  of  spretus  that  at  all  approach  it  in  these  respects. 

Length  of  body — male,  17. 5-21mni,  female,  19-23  mn);  of  hind  femora — male,  ll-12ITim, 
female,  12-13m,r) ; of  tegmina — male,  19-23mm,  female,  20-24mm. 

As  would  naturally  be  expected,  if  one  judged  from  its  wide  distri- 
bution, this  particular  locust  presents  some  variations  in  its  size,  color, 
and  to  some  extent,  also,  its  structure,  but  not  sufficiently  so  to  render 
the  identification  of  such  forms  at  all  difficult. 

In  regions  where  M.  atlanis  and  one  or  two  other  species  of  the  genus 
are  double  brooded,  there  is  a very  perceptible  difference  in  the  indi- 
viduals of  these  broods,  both  in  size  and  color.  Both  atlanis  and  de- 
vastator are  notable  examples  of  this  kind.  In  California  it  is  a common 
occurrence  to  find  the  latter  insect  during  October  and  November  ap- 
parently only  recently  fledged,  but  not  much  more  than  one-half  the 
size  of  spring-reared  individuals.  Likewise,  in  the  vicinity  of  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  late  every  fall  numbers  of  very  small  atlanis  art  to  be 
met  with.  These  dwarfed  specimens  are  always  darker  colored  than 
the  typical  specimens  of  the  early  or  spring  brood;  and  they  also  fre- 
quently have  the  hind  tibiae  glaucous  instead  of  red  a s in  atlanis.  I have 
also  seen  fall  specimens  of  southern  femur-rubrum  with  the  hind  tibiae 
glaucous  instead  of  red.  Several  of  our  other  Melanopli,  as  for  exam- 
ple, Melanoplus  minor  Scudd.  and  M.  paclcardi  Scudd.,  also  have  these 
parts  either  red  or  bluish  green.  My  collection  also  contains  specimens 
of  the  large  Melanoplus  differ  entialis,  from  California  and  Arizona,  with 
red  hind  tibiae.  A few  of  our  species  of  locusts  also  have  the  tegmina 
and  wings  quite  variable  in  length — some  instances  occurring  where 
these  appendages  are  quite  rudimentary,  or  else,  in  other  specimens  of 
the  same  species,  are  fully  developed.  Wing  length  and  color  of  hind 
tibiae  do  not,  therefore,  indicate  difference  in  species. 


THE  RED-LEGGED  LOCUST. 

( Melanoplus  femur-rubrum  De  Geer.) 

The  common  Bed-legged  Locust  (Melanoplus  femur-rubrum ) is  prob- 
ably the  most  generally  and  widely  distributed  insect  of  this  family  in 
America.  It  occurs  from  ocean  to  ocean  and  from  the  extreme  north- 


31 


crn  range  of  these  insects  to  Central  America.  Unlike  several  others 
of  our  destructive  locusts  that  are  limited  to  moderately  high  altitudes, 
this  one  is  a frequenter  of  low  elevations  ranging  from  near  sea  level 
to  not  much  over  6,000  feet  above.  This  is  true  with  reference  to  it 
within  the  limits  of  the  United  States,  but  in  Mexico  I have  taken  it 
at  altitudes  of  8,000  feet  and  upwards.  Although  it  is  found  over  so 
great  an  extent  of  territory,  it  occurs  only  at  certain  suitable  localities 
within  these  boundaries.  Its  distribution  appears  to  be  controlled  al- 
together by  climatic  conditions,  the  chief  of  which  is  the  presence  of  a 
certain  amount  of  humidity.  Like  bivittatus  and  differ entialis,  it  is  a 
frequenter  of  low  grounds,  cultivated  fields,  shady  margins  of  woods, 
etc.,  where  vegetation  is  rank  and  tender.  On  account  of  these  pecul- 
iarities in  connection  with  its  naturally  wide  distribution,  it  has  become 
our  commonest  locust  in  the  United  States. 

The  breeding  habits  of  femur -nibrum  are  such  as  to  especially  aid  the 
insect  in  its  life  among  cultivated  fields,  and  hence  it  is  that  it  has  be- 
come such  a general  nuisance.  Were  it  not  so  generally  preyed  upon 
by  a great  number  of  different  birds,  mammals,  reptiles,  and  predaceous 
insects,  as  well  as  by  several  parasites,  it  would  be  a much  greater  pest 
than  it  is. 

It  can  readily  be  recognized  from  the  following  description  and  illus- 
tration (Fig.  15) : 


As  compared  with  spretus  the  only  very  marked  difference  between  the  females  is 
the  shorter  wings  of  this  species,  yet  there  are  other  slight  differences  observable 
when  a large  number  of  specimens  are  compared.  The  eyes  in  femur-rubrum  are 
slightly  more  prominent.  The  head,  pronotum,  and  sides  of  the  thorax  are  usually 
some  shade  of  olive  brown,  varying  from  pale  to  almost  black.  The  black  line  be- 
hind the  eyes  is  quite  broad,  seldom  broken  up,  and  is  distinct  in  the  darkest  speci- 
mens. The  humeral  (entering)  angles  of  the  posterior  margin  of  the  pronotum  are 
more  rounded  and  not  so  sharply  defined  as  in  spretus;  the  mediau  carina  is  usually 
more  distinct  on  the  anterior  lobes,  while  the  lateral  carinae  are  rather  more  obtuse 
and  not  so  well  defined ; the  punctures  on  the  posterior  lobe  are  more  distinct.  The 
wings  extend  but  slightly  beyond  the  extremity  of  the  abdomen,  usually  less  than 
one-tenth  their  length.  In  this  species  and  atlanis  the  intercalate  vein  is  present  in 
the  tegmina  dimly  and  imperfectly,  it  is  true,  but  it  can  be  clearly  distinguished  for 
more  than  half  the  length  of  its  course.  In  spretus  it  is  wanting,  its  place  being 
marked  by  the  line  of  union  between  the  two  rows  of  cells.  The  fuscous  spots  or 
dots  are  not  so  conspicuous  or  widely  spread  over  the  apical  portion  of  the  wing,  and 
the  tegmina  are  narrower  and  straighter.  As  a very  general  rule  the  external  face 
of  the  posterior  femora  is  black  or  brown,  the 
lower  margin  and  lower  half  of  the  inner  face 
bright  coral  red ; when  these  colors  are  well  de- 
fined there  is  a yellow  space  or  stripe  between  the 
red  and  black,  but  these  markings  are  subject  to 
considerable  variation,  the  red  being  sometimes 
entirely  wanting,  the  external  face  dark,  ami  the 
lower  margin  yellow;  sometimes  the  dark  is  re- 
placed by  pale  olive.  The  tibiae  are  most  generally  bright  red,  but  this  character 
is  not  without  exceptions.  Usually  there  k?  a pale  ray  extending  from  the  base  of 
the  wings  to  the  posterior  femora,  but  is  occasionally  wanting  in  dark  specimens, 
and  is  generally  absent  in  spretus.  The  prostern al  spine  is  not  so  distinctly  quadrate 


Fig.  15. — Melanoplus  femur-rubrum- 
natural  size  (after  Kiley). 


32 


at  the  base  as  in  spretus,  transverse,  flattened  behind,  and  not  regularly  conical,  but 
somewhat  subcylindrieal  to  tnc  broadly  rounded  and  very  blunt  apex. 

Male. — The  most  constant  differences  between  the  species  is  found  in  the  form  of 
the  last  ventral  segment  of  the  male;  in  femur-rubrum  this  segment,  although 
strongly  curved  upwards,  as  in  spretus , is  not  so  distinctly  narrowed  toward  the 
end,  but  rounded,  and,  instead  of  being  notched  toward  the  end,  is  squarely  trun- 
cate, presenting  a sharp  horizontal  and  almost  semicircular  margin.  Below  the  tip, 
on  the  posterior  face  of  the  segment,  is  a rather  large,  transverse,  gash-like  inden- 
tation. The  cerci  are  about  the  same  length  as  those  of  the  male  spretus,  and  about 
the  same  width  at  the  base.  The  little  tooth-like  appendages  at  the  base  of  the 
supra-anal  plate  are  elongate  and  slender,  as  in  spretus,  and  are  sinuate. 

In  addition  to  the  characters  mentioned  in  the  original  description  of  atlanis,  I 
would  call  attention  to  the  following  differences  between  it  and  spretus  on  the  one 
side  and  femur-rubrum  on  the  other. 

Female. — As  compared  with  the  female  of  spretus  the  wings  are  shorter,  extending 
but  very  slightly  beyond  the  tip  of  the  abdomen,  not  differing  perceptibly  in  this 
respect  from  femur-rubrum ; the  tegmina  are  narrower,  curved  upward  very  slightly 
at  the  apex,  very  few  spots  or  dots  on  the  apical  portion,  and  these  minute  and  dim ; 
the  inner  field  is  always  immaculate;  the  posterior  half  of  the  intercalate  vein  ap- 
parent. The  wings  pellucid,  but,  when  living,  have,  next  the  base,  a bluish- white 
tinge;  a larger  portion  of  the  pronotum  nearly  always  dark.  The  black  stripe  on 
the  side  of  the  pronotum  nearly  always  apparent  even  in  the  darkest  individuals ; 
head  and  anterior  lobes  of  the  pronotum  with  the  velvety  appearance  so  marked  in 
spretus,  but  here  dark  or  olive-brown  without  the  reddish  tinge  so  common  to  that 
species;  the  pale,  oblique,  metathoracic  ray  usually  apparent  but  often  obliterated. 

For  further  differences  between  this  and  other  species  of  our  destructive  locusts, 
see  ante,  under  the  description  of  atlanis  and  spretus. 

Unlike  tlie  Lesser  Migratory  Locust  and  tlie  true  or  Rocky  Moun- 
tain Locust,  femur-rubrum  seldom  exhibits  the  migratory  trait  in  a 
marked  degree.  True,  it  will  sometimes  gather  in  immense  u swarms  ” 
and  move  in  concert,  but  it  never  rises  to  great  heights,  drifting  with 
the  wind  as  do  the  others.  The  u kerosene  pans”  or  u hopper-dozers ” 
are  admirably  adapted  as  implements  of  warfare  against  this  locust, 
even  after  it  has  acquired  wings. 

THE  LEAD-COLORED  LOCUST. 

( Melanoplus  plumbeus  Dodge.) 

This  hopper  approaches  more  closely  to  the  common  red-legged  spe- 
cies than  to  any  of  our  other  locusts  belonging  to  the  genus  Melano- 
plus; but  it  is  very  readily  distinguish- 
able from  that  species  by  its  bright 
colors  and  by  its  more  clumsy  move- 
ments. In  its  distribution,  however, 
plumbeus  is  confined  to  the  plains  of 
Wyoming,  Colorado,  Nebraska,  and 

Fig.  16.— Melanoplus  plitmbeus— natural  size  probably  also  Of  Kansas;  but  it  is  liot 

(ongmai).  generally  distributed  even  here,  being 

confined  to  limited  areas  in  certain  localities  where  it  is  quite  common. 

Several  years  ago  I found  it  quite  abundant  at  a point  about  two 
miles  south  of  Canyon  City,  Colo.,  so  abundant,  iu  fact,  that,  had  it  been. 


upon  cultivated  grounds,  it  would  have  injured  the  crops.  But  as  it 
was  confined  to  the  gravelly  bench  lands  no  apparent  damage  was  done 
by  it. 

The  description  of  this  locust  as  published  by  Mr.  Dodge  is  as  fol- 
lows: 

Frontal  costa  sulcate  only  at  ocellus.  Vertex  slightly  sulcate.  Median  carina  of 
pronotum  distinct,  cut  about  the  middle  by  last  transverse  furrow.  Hind  border  of 
pronotum  angled.  Tegmina  and  wings  extend  beyond  the  abdomen.  Cerci  broadest 
at  base  and  straight  until  near  the  apex,  when  they  bend  upward,  and  end  in  a blunt 
point.  Tip  of  abdomen  rounded. 

Color,  dark,  inclining  to  blue.  Pronotum  -with  a red,  longitudinal  median  stripe. 
Black  band  behind  the  eye,  broadest  on  pronotum,  ending  at  last  sulcus.  Yellow 
spots  behind  the  eye  on  both  sides  of  black  stripe  and  below  the  same  on  side  of  prono- 
tum. Cheeks  bordered  behind  with  yellow.  Sometimes  face  yellow,  mottled  with 
blue.  A yellow  spot  at  base  of  antennae,  and  a yellow  stripe  following  the  lateral 
carinae  of  pronotum  on  hind  lobe,  runs  obliquely  across  base  of  tegmina  to  insertion 
of  hind  femora.  Tegmina  brown,  with  a few  dusky  dots  along  the  disk.  Wings 
tinged  with  blue.  Upper  outside  face  of  hind  femora  dark  blue,  the  upper  edge 
crossed  by  the  usual  dark  bands.  Hind  tibiae  red  with  black  spines.  Antennae 
light  red.  Entire  under  side  of  insect  yellow. 

Length  of  body — male,  21.5mm;  female,  25,nni.  Of  tegmina — male,  18mm;  female, 
20mni.  Of  hind  femora — male  and  female,  12.5mm. 


PEZOTETTIX  ENIGMA  Scudd. 

Tliere  is  a normally  short-winged  locust  throughout  the  region  com- 
prised of  the  States  of  Idaho,  Nevada,  Washington,  Oregon,  and  Cali- 
fornia, which  is  often  very  abundant.  In  fact,  it  is  to  be  classed  among 
the  destructive  locusts  of  the  country,  since  it  appears  to  be  quite 
plentiful  if  not  numerous  at  all  times  and  wherever  it  occurs. 

This  locust  was  described  by  Mr.  Scudder  as  Pezotettix  enigma . At 
about  the  same  time  he  also  described 
a long-winged  form  from  the  same  lo- 
cality that  ditfers  but  little  from  the 
enigma  save  in  length  of  wing.  He 
called  the  long- winged  insect  Melano- 
plus  collaris.  Sometime  prior  to  this 
Cyrus  Thomas  described  the  same  in- 
sect Under  the  name  Of  CalopteUUS  liaVO-  FlG'  17-—Pezotettlx  enigma  male-Datural 

-1-  size  (original) 

lineatus.  Since  the  short-winged  form 

is  apparently  the  typical  condition  under  which  the  locust  now  under 
consideration  occurs,  the  name  enigma  will  best  serve  as  that  for  the 
species. 

The  following  description  of  the  insect  is  that  given  by  Scudder: 

Pale  brownish  yellow,  marked  with  darker  brown  and  fuscous.  Head  large,  tumid, 
all  the  angles  rounded,  the  summit  darker,  with  a sometimes  inconspicuous  median 
blackish  stripe,  broadening  from  in  front  backward;  vertex  between  the  eyes  nar- 
rower than  ( $ ) or  equal  to  ( 9 ) the  frontal  costa;  fastigium  very  broadly  and  shal- 
lowly sulcate,  most  distinctly  in  the  male;  frontal  costa  broad  and  equal,  very 
faintly  punctate,  with  a scarcely  perceptible  narrow  sulcus  below  ilie  occelus; 

106GG— No.  28 3 


antenna;  slightly  infuscated  at  the  tip.  Pronotum  short  and  rather  stout,  the  an- 
terior and  posterior  halves  of  the  deflected  lobes  nearly  symmetrical;  dorsum  with 
equal  sides,  quite  distinctly  tumid  on  the  dorsum  of  the  anterior  lobey  the  middle 
transverse  sulcus  nearly  as  close  to  the  prosterior  sulcus  as  to  the  short  one  in  front 
of  it,  and  the  posterior  lobe  folly  three-fourths  the  length  of  the  anterior;  posterior 
margin  angularly  rounded;  median  carina,  like  in  the  preceding  species,  marked  in 
form  like  all  the  transverse  sulci;  dorsum  mottled  with  dark  brown,  the  lateral  ca- 
rime  marked  with  a more  or  less  distinct  narrow  yellow  stripe;  the  anterior  margin 
of  the  deflected  lobes  clear  yellow  or  pallid;  prosternal  spine  straight,  small,  conical, 
bluntly  pointed.  Tegmina  rather  broad,  ovate,  overlapping,  the  tip  scarely  pro- 
duced, fully  half  as  long  as  the  abdomen,  brownish  fuscous,  marked  with  yellow 
longitudinal  veins,  and  flecked,  principally  along  the  median  area,  but  also  else- 
where, with  longitudinal  series  of  subquadrate  blackish  fuscous  spots;  wings  a lit- 
tle shorter  than  the  tegmina.  Hind  femora  stout  and  full,  yellow,  the  outer  face 
marked  with  alternate,  narrow,  angulate,  yellow  and  black  stripes,  often  fainter  in 
parts  than  in  others,  so  as  to  show  a tendency  to  transverse  bands  arranged  as  in 
P.  jucundus;  outer  arc  of  genicular  lobes  broadly  black  ; hind  tibiae  yellow  or  green- 
ish blue,  the  apical  half  of  the  spines  black;  arolium  of  either  sex  as  in  the  preced- 
ing Species  (that  is,  either  quadrate,  rather  narrow,  longer  than  the  claws  ($),  or 
obpyriform,  small,  but  little  more  than  half  as  long  as  the  claws  ( $ ).  Abdomen 
yellow,  the  upper  portion  infuscated,  the  middle  of  the  dorsum  marked  frequently 
with  a series  of  approximate,  subdorsal,  roundish,  black  spots,  often  inclosing  white 
spots  nearly  as  large  as  themselves,  those  of  opposite  sides  separated  only  by  a slen- 
der yellow  line;  the  abdomen  of  the  two  sexes  has  the  peculiarities  of  the  preced- 
ing species  (Pez.  jucundus),  the  last  joint  of  the  male  being  also  entire;  the  anal 
cerci  of  the  male  scarcely  differ  from  those  of  that  species,  the  slender  apex  only 
being  a little  less  suddenly  contracted. 

Length  of  body — male,  22.5mm,  female,  24.4mm;  of  antennae — male,  9.25mm,  female, 
7.5mm;  0f  pronotum — male,  6mm,  female,  6.9ir-m;  of  tegmina — male,  8.25mm,  female 
10.75mm ; of  hind  tibiae — male,  12.5mm,  female,  13.5mm. 

Tlie  habits  of  this  locust  are  not  yet  very  well  known,  since  it  has 
not  been  among  the  few  species  that  have  been  made  the  theme  for 
special  study.  In  1890,  this  insect  was  first  seen  by  me  in  the  central 
part  of  Idaho,  about  Shoshone  and  Boise  City,  where  it  occurred  in 
large  numbers  along  with  Camnula  pellucida , Dissosteira  obliterata , 
Melanoplus  fcedus  and  M.  atlanis.  In  ratio  of  numbers  the  enigma  came 
next  to  pellucida.  It  was  found  to  be  partial  in  its  distribution  to  the 
lower  bench  lands  in  and  near  cultivated  fields.  What  its  egg-laying 
habits  are  I can  not  say,  since  the  females  had  not  yet  begun  deposit- 
ing, although  many  pairs  of  the  insect  were  seen  and  taken  in  copula- 
tion about  August  15.  Judging  from  the  structure  of  the  terminal  por- 
tion of  the  female  abdomen,  which  is  very  blunt,  I should  suppose  that 
rather  loose,  sandy,  or  loamy  soil  would  be  chosen  for  the  purpose  of 
deposition.  Like  most  of  the  other  destructive  species,  this  locust  al- 
ways appears  at  its  best  during  warm,  dry  seasons. 

THE  PELLUCID- WINGED  LOCUST. 

( Camnula  pellucida  Scudd. ) 

While  the  majority  of  the  destructive  locusts  belonging  to  North 
America  are  members  of  the  subfamily  Acridinse,  we  are  not  entirely 
without  those  which  are  classified  in  the  subfamily  CEdipodinse.  Of 


the  three  species  which  are  thus  classed  the  Pellucid-winged  Locust  is 
the  most  important  when  taken  according  to  the  amount  of  injury  that 
has  been  done  by  them.  This  locust  is,  and  has  been,  a common  de- 
structive species  in  California,  Nevada,  and  Oregon  for  a number  of 
years;  and  more  recently  has  occurred *as  such  in  Montana,  Idaho, 
North  Dakota,  Minnesota,  and  Manitoba.  It  is  found  as  a common 
species  over  a much  more  extended  territory  than  that  in  which  it  lias 
appeared  as  a pest,  since  it  is  found  in  Washington,  Utah,  Wyoming, 
Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Texas,  South  Dakota,  and  the  mountain  dis- 
tricts of  the  Middle  and  New  England  States.  This  insect  is  rather  a 
dweller  of  mountain  valleys  and  high  latitudes  than  of  low  elevations 
and  southern  climes.  Still,  its  more  recent  actions  would  indicate  that 
it  is  remarkably  hardy,  and  that  it  quite  frequently  becomes  acclimated 
in  new  regions.  During  the  past  ten  years  it  has  worked  its  way  east- 
ward from  the  valleys  of  the  Gallatin  s across  the  divide  into  the  valley 
of  the  Upper  Yellowstone,  and  thence  down  that  stream  to  its  mouth, 
after  which  it  has  followed  the  Missouri  to  a point  not  far  from  Bismarck. 
It  has  also  reached  the  extreme  western  part  of  Nebraska  by  following 
down  the  Platte  Itiver  from  the  mountain  districts  of  Colorado  and 
Wyoming.  Its  range  in  British  America  is  probably  clear  across  the 
continent,  and  as  far  to  the  northward  as  the  Peace  River  at  least. 

The  insect  is  fairly  represented  at  Fig.  18.  Scudder’s  description  is 
also  given  herewith: 

Asli  brown ; face  reddish  brown ; antennae  yellowish  at  base,  dark  brown  toward 
tip ; a triangular  black  spot  behind  eye,  the  apex  touching  it;  a quadrate  transverse 
black  spot  on  the  anterior  upper  portion  of  the  sides  of  the  pronotum;  pronotum 
above,  sometimes  w ith  a dark  band  down  the  middle;  tegmina  or  wing-covers  with 
the  basal  half  dark  brown,  with  small  yel- 
lowish spots  and  transverse  streaks,  espe- 
cially on  front  border;  apical  half  clear,  with 
dark  brown  rounded  spots,  prevalent  along 
the  middle,  decreasing  in  size  toward  the 
tip;  when  closed,  the  upper  surface  is  dark 
brown,  w ith  a rather  broad  yellowish  vitta 
along  each  angle  on  the  upper  surface; 
wings  pellucid,  writh  black  nervules;  legs 
dark  brown,  the  hind  femora  yellowish  or 
reddish  brown,  with  two  or  three  rather  broad  diagonal  dark  brown  streaks,  dark 
at  .the  apex;  hind  tibiae  yellowish  brown,  reddish  toward  the  tip,  with  a very  nar- 
row, generally  faint,  annulation  of  dark  brown  at  the  base;  spines  tipped  with 
black. 

Length  of  body,  male,  16.25nim;  of  female,  25ni,n;  spread  of  w ings,  male,  33"  m ; 
female,  40mm. 

The  habits  and  life-history  of  this  locust  are  not  so  well  known  as 
are  those  of  several  others  of  our  species,  but  can  best  be  compared 
with  those  of  Melanoplus  spretus , which  has  so  often  been  described. 
The  eggs  are  laid  in  similar  pod-like  sacs  in  the  ground,  there  being 
about  25  to  30  to  the  pod.  More  than  a single  batch  are  laid  by  each 
female,  the  intervals  between  the  layings  varying  from  eight  days  to 


Fig.  18. — Camnula  pellucida : a,  female,  nat- 
ural size ; b,  anal  characters  of  male,  en- 
larged (original.) 


two  weeks.  These  hatch  early  in  the  spring  and  develop  by  a series 
of  five  skin  molts  between  the  time  of  leaving  the  egg  and  the  appear- 
ance of  the  perfect  winged  individuals.  As  a rule,  pelluciUa  prefers  and 
remains  upon  damp  meadow  lands  among  the  hills  and  mountains; 
but  when  it  becomes  undufy  common  it  shows  decided  tendencies 
toward  migrating,  and  then  spreads  out  over  the  adjoining  country  into 
grain  fields,  garden,  and  pasture  lands,  just  as  do  most  of  our  other 
destructive  species  when  they  become  excessively  numerous.  Thus  far 
this  locust  can  not  be  said  to  have  shown  a tendency  to  move  in  cer- 
tain directions  in  preference  to  others  at  given  times  of  the  year,  as 
does  the  Rocky  Mountain  or  true  Migratory  Locust  of  the  United 
States.  A further  study  of  the  Pellucid- winged  Locust  will,  without 
doubt,  add  many  new  facts  in  relation  to  its  life-history  and  habits  that 
we  do,  as  yet,  not  know. 

1 

THE  LONG- WINGED  LOCUST  OF  THE  PLAINS. 


(Dissosteira  longipennis  Thomas.) 


Fig.  19. — Dissosteira  longipennis:  a.  female — natural  size;  6,  anal  characters — enlarged  (original.) 

Perhaps  the  greatest  surprise  to  entomologists  in  the  shape  of  injuries 
caused  by  locusts  in  this  country  was  that  occasioned  during  the  past 
summer  by  the  insect  named  above.  Although  it  has  been  known  to 
entomologists  for  twenty  years,  and  has  been  twice  described,  this  locust 
has  been  considered  as  belonging  with  our  rarer  representatives  of  the 
family  of  locusts.  As  stated  in  the  preceding  pages  of  this  report, 
longipennis  is  rather  restricted  in  its  range,  being  found  only  upon  the 
plains  of  western  Nebraska,  Kansas,  southeastern  Wyoming,  eastern 
Colorado,  and  northeastern  New  Mexico,  at  an  elevation  of  from  3,500 


to  6,000  feet  above  sea  level.  It  is  also  known  to  occur,  for  the  most 
part,  upon  the  gravelly  slopes  where  vegetation  is  quite  sparse. 

During  the  autumn  of  1876,  when  the  true  Migratory  Locust  was  pass- 
ing over  the  eastern  part  of  Nebraska,  a large  specimen  of  this  long- 
winged ’hopper  was  seen  to  alight  at  West  Point,  in  that  State,  where 
the  writer  was  at  the  time  engaged  in  hay  making.  It  was  captured 
and  shortly  afterwards  described  as  CEdipoda  nebrasccnsis.  This  is  the 
only  record  of  the  insect  having  been  taken  so  far  away  from  its  native 
region  as  since  ascertained.  Several  years  later,  August,  1881,  while 
spending  some  time  in  the  vicinity  of 
Greeley,  Colo.,  this  species  was  very 
frequently  met  with  both  to  the  north- 
ward and  southward  of  the  town, 
upon  the  bench  lands,  in  company 
with  Tropidoloplius  formosus , a very 
striking  species  of  locust.  Again,  in 
1889,  while  collecting  specimens  of 
various  kinds  in  the  extreme  western 
part  of  Nebraska,  a few  individual 
specimens  of  this  insect  were  taken;  while,  a year  or  two  previously,  it 
was  obtained  from  Prof.  F.  W.  Cragin,  of  the  Washburn  College,  lo- 
cated at  Topeka,  Kans.,  who  collected  it  in  Barbour  county,  in  that 
State. 

This  insect  is  well  represented  in  the  accompanying  illustrations, 
which  show  it  Avitli  and  without  spread  wings,  Fig.  19,  being  that 
with  them  spread,  and  Fig.  20  that  in  which  it  is  shown  Avith  them 
closed.  The  following  description  will  render  its  determination  quite 
easy : 


Fig.  20. — Dissosteira  longipennis:  a,  male— nat- 
ural size ; b,  anal  characters — enlarged  (orig- 
inal) . 


Tegmina  and  wings  longer  than  the  body ; the  former  spotted  with  brown,  the 
latter  blue  at  base,  but  gradually  becoming  black  toward  the  disk. 

Vertex  between  the  eyes  broad;  middle  foveola  circular,  open  in  front  with  a 
slight  median  carina;  frontal  costa  rather  narrow,  somewhat  expanded  at  the  ocel- 
lus, sulcate,  expanding  at  lower  extremity.  Lateral  facial  costa  nearly  parallel 
with  frontal.  Median  carina  of  the  pronotum  crested,  as  in  Dissosteira  Carolina, 
only  much  higher;  cut  in  front  of  the  middle  by  last  transverse  incision  of  prono- 
tum. Posterior  part  highly  arcuate,  anterior  part  nearly  straight.  Lateral  carinae 
slight,  approaching  a little  iu  front  of  middle,  where  they  are  cut  by  two  transverse 
incisions;  then  running  parallel  to  median  carina  to  base  of  occiput.  Posterior 
margin  of  pronotum  a little  less  than  a right  angle;  the  front  margin  advancing 
slightly  upon  the  occiput.  Tegmina  moderately  Avide,  slightly  arcuate  in  front, 
nearly  straight  behind ; about  one-third  longer  than  the  abdomen.  Wings  about 
one  eighth  of  an  inch  less,  quite  broad.  Posterior  femora  not  or  but  slightly  chan- 
nelled below,  not  quite  reaching  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  in  the  female,  or  very 
slightly  surpassing  it  in  the  male.  Antennae  about  as  long  as  the  head  and  prono- 
tum combined. 

Color  brownish  testaceous.  Head  and  pronotum  cinereous,  with  a greenish  tinge, 
Clypeus  lurid.  Tegmina  dirty  yellow,  spotted  Avith  brown,  the  spots  on  outer  half 
running  together  so  as  to  form  irregular  narrow  bands;  median  vein  brown  half  its 
length,  bordered  by  yellow;  spots  on  inner  portion  large.  Wings  bluish  at  base  for 
about  one-fifth  their  length,  outer  third  yellow,  sprinkled  with  brown  spots  at  apex, 


38 


the  disk  black.  Posterior  femora  crossed  on  the  outer  face  by  two  light-brown 
bands;  internally  by  two  black  bands.  Apex  black.  Posterior  tibia?  yellow,  with 
dark  spines.  Venter  yellow.  Dorsum  blue  with  a yellow  spot  on  center  of  each  of 
segments  1—4,  remainder  brownish.  Sides  brown,  antenn®  rufous. 

Length  of  body — male,  28.5'nm,  female,  43inm;  of  tegmina — male,  31.5mm,  female, 
47mm  • 0f  posterior  femora — male,  16mm,  female,  21mm ; spread  of  wings — male,  67"‘m, 
female,  100mni. 

As  would  naturally  be  supposed,  if  we  were  to  judge  from  the  ample 
wings  with  which  it  is  provided,  this  insect  is  an  excellent  flyer.  It  has 
shown  a tendency  to  migrate  during  the  past  summer  in  Colorado,  and 
is  reported  to  have  come  into  that  region  from  the  southward  in 
1890  prior  to  egg  laying.  These  latter  are  deposited  in  the  hard 
uncultivated  ground  in  the  localities  most  frequented  by  the  mature 
insects.  Whether  or  not  more  than  a single  cluster  of  them  are  laid 
by  each  female  I have  not  yet  ascertained.  After  hatching  that 
spring,  the  young  began  feeding  in  droves,  taking  everything  in  the 
shape  of  grasses  clean  as  they  went;  and  at  night,  when  not  feeding, 
they  clustered  together  upon  the  ground  which  they  had  bared. 
Although  the  insects  were  not  so  very  numerous  over  the  particular 
region  examined  by  me,  they  nevertheless  exhibited  a decided  desire  for 
moving;  still,  they  did  not  appear  to  want  to  leave  the  areas  of  bared 
ground  above  mentioned.  Accordingly  the  country  roads  and  edges 
of  plowed  fields  were  in  great  demand  by  them.  During  daytime  the 
locusts  would  work  out  into  the  grasses  for  a few  rods  and  feed,  but  as 
evening  approached  they  reentered  the  plowed  fields,  roads,  and  other 
spaces  not  covered  with  vegetation.  Judging  from  what  I had  seen  of 
the  insect  on  former  occasions,  and  knowing  something  of  the  habits 
and  haunts  of  the  mature  form,  I was  led  to  believe  that  the  great 
amount  of  rainfall  and  consequent  luxuriant  growth  of  vegetation  over 
the  entire  region  during  the  spring  and  early  summer  had  much  to  do 
with  the  massing  of  this  insect  upon  these  bared  areas.  Even  the  bared 
areas  about  the  nests  of  the  red  ant  that  builds  the  dome  like  nests  of 
small  gravel  of  common  in  the  region  west  of  the  one  hundredth 
meridian,  frequently  formed  centers  about  which  droves  of  considerable 
size  gathered.  Such  areas  about  ants’  nests  were  frequently  seen  that 
had  been  enlarged  to  from  several  yards  to  a number  of  rods  in  diameter. 
Further  to  the  southward,  where  Messrs.  Snow  and  Popenoehad  spent 
a week  or  more  among  the  species,  the  insect  was  much  more  numerous 
and  occupied  the  whole  territory;  hence  these  characteristics  just  men- 
tioned w^ere  not  so  readily  noticed. 

The  food  habits  of  the  Long- winged  Locust  of  the  plains  appear  to 
be  rather  limited,  when  compared  to  that  of  the  Pocky  Mountain  and  a 
few  other  species  of  these  insects  that  are  older  acquaintances.  Both 
my  owiPobservations  and  those  of  Messrs.  Snow  and  Popenoe  indicate 
that  this  insect  is,  so  far  at  least,  a decided  epicure,  and  will  only  feed 
upon  certain  grasses  native  to  that  region  where  it  occurs.  These  are 
the  Grammas  (Boutelouci)  and  the  Buffalo  Grass  ( Buchloe  dactyloides ). 


Aside  from  these  grasses,  only  a few  instances  are  on  record  of  its  hav- 
ing injured  cultivated  crops,  and  these  are  only  when  the  special  food- 
plants  had  given  out.  Whether  or  not  this  same  habit  will  continue, 
should  the  locust  become  habitually  a pest,  can  not  be  foretold. 

The  habit  of  gathering  or  massing  upon  bared  places,  along  with  its 
clumsy  nature, 'renders  it  an  easy  enemy  to  tight  with  the  kerosene 
pans,  etc.  Hence,  it  can  be  easily  controlled  in  future  when  desired. 

THE  PALE-WINGED  LOCUST. 

( Dissosteira  obliterata  Tlios.) 

Last  year  (1890)  while  investigating  the  Pellucid-winged  Locust 
plague  in  central  Idaho,  a number  of  specimens  of^a  large  ample- winged 
species  were  observed  among  the  pellucida  in  various  places  on  the 
Shoshone  side  of  the  low  mountain  range  lying  between  the  Snake 
River  Plain  and  the  Camas  Prairie.  Upon  capturing  specimens  of 
this  locust  it  was  found  to 
be  the  insect  which  Prof. 

Cyrus  Thomas  described  as 
(E  dipod  a obliterata.  Later 
in  the  course  of  that  expe- 
dition this  same  locust  was 
met  with  in  large  numbers 
in  the  foothills  lying  to  the 
south  of  Boise  City.  In  that 
particular  locality  this,  with  two  other  species  of  locusts,  had  almost 
entirely  denuded  the  ground  of  its  covering  of  grass  vegetation.  The 
other  species  were  the  Mela  noplus  feedus  and  Pezotettix  en  igma  . 

Dissosteira  obliterata  also  occurs  in  Oregon,  Nevada,  and  California, 
in  all  of  which  States  it  is  quite  plentiful  over  limited  areas.  It  is  a very 
variable  insect  as  far  as  color  goes,  and  has  been  described  under  an- 
other name  by  M.  Henri  Saussure  in  his  Prodromus  CEdipodiorum. 
This  name  is  Dissosteira  spurcata. 

Its  habits,  while  not  positively  known,  are  supposed  to  be  very  simi- 
lar to  those  of  Dissosteira  longipennis.  It  is  a native  of  the  semi-arid 
regions  of  the  States  where  found,  and  frequents  rather  elevated,  grav- 
elly, or  sandy  hillsides  where  the  vegetation  is  composed  of  various 
short  grasses  which  thinly  clothe  the  surface.  When  disturbed  it  rises 
from  the  ground  with  apparent  ease  and  flits  along  on  its  ample  wings 
to  a considerable  distance  before  realighting. 

The  following  description  will  enable  one  to  recognize  it : 

Male  and  Female. — Length  to  tip  of  tegiina,  1.50;  to  tip  of  abdomen,  1.10  to  1.30 
inches.  Pale  reddish-brown  or  dull  yellowish,  tinged  with  rufous,  with  irregular 
transverse  bands  of  dark  fuscous  spots. 

Occiput  not  prominent.  Vertex  broad,  moderately  deflexed  margins,  with  sharp 
carime  forming  a distinct  subquadrate,  median  foveola,  which  is  divided  into  two 
equal  sections  by  a distinct  longitudinal  median  carina  that  extends  back  part 


Fig.  21. — Dissosteira  obliterata:  a , male — natural  size; 
6,  female  anal  characters — enlarged  (original). 


40 


way  upon  the  occiput ; sides  of  the  foveola  parallel  between  the  eyes,  and  bending 
abruptly  inward  toward  the  fastigiuni  in  front,  continuous  with  the  sides  of  frontal 
costa;  fastigiuni  with  a double  indentation.  Frontal  costa  slightly -sulcate,  subtri- 
carinate  at  the  fastigiuni,  widening  at  the  ocellus,  and  extending  nearly  or  quite  to 
the  clypeus,  but  not  expanding  below.  In  the  male  the  width  is  about  uniform 
throughout.  Pronotum  with  the  median  carina  subcristate,  distinctly  and  deeply 
notched  about  the  middle  by  the  posterior  sulcus;  anterior  portion  irregularly 
arched,  more  elevated'  than  the  posterior  portion,  which  has  only  the  front  part 
arched ; lateral  carin®  irregular  and  indistinct.  The  notch  of  the  median  carina  is  of 
the  oblique  type,  more  distinctly  so  in  the  male  than  in  the  female.  Posterior  lobe 
expanding  rapidly  from  the  posterior  sulcus ; nearly  flat  on  the  disk,  which  is  more 
or  less  covered  with  elongate  rugosities,  more  distinct  and  numerous  in  the  female 
than  in  the  male;  posterior  extremity  obtuse-angled;  anterior  margin  extended  in  a 
very  obtuse  angle  upon  the  occiput.  Tegmina  extending  about  one-third  their 
length  beyond  the  abdomen,  of  medium  width,  sinuous,  and  obliquely  excised  at  tip. 
Wings  narrow,  the  length  very  nearly  twice  the  width,  and  slightly  undulate  on  the 
outer  margin ; the  nervules  unusually  regular  and  straight.  Posterior  femora  with 
sharp  and  elevated  car  in®  above  and  below.  Antenn®  rather  short,  scarcely  flat- 
tened, and  very  slightly  acuminated  at  the  tip. 

Color. — Female  somewhat  darker  than  the  male ; face  pale  purplish,  dotted  with 
fuscous;  occiput  and  pronotum  fuscous  brown,  the  latter  with  a carneous  stripe 
along  each  lateral  carina,  which  connect  at  the  anterior  sulcus  and  fade  out  near  the 
posterior  extremity;  the  disk  of  the  posterior  lobe  dark  brown.  Tegmina  pale  dirty 
yellow,  slightly  tinged  with  rufous,  crossed  by  three  irregular  bands  formed  of  dark 
fuscous  spots,  the  middle  one  broadest  and  usually  the  best  defined;  apex  with  ir- 
regular cellular  fuscous  spots,  those  next  the  costal  margin  most  distinct.  Wings 
pellucid,  with  a narrow  marginal,  rather  pale,  fuscous  band,  commencing  behind 
the  subcostal  area,  where  it  is  broadest,  narrowing  and  fading  toward  the  anal 
angle;  the  nerves  and  nervules,  except  in  the  apical  portion  of  the  subcostal  area 
and  in  the  fuscous  band,  pale  yellow  or  white.  Posterior  femora  crossed  externally 
and  internally  by  three  oblique  fuscous  bands ; posterior  tibi®  pale  yellow,  spines 
tipped  with  black. 


© 


U.  S,  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,  j 

DIVISION  OP  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Bulletin  No.  29. 


REPORT 

o 

ON  THE 

X ■ ' *■' 

BOLL  WORM  OF  COTTON 

( Eeliotliis  armiger  Hiibn.). 


MADE  UNDER  THE  DIRECTION  OF  THE  ENTOMOLOGIST 
BY 

F.  W.  MALLY. 


PUBLISHED  BY  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE, 

1893. 


% 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

DIVISION  OP  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Bulletin  No.  29. 


REPORT 

ON  THE 

BOLL  WORM  OF  COTTON 

(Heliothis  armigcr  Hiibn.). 


MADE  UNDER  THE  DIRECTION  OF  THE  ENTOMOLOGIST 
BY 

F.  W.  MALLY. 


PUBLISHED  BY  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  SECRETARY  Ob'  AGRICULTURE. 


WASHINGTON: 

£,QYEMM£NT  PRINTING  OFFICE? 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Division  of  Entomology, 
Washington , B.  C .,  October  31 , 1892. 

Sir:  I have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith,  for  publication  as  Bul- 
letin No.  29  of  this  Division,  a report  by  Mr.*  E.  W.  Mally  upon  the 
Boll  Worm  of  Cotton  ( Reliothis  armiger  Hiibn.),  the  first  part  cover- 
ing his  observations  upon  the  parasites  and  natural  enemies  of  the 
Boll  Worm  while  the  second  part  is  devoted  to  his  bacteriological  ex- 
periments with  certain  insect  diseases  affecting  this  larva. 

Respectfully, 


Hon.  J.  M.  Rusk, 

Secretary . 


C.  V.  Riley, 
Entomologist. 


3 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 


Washington,  D.  0.,  May  1 , 1892 . 
Sir  : I submit  herewith  a report  upon  the  remedies  for,  and  the  par- 
asites and  natural  enemies  of,  the  Boll  Worm  (Heliothis  armiger  Hiibu.) 
covering  the  results  of  investigations  carried  ou  under  your  direction. 
Respectfully  yours, 

F.  W.  Mally, 

Assistant , 

Dr.  0.  V.  Riley, 

Entomologist . 


5 


CONTENTS, 


Page. 


Acknowledgments 9 

Habits  and  natural  enemies  of  the  Boll  Worm 10 

Destructiveness 10 

Food-plants  other  than  cotton  and  corn 17 

Tobacco 17 

Tomatoes 18 

Other  food-plants  18 

Characters  and  transformations 18 

Larva 18 

Pupa 21 

Imago 22 

Number  of  broods  and  hibernation 23 

Parasites 24 

Egg  parasites 25 

Parasites  of  the  larva 25 

Other  natural  enemies 26 

Ants 26 

Wasps 28 

Other  insects 28 

Insect  ravages  mistaken  for  those  of  the  Boll  Worm 29 

Thecla  pceas 29 

Prodenia  lineatella * 30 

Platynota  rostrana 30 

Agrolis  ypsilon 30 

Laphygma  frugipeida 30 

Bar  is  area 30 

Parajulus  impressus 30 

Calocoris  rapidus 31 

Homalodisca  coag  ulata 31 

Remedies  for  the  Boll  Worm 33 

Lights  for  attracting  the  moths 33 

Poisoned  sweets 38 

Experiments  with  pyrethrum 42 

Simple  emulsion 42 

Pyrethrum  emulsions 43 

Cold-water  decoction 43 

Hot-wTater  decoction 44 

CoH-oil  decoction  45 

Hot-oil  decoction 45 

Simple  cold-water  decoction  46 

Simple  hot-water  decoctions 47 

Summary  of  experiments 49 

Advantages  of  the  emulsified  hot  oil  extracted  from  pyrethrum. ..  51 

7 


8 


Page. 

Hand-picking  of  corn 52 

Trap-corn  experiments 52 

Early  and  late  cotton 58 

Bacteriological  experiments  with  insect  diseases 59 

Introductory  ...  * 59 

General  precautions 60 

Culture  media 60 

Beef  broth 61 

Agar-agar 62 

Special  apparatus 62 

Observations  and  experiments 64 

A disease  of  Plusia  brassicce 68 

Discussion  of  results 69 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Plate  I.  Diagram  of  cotton  field,  showing  location  of  trap  corn 56 

II.  Special  apparatus  for  bacteriological  work 62 


REPORT  ON  THE  BOLL  WORM  OF  COTTON. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 

My  first  acknowledgments  are  due  to  Dr.  C.  V.  Eiley  and  to  Mr.  L. 

O.  Howard,  who  have  furnished  valuable  aid  in  the  determination  of 
specimens;  to  Mr.  E.  A.  Schwarz  for  identifying  Coleoptera;  to  Mr. 
Theo.  Pergande  for  naming  ants,  and  also  to  Mr.  Nathan  Banks,  who 
was  assigned  to  me  in  my  work  at  Shreveport,  for  determining  spiders. 

The  planters  at  Shreveport  deserve  great  praise  for  their  uniform 
courtesy,  hearty  cooperation,  and  the  many  sacrifices  made  in  devoting 
time  aud  labor  to  the  promotion  of  field  experiments.  Those  who  as- 
signed portions  of  their  plantations  for  the  sole  purpose  of  testing 
remedial  measures,  and  who  therefore  deserve  personal  mention,  are 
Messrs.  J.  H.  Fullilove,  Daniel  Nicholson,  S.  J.  Ziegler,  and  John 
Caldwell,  all  of  Shreveport;  Mr.  M.  A.  Curtis,  of  Curtis,  La.,  and  Mr. 
John  (Hassell,  jr.,  df  Eush  Point,  La. 

The  wide  geographical  distribution  of  the  Boll  Worm,  and  the  differ- 
ent natural  conditions  in  the  various  regions  where  it  occurs,  made  it 
quite  impossible  to  cover  the  entire  ground  without  the  assistance  and 
cooperation  of  intelligent  persons  throughout  those  regions.  Accord- 
ingly arrangements  were  made  with  the  several  State  weather  services 
to  have  their  observers  give  special  attention  to  any  facts  of  interest 
and  value  to  the  investigation.  This  was  accomplished  through  the 
efforts  of  the  directors  of  the  several  services.  Mr.  M.  G.  Wright,  jr., 
of  Shreveport,  La.;  Prof.  E.  B.  Fulton,  University,  Miss.;  Mr.  F.  H. 
Clark,  Little  Eock,  Ark. ; Dr.  J.  M.  Cline,  Galveston,  Tex. ; Mr.  George 
E.  Hunt,  New  Orleans,  La.,  and  Prof.  P.  H.  Mell,  Auburn,  Ala.,  merit 
special  mention  for  their  many  favors. 

While  on  a trip  through  northern  Texas  for  the  purpose  of  making 
special  observations,  much  depended  upon  the  assistance  of  observers 
in  that  section.  It  is  a source  of  much  satisfaction  to  state  that  no  de- 
lay was  experienced  at  any  point,  and  that  the  work  was  facilitated  in 
every  way  possible.  At  Mesquite,  Tex.,  Messrs.  S.  G.  Lackey  and  T. 

P.  Worthington  gave  valuable  information  concerning  their  localities, 

9 


10 


as  did  Mr.  A.  A.  Pittuck,  of  The  Texas  Farm  and  Ranch,  and  Mr. 
F.  Doremus,  of  the  Dallas  Morning  News.  At  Arlington,  Tex.,  sim- 
ilar courtesies  were  received  from  Dr.  L.  C.  Page,  Mr.  C.  F.  Mercer, 
Capt.  M.  J.  Brinsan,  Col.  J.  A.  Ditto,  and  Hon.  J.  W.  Hammack. 

Among  those  who  by  correspondence  contributed  freely  of  their  ex- 
perience, Messrs.  S.  B.  Mullen,  of  Harrisville,  Miss. ; Jeff.  Wclborn,  of 
NewBoston,  Tex.;  John  C.  Edgar,  of  Duval,  Tex. ; Hon.  George  J.T  wiley, 
of  Holly  Springs,  Miss. ; Prof.  H.  A.  Morgan,  of  Baton  Rouge,  La. ; 
Prof.  J.  G.  Lee,  of  Calhoun,  La.,  and  many  others,  have  my  sincere 
thanks.  Grateful  acknowledgments  are  also  due  to  Mr.  Henry  Hot- 
ter, Secretary  of  the  New  York  Cotton  Exchange;  Mr.  Henry  Hester, 
Secretary  of  Hie  New  Orleans  Cotton  Exchange,  for  many  favors,  and 
to  Mr.  A.  B.  Shepperson,  of  New  York,  for  u Cotton  Facts’’  and 
general  statistical  information. 


HABITS  AND  NATURAL  ENEMIES  OF  THE  BOLL  WORM. 

DESTRUCTIVENESS. 

During  May  corn  is  practically  the  only  abundant  and  available  crop 
to  be  attacked  by  the  Boll  Worm.  At  that  time  a study  of  a number 
of  corn  fields  on  both  bottom  lauds  and  uplands  was  made.  The  number 
of  plants  attacked  was  noted,  as  well  as  other  data,  as  shown  in 
Table  I. 


Table  I.  — Ravages  of  Boll  Worm  on  May  corn. 


Field. 

Total. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

Plants  examined 

377 

296 

472 

720 

21 

422 

496 

511 

368 

3,  662 
97 

Eaten 

16 

12 

4 

6 

16 

15 

353 

"Wet  eaten  

361 

3 

289 

4 

460 

699 

418 

490 

495 

3,  565 

W orms 

1 

3 

8 

26 

Half  grown 

2 

1 

3 

1 

2 

1 

7 

Very  voune.* 

1 

5 

2 

8 

19 

Color : 

Dark 

3 

1 

2 

7 

18 

Green 

1 

1 

Light  green 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

7 

Mashed  : 

Half  grown 

2 

1 

1 

2 

1 

7 

Very  young 

1 

3 

4 

.... 

1 

7 

16 

Not  masked 

1 

1 

1 

3 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  table  that  of  the  3,662  plants  examined,  97, 
or  2.6  per  cent,  showed  injury,  and  26,  or  0.7  per  cent,  actually  contained 
Boll  Worms.  Fields  5 and  6 were  u hill  country,”  and  though  plants 
were  found  apparently  injured  by  Boll  Worms,  much  of  the  damage 
done  was  due  to  Prodenia  lineatella . The  other  fields  were  Red  River 
bottom  lands. 


11 


June  1 a study  was  made  of  a small  patch  of  sweet  corn,  which  was 
then  in  good  roasting  ears.  The  results  are  given  in  Table  II. 


Table  II. — Ravages  of  Boll  Worm  on  sweet  corn  roasting  ears. 


On  the  same  date  a field  of  crop  corn  just  tasseling  was  similarly 
studied.  The  number  of  plants  examined  is  not  given,  but  simply  those 
upon  Avhich  worms  were  found.  The  larvae  in  nearly  every  case  were 
found  in  the  freshly  protruded  or  protruding  tassel.  The  facts  are  pre- 
sented in  Table  III. 

" Table  III. — Worms  found  on  tasseling  corn. 


Much  error  prevails  among  planters  as  to  the  causes  of  the  shedding 
of  the  cotton  crop,  and  that  much  of  the  blame  has  been  misplaced  is 
shown  by  the  following  tables.  The  data  upon  natural  shedding  (Table 
IV)  and  the  natural  or  normal  average  number  of  bolls  matured  by  a 
cotton  plant  under  favorable  conditions  (Table  V)  were  noted  in  fields 
entirely  free  from  Boll  Worm  ravages. 


12 


Table  IV. — Bolls  in  cotton  plant — natural  shedding. 


Plant. 

Bolls  in 
plant. 

Shedding. 

Total. 

Natural. 

Other 

causes. 

1 

71 

25 

22 

118 

2 

16 

16 

17 

49 

3 

157 

52 

16 

225 

4 

68 

36 

3 

107 

5 

26 

30 

4 

60 

6 

70 

33 

10 

113 

Total 

408 

192 

72 

672 

Average  per  plant . . 

68 

32 

12 

112 

Table  V. — Matured  bolls  in  cotton  plant. 


Plant. 

Bolls 
matured . 

Plant. 

Bolls 

matured. 

1 

25 

9 

12 

2 

16 

10  

17 

3 

18 

11 

22 

4 

26 

12 

31 

5 

25 

13 

33 

6 

22 

7 

22 

Total 

286 

8 

17 

Average  per  plant  . . 

22 

Table  IY  shows  that  when  examined  September  7 plant  3 had  borne 
a total  of  225  and  plant  4 a total  of  107  squares,  forms,  and  bolls;  Sep- 
tember 29  plant  3 bore  only  98  bolls  and  forms,  and  plant  4,  59;  Octo- 
ber 10  plant  3 had  96  and  plant  4,  51;  November  14,  plant  3 bore  83 
and  plant  4, 44.  At  this  time  it  was  evident  that  the  bolls  yet  remain 
ing  would  mature  and  open  if  conditions  continued  favorable.  Hence, 
by  natural  agencies  the  original  numbers*  had  been  reduced  to  83  and 
44,  respectively,  by  November  14.  The  shedding  of  plant  3 was,  there- 
fore, 63.2;  that  of  plant  4,  58.9  per  cent.  Even  the  figures  given  in 
Table  IY  on  September  7 show  that  of  a total  of  672  bolls  and  squares 
originally  borne  by  the  six  plants  only  408  were  then  upon  them,  a 
shedding  of  264  bolls,  or  39.3  per  cent.  The  plants  examined  were 
above  the  average  in  growth  and  vigor. 

These  facts  should  impress  the  planter  reporting  damages  supposed 
to  be  due  to  an  insect  with  the  necessity  of  making  a careful  examina- 
tion and  discovering  the  real  causes  operating.  If  this  be  done,  he 
will  often  find  that  much  of  his  loss  is  due  to  perfectly  natural  causes 
and  not  to  insect  depredations. 

The  data  contained  in  Table  Y are  based  upon  average  plants  which 
had  already  matured,  or  at  least  had  set  their  full  crop.  It  must  be 
noted  in  this  connection  that  the  average  given  applies  to  good  cotton 
only,  in  such  districts  as  northern  Louisiana  and  Mississippi.  In  river 
bottoms,  where  cotton  grows  much  more  vigorously,  the  average  per 
plant  is  proportionally  greater.  In  some  of  the  southern  and  central 


13 


portions  of  Texas,  where  cotton  grows  from  7 to  10  feet  high,  the  aver- 
age may  be  twiecj  that  given  in  the  table.  These  facts  are  recited  to 
illustrate  the  necessity  of  making  local  studies  for  a given  locality  in 
order  to  arrive  at  anything  like  an  accurate  estimate  of  the  injury  and 
loss  for  that  locality. 

Table  VI. — Condition  of  cotton  field  at  Mesquite,  Tex. 


Plant. 

Bored. 

Other 

causes. 

Good 

bolls. 

Total. 

1 

15 

7 

22 

2 

4 

14 

15 

33 

3 

5 

18 

16 

39 

4 

2 

2 

14 

18 

5 

1 

4 

58 

63 

6 

3 

8 

11 

7 

12 

12 

24 

8 

14 

3 

6 

23 

9... 

6 

7 

13 

10 

10 

2 

12 

11 

6 

3 

12 

21 

12 

21 

5 

18 

44 

13 

7 

2 

21 

30 

14 

3 

2 

14 

19 

15 

2 

2 

21 

26 

16 

1 

4 

22 

27 

17 

9 

33 

42 

Total  . . 

112 

69 

286 

467 

Table  VII. — Condition  of  cotton  field  at  Arlington,  Tex . 


j 

Plant. 

Bored. 

Other 

causes. 

Good 

bolls. 

Total. 

1 

7 

5 

11 

23 

2 

1 

5 

25 

31 

3 

1 

21 

22 

4 

1 

1 

12 

14 

5 /. 

1 

3 

25 

29 

6 

12 

14 

23 

49 

7 

5 

30 

35> 

8 

3 

2 

15 

20 

9 

9 

1 

22 

32 

10 

8 

6 

16 

30 

11 

1 

2 

13 

16 

12 

7 

5 

14 

26 

13 

2 

11 

13 

14 

4 

2 

15 

21 

15 

13 

9 

12 

34 

16 

23 

15 

43 

81 

Total . . 

93 

75 

308 

476 

14 


Table  VIII. — Early  and  laie  cotton~compared. 
LATE  COTTON. 


Plant. 

Bored. 

Other 

causes. 

Good 

bolls. 

Total. 

7 

12 

! 12 

24 

8 

14 

3 

6 

23 

9 

6 

13 

10 

10 

2 

12 

11 

G 

3 

* 12 

21 

12 

21 

5 

18 

44 

13 

7 

2 

21 

30 

Total . . . 

76 

13 

78 

167 

EARLY  COTTON. 


14 

3 

2 

14 

19 

15 

2 

3 

21 

26 

16 

1 

4 

22 

27 

17 

0 

9 

33 

42 

Total  . . . 

6 

18 

90 

114 

Tables  VI  and  VII  exhibit  data  obtained  while  on  a trip  through  the 
part  of  Texas  which  was  worst  infested  by  the  Boll  Worm.  The  figures 
for  Table  VI  were  noted  at  Mesquite,  August  24,  and  for  Table  YII  the 
facts  were  obtained  at  Arlington,  August  27.  In  Table  VI  plants  1 to 

6 inclusive  were  in  the  same  field  and  stood  consecutively  m a row; 
plants  7 to  13  inclusive  in  a second  field,  consecutively  as  before;  while 
plants  14  to  17  inclusive  were  taken  at  random  in  a third  field.  Plants 

7 to  13  were  in  a field  of  late  cotton,  still  blooming  profusely  at  the  time 
of  observation;  14  to  17  were  in  one  of  early  cotton  in  which  all  the 
fruit  had  set  and  which,  therefore,  contained  but  few  bJossoms  at  that 
time.  These  data  are  compiled  separately  in  Table  VIII  for  the  pur- 
pose of  comparison.  It  presents  some  significant  facts  concerning  the 
question  of  early  and  late  cotton  in  Boll  Worm  districts.  Thus,  of  a 
total  of  167  bolls  of  the  late  cotton,  76,  or  45.5  per  cent,  had  been  injured 
by  the  Boll  Worm;  of  a total  of  114  bolls  of  early  cotton,  only  6,  or  5.2 
per  cent,  were  injured.  Estimating  the  difference  upon  the  basis  of 
the  normal  average,  we  have  the  following  result : The  seven  plants  of 
late  cotton  averaged  11.14  bolls  per  plant,  and  the  four  plants  of  early 
cotton  22  per  plant,  22  being  the  normal  average  arrived  at  in  Table 
V.  The  late  cotton  therefore  shows  a loss  of  50.6  per  cent,  while  the 
early  cotton  shows  no  real  loss.  This  may  be  taken  as  an  extreme  case, 
but  the  general  principle  remains  that  late  cotton  receives  by  far  the 
greater  portion  of  the  Boll  Worm  attack,  virtually  protecting  the  early 
cotton  fields  about  it. 


'Table  IX. — Shed  bolls  found  on  ground. 


Table. 

Plants 

inclusive. 

Bored. 

Other 

causes. 

Total. 

VI 

1-6  and  17 

8 

103 

Ill 

VI 

7-13 

69 

44 

113 

VI 

14-16 

10 

42 

52 

VII 

1-9 

40 

44 

84 

VII 

10-16 

43 

64 

107 

Total . . 

170 

297 

467 

Table  X. — Good  bolls  per  plant. 


Source. 

Bored. 

Other 

causes. 

Good 

bolls. 

Total. 

Table  VI  . 

112 

69 

286 

467 

Table  VII 

93 

75 

308 

476 

Table  IX  . 

170 

297 

467 

Total . . 

375 

441 

594 

1.410 

Per  cent . . 

26.6 

31.3 

42. 1 

100 

Table  IX  presents  a study  of  tlie  bolls  and  squares  found  shed  and 
on  the  ground  under  the  plants  recorded  in  Tables  VI  and  VII. 

The  totals  of  Tables  VI,  VII,  and  IX  are  arranged  for  convenience 
in  Table  X.  From  the  facts  thus  presented  it  is  found  that  18  is  the 
average  number  of  good  bolls  per  plant.  The  normal  average  has  al- 
ready been  given  as  22.  Hence  the  loss  from  injury  is  18.2  per  cent  in- 
stead of  26.6,  as  found  by  the  usual  method.  This  difference  is  largely 
due  to  having  included  the  data  of  Table  IX,  which  represents  the 
shed  bolls  found  on  the  ground  under  the  plants  examined.  As  has 
been  shown  by  Table  IV,  many  of  these  would  have  been  shed  by 
natural  process,  but  were  bored  before  having  fallen.  Hence,  if  in- 
cluded, they  exaggerate  the  real  damage.  The  actual  damage  should 
be  estimated  upon  the  basis  of  the  average  amount  normally  matured 
by  the  cotton  plant  in  any  given  locality  under  favorable  conditions. 
Omitting  Table  IX  from  Table  X we  have  the  following  results : 


Source. 

Bored. 

Other 

causes. 

Good 

bolls. 

Total. 

Table  VI 

112 

69 

286 

467 

Table  VII ... . 

93 

75 

308 

476 

Total . . . 

205 

144 

594 

943 

Per  cent 

21.7 

15.3 

53 

100 

The  above  percentages  are  obtained  upon  the  basis  of  what  was 
actually  found  upon  the  plant  August  27,  without  reference  to  the  num- 
ber of  bolls  normally  matured  per  plant  for  that  locality.  The  per  cent 
of  damage  is  shown  to  be  21.7,  which,  compared  with  the  18.2  per  cent 
obtained  on  the  other  basis,  shows  that  this  estimate  is  quite  accurate 
and,  for  all  practical  purposes,  satisfactory. 


16 


The  damage  detailed  above  was  found  only  in  the  worse  infested  dis- 
tricts visited.  In  other  localities  the  injury  was  much  less,  or  none  at 
all.  Even  in  the  infested  districts  some  fields  were  found  which  had 
practically  escaped  injury.  The  estimated  damage  of  18.2  per  cent 
applied  more  especially  to  a region  approximately  included  by  an 
imaginary  line  running  from  Paris,  Texas,  to  Tyler,  to  Palestine,  to 
Temple,  to  Greenville,  to  Paris.  Other  cotton-producing  counties  in 
Texas  were  much  less  affected,  and  for  the  entire  State  it  will  be  safe 
to  place  the  maximum  limit  of  Boll  Worm  injury  at  10  per  cent,  with 
probabilities  that  it  is  still  less. 

Along  the  Red  River  and  Mississippi  valleys,  and,  in  general,  in  the 
bottom  lands  along  the  smaller  rivers  and  creeks,  the  injury  is  great- 
est. In  the  greater  portion  of  Louisiana  and  Mississippi  the  damage 
is  certainly  not  over  2 to  3 per  cent.  In  Arkansas  the  damage  along 
the  rivers  and  in  a belt  across  the  State  from  Little  Rock  to  Fort 
Smith  was  more  serious,  and  for  a considerable  portion  of  the  State 
ranged  from  10  to  15  per  cent.  This  is  due  in  part  to  the  greater 
acreage  of  corn  in  proportion  to  that  of  cotton.  The  reason  for  this 
lies  in  the  fact  that  a greater  number  of  individual  ears  are  produced, 
and  hence  the  probability  of  a greater  number  of  worms  reaching  ma- 
turity. The  relation  existing  between  the  acreage  in  corn  and  the 
acreage  in  cotton  is  no  objection  to  the  trap-corn  method,  to  be  subse- 
quently discussed,  but  rather  makes  it  all  the  more  advisable  to  use  it 
at  the  proper  time.  In  Alabama,  Florida,  Tennessee,  Georgia,  and  the 
Carolinas  the  ravages  are  insignificant,  and  usually  do  not  excite 
general  attention.  If  the  acreage  and  production  of  these  States  be 
included  to  ascertain  the  per  cent  of  loss  to  the  entire  cotton  crop 
from  Boll  Worm  depredations,  it  is  evident  that  the  percentage  will  be 
reduced  to  a small  figure. 

Those  who  have  never  spent  a season  among  cotton-planters  may 
consider  this  discussion  of  damage  peculiar  or  even  unnecessary.  The 
fact  is  that  the  average  observer,  whether  planter  or  newspaper  re- 
porter, seldom  comes  to  his  conclusions  upon  a basis  of  what  is  found 
upon  the  plant,  or  after  having  considered  natural  causes  of  loss.  He 
judges  mostly  by  what  he  sees  lying  upon  the  ground,  and  to  this,  as 
has  been  shown,  several  causes  contribute.  Upon  this  basis  (see  Table 
IV)  a damage  of  39.2  per  cent  could  be  reported.  Such  reports  are  en- 
tirely misleading  and  erroneous,  and  have  no  foundation  in  fact.  It  is 
even  more  difficult  to  give  an  estimate  of  the  damage  to  corn  by  Boll 
Worms.  From  Table  I it  is  found  that  in  May,  2.6  per  cent  of  the 
young  corn  plants  had  been  attacked.  The  plants  were  not  ruined 
nor  even  checked  in  their  growth,  and  ultimately  produced  sound  ears 
of  corn.  The  conditions  presented  in  Table  III  are  quite  disgusting 
when  viewing  the  ravaged  tassels,  but  in  the  end  the  ear  of  corn  is 
produced.  Romantic  discussions  of  these  facts  have  been  entirely  mis- 
leading, and  for  ppm  it  is  safe  to  assert  that  no  real  damage  is  occa* 


17 


sioned,  so  far  as  the  ultimate  yield  is  concerned,  by  the  depredations 
mentioned.  The  ravages  in  the  ear  at  a later  period  do,  however,  occa- 
sion some  loss.  From  a money  standpoint  this  loss  is  perhaps  felt  most 
• by  gardeners  growing  sweet  corn  for  early  market.  Badly  infested  ears 
must  be  thrown  away  and  a greater  acreage  is  therefore  necessary  to 
insure  a sufficient  supply  of  uninfested  ears.  How  serious  a matter 
this  may  be  depends  entirely  upon  the  locality,  and  much  the  same 
may  be  said  of  the  regular  crop.  Many  of  the  ears  have  some  of  the 
grains  damaged,  and  this,  together  with  the  excrement  of  the  worms, 
makes  them  to  a certain  extent  distasteful  or  undesirable  for  feeding 
purposes.  But  the  most  serious  objection  arises  when  the  corn  comes 
to  the  mills  to  be  ground  into  meal.  Technically  the  meal  will  be  re* 
duced  in  purity  and  standard  quality,  but  this  is  after  all  only  a theo- 
retical objection,  since  the  question  is  never  raised  or  thought  of  when 
the  meal  is  on  the  market,  and  its  market  value  is  not  affected. 

General  estimates  of  insect  injuries  by  per  cents  are  misleading,  and 
hence  the  advisability,  in  order  to  maintain  scientific  accuracy,  of  as- 
signing to  them  only  a local  application  or  significance. 

FOOD-PLANTS  OTHER  THAN  COTTON  AND  CORN. 

Tobacco. — The  eggs  of  the  Boll  Worm  are  laid  indiscriminately  upon 
all  parts  of  this  plant.  Tobacco  leaves  and  very  young  portions  of  the 
plant  are  thickly  set  with  plant  hairs,  which  are  covered  with  a sticky 
secretion.  The  eggs  are  usually  found  stuck  fast  to  the  tip  of  one  or 
two  of  the  hairs;  not  close  to  the  surface  of  the  leaf.  The  sticky  hairs 
trap  many  small  insects  which  crawl  about  them  and  even  the  newly 
issued  Boll  Worms  are  caught  occasionally,  and  perish  in  the  attempt 
to  get  away.  The  flower-buds  and  green  seed-pods  of  tobacco  are  freely 
attacked,  and  large  racemes  sometimes  have  one-half  or  two-thirds  of 
their  fruit  eaten  into.  Tobacco  is  topped  to  prevent  its  flowering  and 
producing  seed.  The  stem  contains  a succulent  pith  which  the  larvae 
relish  and  they  often  eat  down  the  stem  from  the  broken  and  exposed  end. 
As  they  go  down,  the  leaf  found  at  each  node  often  withers  and  dies  as 
they  pass  it.  The  small  field  of  tobacco  examined  was  several  miles 
away  from  any  cotton  or  corn  fields.  This  partially  explains  the  abun- 
dance of  the  Boll  Worm  in  this  isolated  patch.  They  doubtless  do  not 
feed  so  extensively  in  regular  tobacco  districts.  The  important  thing 
for  the  cotton-grower  is  to  see  that  the  topped  portions,  bearing  so  many 
eggs  and  young  larvae,  are  burned  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  them. 
The  suggestion  may  be  carried  even  further.  The  topping  process  prac- 
ticed upon  tobacco  leaves  only  a minimum  number  of  racemes  for  the 
production  of  seed.  These  remaining  racemes  were  more  thickly 
stocked  with  Boll  worm  eggs  than  anything  else  observed  in  Texas;  in 
fact,  nothing  except  fresh  corn  silk  was  ever  found  so  thickly  infested. 
This  was  on  August  25,  which  is  past  the  height  of  the  flowering  period 
of  the  earlier  cotton.  Small  patches  of  cotton  could  therefore  be  planted 
14935— Ko.  29 2 


18 


as  trap  crops,  cutting  off  and  burning  the  racemes  when  well  stocked 
with  Boll  Worm  eggs.  In  those  portions  of  Texas  which  are  subject  to 
early  and  continued  drought  this  method  may  be  even  more  success 
ful  than  that  of  trap  corn. 

Tomatoes. — The  fruit  of  this  plant  is  bored  in  tl.e  same  manner  as 
the  cotton  boll,  as  already  discussed  in  Bulletin  24  of  this  Division. 
The  worm  also  bores  into  the  stems,  sometimes  cutting  them  nearly  off 
in  so  doing.  The  damage  is  usually  ascribed  to  cut- worms,  and  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  properly.  Occasionally,  after  having  eaten  to  the 
pith  of  the  stem  the  larva  goes  downward,  hollowing  it  out  as  it  goes. 
This  causes  the  portion  of  the  plant  above  the  point  of  injury  to  wilt  or 
break  and  die.  This  sometimes  happens  to  the  central  trunk  of  the 
plant  and  the  whole  of  it  is  then  ruined. 

Other  Food-plants. — Oowpeas  and  the  pods  of  various  kinds  of  beans 
and  peas,  are  often  found  eaten  full  of  holes,  and  the  peas  and  beans 
devoured.  Cucumbers,  cantaloupes,  and  small  watermelons,  and  okra 
pods  are  occasionally  bored,  but  the  attack  is  not  general  or  extensive. 
Mr.  W.  J.  Holland,  Brewton,  Ala.,  reports  their  boring  into  and  feed- 
ing upon  the  stems  of  Collard.  Red-pepper  pods  are  occasionally  de- 
stroyed. The  wild  Ground  Cherry  ( Physalis  puhescens)  quite  commonly 
has  its  berries  eaten  by  this  insect.  In  the  vicinity  of  Mount  Lebanon, 
La.,  Mr.  T.  W.  Vaughan  reports  that  during  September  fully  one-half 
of  the  pods  borne  by  the  plants  had  been  ravaged  by  it.  Late  in  the 
season  volunteer  sorghum  plants  are  often  found  with  riddled  leaves, 
some  of  which  may  be  due  to  boll-worm  attack,  but  in  the  majority  of 
cases  is  attributable  to  cut- worms.  A large  Abutilon  plant  in  an  orna- 
mental flower  garden  was  freely  deposited  upon  by  Heliothis,  nearly  every 
flower  bud  and  some  of  the  leaves  bearing  an  egg  or  two.  The  young 
larvae  did  not  relish  this  food-plant,  and  deserted  it  almost  immediately. 
Probably  the  majority  perished  before  finding  suitaDle  food.  The  leaves 
and  very  young  flower  buds  of  the  Jamestown  Weed  (Datura  stramon- 
ium) are  sometimes  eaten,  as  also  the  fruits  of  the  Cockle  Burr  ( Xan - 
thium  strumarium).  The  burs  are  attacked  while  very  young  and  just 
forming,  the  usual  method  of  injury  being  to  eat  into  the  tender  pedun- 
cles bearing  them.  Some  of  the  host-plants  enumerated  for  the  Boll 
Worm  are  doubtless  accidental,  for  the  larva?  do  not  thrive  upon  them. 

CHARACTERS  AND  TRANSFORMATIONS. 

These  have  been  treated  at  some  length  in  Bulletin  24  of  this  Divi- 
sion and  only  a few  additional  observations  will  be  noted  in  this  con- 
nection. 

LARVA. 

A marking  not  found  in  all  specimens  is  a pinkish  or  pale  orange 
colored  spot  on  each  segment  at  the  upper  edge  of  the  subdorso-lateral 
stripe.  The  color  may  be  inconstant  for  the  same  individual.  For 


19 


example,  a larva  which  was  taken  from  a cornfield  June  9,  was  uni- 
formly green  when  placed  with  food  in  the  breeding  cage.  June  12  it 
was  noted  as  becoming  yellowish,  or  at  least  could  not  be  called  green. 
Thus  several  color  variations  were  noted  during  the  larval  state  of  the 
same  individual.  In  most  specimens  the  color  remains  quite  constan. 

Table  XI. — Proportion  of  light  and  dark  larva). 


Source. 

Date. 

Light 

green. 

Green. 

Rose. 

Dark. 

Total. 

Com 

May  8 

4 

6 

10 

I)o  .... 

May  9 

6 

17 

10 

33 

Table  .... 

May  14-16 

7 

1 

18 

26 

1)<>  .... 

June  1 

13 

2 

2 

28 

45 

l)o  .... 

June  1 

4 

3 

5 

12 

Total 

26  28 

5 

67 

126 

54 

7: 

2 

Some  facts  relative  to  the  proportion  of  light  and  dark-colored  speci- 
mens are  presented  in  Table  XI.  All  the  larvae  were  taken  from  corn 
plants,  tassels,  and  ears.  Most  of  the  green  ones  were  about  grown, 
the  dark  ones  mostly  small.  The  figures  clearly  show  that  for  May  and 
June  the  dark  worms  predominate,  comprising  about  57  per  cent  of  the 
number.  During  July  and  August  the  proportion  becomes  about  equal, 
while  at  the  close  of  the  season  the  light  colored  specimens  are  in  the 
majority. 

The  larvae  are  very  tenacious  of  life,  as  the  following  note  will  show:. 
One  evening  an  ear  of  corn  containing  a nearly  grown  Boll  Worm  was 
placed  on  end  in  ajar  of  water  to  keep  it  fresh  until  next  morning.  At 
that  time  the  larva  was  found  outside  the  ear  in  the  water.  To  all  ap- 
pearances it  was  dead,  and  was  so  considered.  Mr.  Banks,  however, 
placed  it  upon  some  dry  earth  in  a saucer  exposed  to  the  direct  sunlight, 
and  the  following  day  we  found,  to  our  surprise,  that  the  larva  was 
again  becoming  active.  It  was  later  provided  with  food,  upon  which 
it  fed,  pupating  iierfectly,  To  our  disappointment,  however,  it  died  in 
the  pupal  state.  Half-grown  worms  placed  in  the  bud  of  young  corn 
plants  in  breeding  cages  often  bored  the  entire  length  of  the  stem  to 
the  roots.  In  several  instances  this  left  them  an  inch  or  two  below  the 
surface  of  the  water  in  the  vessel,  but  no  harmful  effects  upon  the  larva 
were  noted. 

In  attacking  young  corn  the  Boll  Worm  does  not  always  feed  in  the 
the  bud  or  heart  of  the  plant,  but  occasionally  takes  a position  on  the 
outside  of  the  stalk  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  eating  inward  as 
if  into  a boll.  This  done,  the  plant  wilts  and  dies.  When  examined 
and  found  eaten  nearly  off,  the  injury  is  at  once  assigned  to  the  work  of 
cut-worms,  and  this  is  doubtless  the  true  explanation  in  most  such 
cases,  but  the  exceptions  should  be  noted.  In  the  breeding  cages, 
where  young  corn  plants  were  kept  fresh  and  growing  in  wet  moss,  a 


20 


larva  in  one  instance  left  the  plant  and  went  entirely  beneath  the  sur- 
face  and  fed  upon  the  tender  roots. 

Many  observations  upon  recently  hatched  larvae  in  breeding  cages 
proved  that  they  feed  reluctantly  upon  corn  blades,  except  in  the  heart 
of  very  young  plants.  In  their  continued  search  for  something  better 
they  nearly  always  perished.  In  the  field  very  young  Boll  Worms  are 
rarely  found  on  leaves  or  husks,  but  always  in  the  silks  near  the  tip  of 
the  ears.  This  fact,  taken  in  connection  with  laboratory  observations, 
indicates  that  the  larvae  hatched  from  eggs  on  the  leaves  and  husks  at 
once  seek  out  the  silks.  Doubtless  many  perish  before  reaching  the 
ears.  They  feed  mostly  upon  the  tender  silks  up  to  the  time  of  the 
first  molt,  and  later  begin  feeding  upon  the  milky  grains. 

The  larvae  sometimes  come  out  from  their  ear  of  corn  and  either  take 
position  on  the  outside  of  that  ear  or  go  down  to  the  stalk  and  there 
molt.  Only  a small  number,  however,  have  this  habit,  the  majority 
molting  without  leaving  the  ear. 

Upon  cotton  the  newly  hatched  larva  sometimes  hides  itself  in  a 
cluster  of  expanding  leaf  buds,  fastens  them  together  loosely  with  a 
few  silk  threads,  atoid  either  feeds  under  the  shelter  of  the  young  leaves 
or  bores  the  peduncles  and  tender  growing  stems.  So  far  as  observed, 
this  slight  webbing  occurs  only  previous  to  the  first  molt. 

During  spring  and  summer  the  Boll  Worm  undergoes  its  transfor- 
mations more  rapidly,  and  the  intervals  of  molting  are  correspondingly 
shorter.  The  following  record  is  an  example : 

Egg  hatched  June  11,  9 a.  m.  First  molt,  June  17,  9 a.  m.,  six  days 
after  hatching.  Second  molt,  June  18,  p.  m.,  or  not  more  than  one  and 
a half  days  after  the  first.  Third  molt,  June  20,  two  days  after  second. 
Fourth  molt  occurred  at  time  of  pupation,  June  25,  five  days  after  the 
third.  Length  of  larval  state,  fourteen  and  one-half  days.  The  exact 
number  of  days  between  the  molts  varies  slightly,  but  the  general  fact 
remains  that  the  second  and  third  molts  occur  in  quick  succession,  while 
the  first  and  last  are  often  at  much  longer  intervals.  Before  the  first 
molt  their  growth  is  slow,  but  afterwards  the  rapidity  of  growth  under 
favorable  conditions  is  remarkable.  During  the  period  from  the  first 
to  the  third  molts  the  larvae  feed  incessantly  from  morning  to  night. 
Before  the  first  and  after  the  third  molts  occasional  short  intervals 
occur  during  which  they  may  be  found  resting. 

There  is  no  question  but  that  Boll  Worms  deliberately  prey  upon 
each  other  when  they  become  numerous  in  ears  of  corn.  Frequently 
an  ear  is  opened  and  a larva  found  in  the  act  of  devouring  another. 
These  observations,  however,  had  the  objection  that  there  was  no  rec- 
ord of  the  larvae  previous  to  the  time  of  making  them,  and  that  there- 
fore the  victims  might  have  been  parasitized  or  diseased  and  unable  to 
resist  attack.  Accordingly  an  ear  containing  three  or  four  quite  large 
Boll  Worms  was  taken  from  the  field  and  the  worms  were  carefully  ex- 
amined as  to  parasitism  or  previous  injury.  They  were  then  placed  back 


21 


in  tlie  ear  in  a large  breeding*  cage,  care  being  taken  not  to  excite  the 
worms  during  the  process.  The  second  day  following  the  ear  was  ex- 
amined, and  one  of  the  larvae  was  found  feeding  upon  another,  the 
third  having  been  already  devoured.  This  was  a clear  case,  and  no 
further  observations  were  made  upon  this  point. 

PUPA. 

When  full  grown  the  larva  goes  into  the  earth  for  pupation.  The 
process  of  burrowing,  making  the  cell,  and  pupating  occupies  about, 
two  or  three  days  for  the  spring  and  summer  weather.  In  October  and 
November  often  ten  days  or  two  weeks  are  spent  in  the  cell  before  pu- 
pating. The  records  of  pupae  from  some  of  the  larvae  reared  are  tabu- 
lated for  reference  in  Table  XII. 


Table  XII. — Record  of  observed  pupce. 


Number. 

Pupated. 

Issued. 

Length 
of  pupal 
state. 

Color  of 
larva. 

Color  of  moth. 

Earth. 

Depth. 

1 

May  23 
June  8 

June  4 

Days. 

12 

Surface . . . 

2 

June  17 

9 

Rose 

Olivaceous 

Moist 

3 

June  4 
June  8 

June  13 

9 

do 

do 

\ inch 

4 

June  17 

9 

Green. . . 

Dark 

Drv  - - 

5 

J une  8 

June  18 

10 

. . .do  

do 

Moist.. . 

| inch 

| inch  

6 

Missing. 
June  15 

June  20 

. . .do  

...do  

June  25 

10 

. . .do 

Olivaceous 

8 

June  25 

July  6 

11 

...do  .... 

Moist.. . 

1J inches  . 

9 

June  15 

June  24 

9 

. . .do 

Dark 

10 

11 

June  22 
June  26 

July  2 

J uly  6 
July  26 
July  24 
July  31 

11 

10 

...  do 

Rose 

do 

Dry 

Moist 

Surface . . . 

]2 

| July  17 
July  13 
July  22 

9 

Dark 

C) 

D7o  '■ 

13 

11 

Green  . . 

Surface . . . 

14 

9 

...do 

Olivaceous 

* Wet  moss. 


The  average  length  of  the  pupal  state  for  the  thirteen  specimens  re- 
corded is  ten  days,  with  a range  from  nine  to  twelve  days.  For  the 
months  of  May,  June,  July,  and  August  this  time  is  correct,  but  late 
in  August,  September,  October,  and  November  the  length  of  the  pupal 
state  becomes  variable.  As  an  example  of  this  variability  may  be  re- 
corded the  following:  Some  eggs  hatched  August  26  and  the  larvae  fed 
until  October  9,  a larval  period  of  forty-four  days.  October  9 two 
pupae  were  obtained.  One  of  these  hatched  December  12  of  the  same 
year,  after  a pupal  stage  of  sixty-four  days.  The  remaining  pupae 
issued  May  1 of  the  following  year,  a pupal  state  of  203  days.  In  1891 
quite  a number  of  larvae  pupated  about  the  middle  of  October.  Two- 
thirds  of  the  number  issued  after  a month,  while  some  were  kept  over 
winter. 

The  manner  of  pupation  is  by  no  means  constant.  In  the  field  the 
normal  method  is  to  burrow  at  an  angle  to  a depth  of  2 or  3 inches, 
then  to  form  a cell  upward  from  the  end  of  the  burrow.  In  this  cell 
the  pupa  rests  upon  its  posterior  end  in  a vertical  position.  Loose 
earth  sparsely  webbed  together  partially  fills  the  burrow  for  almost,  if 


22 


not  quite,  its  entire  length.  In  breeding  cages  they  sometimes  pupate 
on  the  surface,  either  naked  or  by  loosely  webbing  together  some 
earth,  making  a frail  cell.  Sometimes  the  larva?  burrow  straight  down 
and  pupate  at  the  end  of  the  burrow  without  forming  any  inclined 
cell.  In  one  instance  the  worm  simply  remained  in  the  ear  upon  which 
it  had  been  feeding,  formed  a cell,  and  pupated. 

During  the  summer  months,  at  moderate  temperatures,  it  seems  to 
make  little  difference  in  the  length  of  the  pupal  state  whether  the  pupae 
• are  on  the  surface,  kept  perfectly  dry,  or  continuously  moistened.  Nos. 
4,  10,  13,  and  14  in  Table  Nil  were  placed  in  perfectly  dry  earth  to 
pupate,  and  kept  dry  up  to  date  of  hatching.  The  time  was  9, 11,  11, 
and  9 days,  respectively,  or  an  average  of  10  days.  Nos.  2,  3,  5, 
8,  9,  and  11  of  Table  XII  were  placed  in  moist  earth  and  moistened 
each  day  during  the  pupal  state.  Time  was  9,  9,  10,  11,9,  and  10 
days,  respectively,  an  average  of  9.6  days.  No.  12  was  placed  upon 
a corn  plant  in  a 6-inch  flower  pot,  half  full  of  moss,  kept  saturated  with 
water  so  that  when  lifted  it  would  drip.  This  was  not  intended  for  the 
worm  to  pupate  in,  but  simply  to  keep  fresh  the  plant  upon  which  it 
was  feeding.  Unawares  the  worm  went  down  into  the  wet  moss  to  a 
depth  of  2 inches,  formed  a cell,  and  pupated.  The  pupa  was  left  in  this 
cell,  and  the  moss  kept  constantly  wet  to  excess.  Nine  days  afterward 
the  moth  issued.  During  the  entire  time  the  cell  had  not  been  broken 
into,  and  the  pupa  may  not  have  been  subjected  directly  to  the  ex- 
cessive moisture.  These  facts  are  given  for  what  they  are  worth,  as 
bearing  upon  the  claims  made  by  some  that  either  excessive  rain  or 
drought  retards  the  development  of  the  insect.  Those  kept  perfectly 
dry  were  exposed  to  an  average  daily  temperature  of  at  least  95°  F. 
Those  kept  constantly  moist  had  about  the  same  temperature.  The 
results  showed  that  practically  no  difference  in  the  length  of  the  pupal 
state  existed.  This,  it  must  be  remembered,  applies  only  to  the  spring 
and  summer  months  with  high  temperature.  During  the  fall  and  win- 
ter, when  decided  changes  in  both  moisture  and  temperature  take 
place,  simultaneously,  their  development  is  certainly  retarded. 


IMAGO. 

The  moth  varies  in  color  from  a distinct  olivaceous  to  a brownish  hue. 
Some  claim  that  a relation  exists  between  these  types  of  color  in  the 
imago  and  the  colors  of  the  larvae.  The  records  presented  in  Table  XII 
bear  directly  upon  this  point.  Nos.  4,  5,  6,  7,  9,  10,  and  14,  were  green 
larvae,  and  the  color  of  the  moths  was  dark,  dark,  dark,  olivaceous, 
dark,  dark,  and  olivaceous,  respectively.  Thus  both  types  of  color  in 
the  moth  occur  for  the  same  color  of  the  larvae.  It  must  be  noted,  how- 
ever, that  some  of  the  pupae  named  were  kept  perfectly  dry,  others  wet 
or  moistened  continuously.  On  this  point  for  those  kept  dry  may  be 
quoted  No.  4,  which  is  dark,  and  No.  14,  which  is  olivaceous.  For  those 
kept  moist,  No.  3 is  olivaceous  and  No.  5 is  dark,  both  of  which,  also, 


23 


had  pupated  beneath  the  surface.  This  record,  from  the  nature  of  the 
case,  is  entirely  too  limited  to  generalize  from,  further  than  to  note  that 
if  any  relation  exists  between  the  larval  color  and  that  of  the  moth 
there  are  exceptions.  These  exceptions  prevail,  also,  for  the  conditions 
of  dryness,  moisture,  and  surface  pupation  in  rela  tion  to  the  same  ques- 
tion. 

The  numerous  plants  upon  which  the  female  deposits,  together  with 
her  reckless  habit  of  miscellaneous  deposition,  compels  the  wander- 
ing about  of  many  of  the  recently-hatched  larvae  which  find  themselves 
in  unfavorable  circumstances  and  perish  in  their  search  for  more  suit- 
able conditions.  The  loss  occasioned  by  this  misdirected  deposition 
accounts  in  part,  as  has  already  been  noted,  under  the  head  of  u Other 
Food-plants”  for  the  small  number  of  worms  as  compared  with  the 
number  of  eggs  which  a single  female  is  capable  of  depositing. 

When  the  females  come  out  from  their  hiding  places  they  confine 
themselves  almost  entirely  to  their  host  plants,  either  for  feeding  or  for 
deposition.  From  the  time  of  hatching  to  the  end  of  the  egg-laying 
period  they  are  bent  upon  business  whenever  they  appear,  and  their 
attention  is  not  easily  distracted.  This  fact  becomes  of  great  impor- 
tance in  the  use  of  lights  and  poisoned  sweets,  and  will  be  considered 
more  fully  subsequently. 

The  food  habits  of  the  moth  are  not  injurious  at  any  time  or  in  any 
manner.  Some  planters  assert  that  in  depositing  their  eggs  they  punc- 
ture the  squares  and  forms,  causing  them  to  drop.  The  fact  is  that  the 
ovipositor  of  the  female  is  not  strong  enough  to  perform  such  an  act, 
and,  furthermore,  the  eggs  are  laid  on  the  surface. 

NUMBER  OF  BROODS  AND  HIBERNATION. 

At  Shreveport  the  first  brood  of  larva?  resulting  from  imagos  which 
hatched  from  hibernating  pupae  matures  about  June  1.  The  second 
brood  begins  to  aj>pear  about  the  10th  of  June.  The  larval  state  of  the 
first  brood  is  about  fifteen  days,  and  the  pupal  state  about  ten  days. 
For  the  third  and  fifth  broods  the  time  is  more  variable  and  the  pupal 
state  may  run  from  fifteen  days  to  over  a month,  or  the  entire  winter. 
The  majority  of  the  fifth  brood  of  pupae  pass  the  winter  as  such,  though 
a few  issue  before  the  season  closes  and  hibernate  as  moths.  These 
hibernating  moths  appear  and  begin  depositing  much  earlier  than,  and 
make  a troublesome  confusion  of  broods  with,  those  resulting  from 
hibernating  pupae.  This,  together  with  the  fact  that  Boll  Worms — 
many  quite  young — can  be  found  at  Shreveport,  La.,  as  late  as  No- 
vember 20  justifies  the  statement  that  for  that  locality,  beginning  in 
the  spring  with  the  few  hibernating  moths,  we  have  a series  of  small 
broods  along  with  the  regular  ones,  the  former  producing  a sixth  brood 
which  hibernates  in  the  pupal  state,  the  latter  only  five  broods  of  which 
a few  of  the  last  hatch  and  hibernate  as  imagos.  This  mixing  of  broods 
explains  why  full-grown  larvae  and  newly-hatched  ones  are  found  simul- 


24 


tan  eon  sly  at  any  time  after  the  middle  of  May.  TIk^  winter  of  1890-’91 
was  unusually  mild  in  Lousiana,  and  the  spring  proportionately  earlier. 
Hence  the  above  dates  may  not  be  average  or  normal,  and,  in  any  case, 
are  intended  to  have  only  a local  application. 

The  foregoing  discussion  is  based  upon  observations  made  in  northern 
Louisiana  and  Mississippi.  In  northern  Mississippi  the  evidences  of  a 
portion  of  the  last  brood  hibernating  as  imagos  are  more  meager  and 
less  conclusive.  In  Arkansas  the  reports  of  observers  and  the  time 
of  greatest  depredation  seem  to  point  conclusively  to  the  fact  that  all 
of  the  last  brood  hibernate  in  the  pupal  state,  while  from  the  fact  that 
the  spring  is  later  than  further  south,  their  habits  of  hibernation  are 
more  constant,  the  first  brood  issuing  more  evenly  and  all  the  broods 
being  better  defined.  The  fall  season  is  also  more  severe,  if  not  earlier, 
and  hence  only  the  five  broods  occur  in  the  cotton-producing  portion 
of  the  State.  In  the  remainder  perhaps  only  four  full  broods  occur, 
with  an  incomplete  fifth  one.  On  the  contrary,  in  southern  Texas  the 
winters  are  mild  and  the  spring  comes  much  earlier  than  in  the  cotton 
region  of  Louisiana  or  northern  Texas.  From  constant  communication 
with  cotton-planters  and  other  observers  in  southern  Texas,  it  was 
determined  that  there  could  be  n&  doubt  about  the  hibernation  of  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  last  brood  as  imagos.  These  appeared  and 
began  depositing  earlier  than  at  Shreveport,  certainly  producing  six 
distinct  broods  and  a partial  seventh  by  the  close  of  the  season.  Those 
issuing  from  pupae  in  spring  produced  six  well-defiued  broods. 

Failure  to  take  into  consideration  these  geographical  and  meteoro- 
logical differences  over  so  vast  a territory  as  the  culture  of  cotton 
occupies  has  resulted  in  great  confusion  and  much  controversy  among 
cotton-planters  as  to  the  number  of  broods  and  the  times  of  their  appear- 
ance. The  truth  probably  is  that  each  is  correct  for  his  own  district. 
The  determination  of  the  time  of  appearance  of  the  several  broods  of 
moths  and  when  their  egg-laying  is  most  abundant  is  a matter  of 
great  importance  in  intelligently  managing  the  trap-crop  method  for 
protecting  the  cotton,  and  will  be  further  discussed  hereinafter. 

PARASITES. 

On  June  15  specimens  of  Pteromalus  puparum  obtained  from  Pieris 
rapce  in  great  numbers,  were  placed  with  a large  Boll  Worm  upon  earth 
in  a wide-mouthed  bottle.  As  both  males  and  females  of  the  parasites 
had  been  placed  in  the  bottle,  some  were  seen  copulating  later.  The  par- 
asites frequently  alighted  on  the  back  of  the  larva.  The  worm,  open- 
ing its  jaws,  would  quickly  and  violently  thro  w its  head  and  the  anterior 
part  of  its  body  around  to  the  point  where  the  insect  sat,  and  often  cap- 
tured it.  This  was  not  merely  accidental,  for  the  process  was  often  re- 
peated and  a micro  was  nearly  always  captured.  Once  in  the  jaws  of  the 
larva,  the  parasite  was  quickly  eaten.  Before  pupation,  June  19,  fike  larva 
had  in  this  manner  eaten  about  thirty  of  the  forty  or  fifty  parasitic  in- 


25 


sects  with  which  it  had  been  confined.  June  29  the  pupa  hatched.  The 
parasitic  adults  therefore  had  failed  to  deposit  any  eggs  upon  the  larva, 
or,  if  so,  the  eggs  had  failed  to  hatch. 


EGG  PARASITES. 

On  June  3 Trichogramma  pretiosa  Hi  ley  was  found  quite  plentiful  in 
some  localities.  Parasitized  Heliothis  eggs  were  placed  in  a vial  for 
the  purpose  of  rearing  the  imagos.  On  June  4 some  had  issued,  and  a 
female  was  observed  in  the  act  ot  depositing  her  eggs.  She  first  made 
a careful  examination  of  each  part  of  the  egg.  Selecting  a certain 
point,  she  took  a firm  hold  on  the  egg  with  her  legs,  elevated  the  head 
and  thorax,  bringing  the  entire  weight  of  the  body  to  bear  on  the  end 
of  the  ovipositor.  Then,  by  a series  of  drilling  motions,  the  shell  was 
punctured  and  the  egg  deposited.  During  the  entire  process  the  an- 
tennae were  kept  perfectly  quiet  and  folded  down  upon  and  over  the 
vertex.  The  act  of  deposition  occurred  three  times  in  ten  minutes. 

On  July  G plenty  of  Heliothis  eggs  were  again  found  on  the  silks  of 
trap  corn,  and  many  of  them  were  parasitized.  Concentrating  the 
deposition  of  the  Boll  Worm  eggs  upon  the  trap  corn  greatly  increases 
the  opportunities  of  the  parasites  for  depositing  in  them,  and  the  ben- 
efit derived  from  it  in  this  way  is  very  great. 

A second  parasite  was  reared  from  Boll  Worm  eggs.  It  is  somewhat 
larger  and  much  darker  than  Trichogramma  pretiosa,  but  does  not  occur 
in  nearly  so  great  numbers.  The  specimen  was  referred  to  Dr.  Riley 
for  examination.  He  found  it  to  be  an  unnamed  species  of  the  genus 
Telenomus. 

PARASITES  OF  THE  LARVA. 

Euplectrus  comstockii  and  Chalcis  ovata,  whose  life-histories  and  pe- 
culiar habits  have  already  been  noted  in  the  Fourth  Report  of  the 
United  States  Entomological  Commission,  have  been  reared  from  the  Boll 
Worm.  The  specimen  from  which  Chalcis  ovata  was  reared  also  contained 
many  larvse  of  Phora  aletice.  From  these  numerous  specimens  of  PLexa- 
plasta  zigzag  were  reared.  It  seems  strange,  however,  that  only  a sin- 
gle specimen  of  C.  ovata  and  two  or  three  of  P.  aletice  should  be  ob- 
tained from  the  worm.  The  explanation,  if  any,  must  be  that  PC.  zigzag 
parasitized  the  larvse  of  both.* 

Another  beautiful  parasite  is  a species  of  Limneria,  which  was  mostly 
found  in  the  early  part  of  the  season,  one  from  a Boll  Worm  taken 
from  corn  and  another  from  a tomato  vine  : the  former  in  May,  the  latter 
in  June.  The  parasitic  larva  issues  from  its  host  and  spins  a peculiarly 
marked  white  cocoon  with  brownish  or  reddish  spots  arranged  in  reg- 
ular order. 

* The  supposition  that  the  Hexaplasta  could  have  parasitized  the  Chalcis  larva  is 
undoubtedly  unfounded. — C.  V.  R. 


26 


A large  Dipterous  parasite  was  often  reared  from  Boll  Worms.  They 
most  frequently  attack  them  later  in  the  season,  as  only  at  that  time 
were  they  obtained. 

OTHER  NATURAL  ENEMIES. 

Boll  Worms  were  scarce  in  cotton  at  Shreveport,  and  the  studies 
which  had  been  planned  for  determining  the  relation  of  birds  to  this 
insect  could  not  be  made.  Accordingly  only  a few  statements  from 
correspondents  will  be  given  on  the  subject.  Prof.  H.  A.  Morgan,  of 
Baton  Rouge,  La.,  in  a letter  of  June  6,  states  that  u sparrows  have 
been  noticed  to  feed  upon  them  occasionally.”  Later  a letter  was  re- 
ceived from  Mr.  S.  B.  Mullen,  Harrisville,  Miss.,  in  which  he  stated 
that  sapsuckers  alighted  upon  the  ears  of  trap  corn  and  ate  about  half 
of  the  Boll  Worms  found  in  them.  Mr.  Mullen  was  then  requested  to 
shoot  a number  of  the  birds,  extract  their  crops  and  stomachs,  and  for- 
ward them  for  study.  He  experienced  some  difficulty  about  mailing 
alcoholic  material,  and  hence  made  the  examinations  himself.  He  re- 
ported that  numerous  heads  of  Boll  Worms  were  found  in  the  stomachs 
and  some  small  Boll  Worms  in  the  crops. 

Since  then,  through  the  kindness  of  Mr.  W.  B.  Barrows,  of  the 
Division  of  Ornithology  and  Mammalogy,  it  lias  been  determined  that 
the  species  in  question  is  really  not  a true  sapsucker,  but  probably  the 
Hairy  or  Downy  Woodpecker,  both  being  known  to  be  insectivorous. 


In  spring  and  early  summer  larvae  in  general  are  not  so  abundant,  or 
at  least  the  Boll  Worm  in  young  corn  in  rather  isolated  fields  is  more 
accessible  than  many  other  larvae.  It  is  during  this  period  that  the 
attack  by  ants  is  most  frequently  noted.  About  June  the  larvae  of 
other  species  become  numerous,  plant-lice  are  met  with  everywhere, 
and  the  attack  by  ants  becomes  so  divided  that  it  not  only  appears  to 
be  of  less  economic  importance,  but  requires  constant  close  watch  to 
witness  an  ant-boll-worm  tragedy.  Failure  to  consider  the  season 
doubtless  accounts  for  the  difference  of  opinion  expressed  by  planters 
and  other  observers. 

Before  corn  begins  to  silk  and  put  forth  ears,  and  to  a certain  extent 
during  and  after  that  time,  ants  freely  attack  any  larvae  they  may  find 
crawling  about  on  the  ground  or  upon  corn  plants. 

There  are  two  species  which  are  specially  antagonistic  in  tempera- 
ment, and  these  are  the  ones  upon  which  most  of  the  observations  are 
made.  One  is  Solenopsis  geminata  Fabr.  and  the  other  jDorymyrmex 
pyramicus  Roger.  For  example,  June  1 a full  grown  Boll  Worm  on  a 
corn  plant  was  teased  until  it  dropped  to  the  ground.  In  a moment  a 
small  ant  ( Dorymyrmex  pyramicus)  pounced  upon  its  back  and  could 
not  be  dislodged  by  the  most  violent  and  promiscuous  rolling  and  jerk- 


27 


mg*  of  tlie  larva.  After  a sliort  interval  three  other  ants  arrived  and 
joined  in  the  attack.  After  about  five  minutes  the  larva  had  been  ex- 
hausted by  its  violent  tumbling,  and  was  perfectly  helpless  when 
dragged  away.  A second  larva,  more  than  half  grown,  was  later 
dropped  on  the  ground  near  by.  It  began  to  travel,  but  soon  crossed 
the  path  of  another  species  of  ant  (Solenojwis  geminata).  At  once  one 
pounced  upon  it,  when  the  larva  began  rolling  in  the  dust  and  loose 
earth,  but  failed  to  dislodge  its  enemy.  After  a few  minutes,  other  ants 
came  to  the  assistance  of  the  first  until  about  half  a dozen  were  en- 
gaged in  the  work  of  biting  and  tormenting.  The  larva  was  soon  ex- 
hausted and  completely  at  the  mercy  of  its  enemies. 

In  August  and  September  such  attacks  are  rarely  witnessed,  and 
larvae  can  even  be  thrown  in  the  path  of  these  ants  without  danger  of 
attack  in  every  instance.  When  not  hungry,  or  soon  after  they  have 
had  a fight  with  a Boll  Worm,  observation  reveals  the  ants  touching 
the  larvae  or  even  running  over  them  without  making  an  attack. 

June  10,  on  ears  of  corn,  the  ants  were  seen  attacking  Syrphid  larvae, 
% probably  Mesograpta  polita.  They  simply  picked  the  larvae  up  in  their 
jaws  and  carried  them  down  the  plants  to  their  burrows.  July  1,  ants 
were  observed  feeding  upon  Syrphid  pupae  of  probably  the  same  species 
as  above  noted. 

June  1,  ants  ( Solenopsis  geminata)  were  seen  at  a hole  in  the  husks  of 
an  ear  of  corn.  The  husks  were  carefully  removed  without  disturbing 
the  ants.  They  were  found  feeding  upon  the  liquids  of  a recently 
killed  half-grown  Boll  Worm.  The  ear  being  well  stocked  with  larvae, 
the  injured  one  had  doubtless  been  killed  by  another  of  its  own  species, 
and  while  devouring  it  the  victor  was  probably  disturbed  by  the  ants 
and  abandoned  its  morsel  for  the  benefit  of  the  intruders.  Subsequent 
persistent  observation  verified  this  surmise  and  showed  that  the  ants 
seldom  directly  attack  and  kill  a Boll  W orm  in  the  ear.  It  has  already 
been  explained  that  the  Boll  Worm  has  a natural  tendency,  when 
crowded  or  provoked,  to  feed  upon  its  own  species.  The  ant  has  learned 
to  know  that  infested  ears  of  corn  are  an  excellent  source  of  supply 
for  juices  and  they  are  found  most  plentifully  in  those  ears.  After 
entering,  the  best  portions  are  selected,  the  little  surveying  which  this 
requires  bringing  them  into  contact  with  the  Boll  Worm.  This  living 
thing  seems  to  excite  them  and  they  begin  to  bite  and  tease  it  until  it 
becomes  enraged  and  attempts  to  get  away.  In  doing  so  the  larva 
bites  to  the  right  and  left  and  kills  many  of  the  smaller  larvae  which  it 
happens  to  meet.  The  ants  are  very  fond  of  the  blood  which  oozes 
from  the  wounds  of  the  injured  larvae,  and  at  once  proceed  to  feast 
upon  it.  Should  the  injured  worm  in  its  weakened  condition  attempt 
to  get  away  the  ants  soon  overpower  it.  The  first  worm,  however,  hav- 
ing once  had  a taste  of  blood,  continues  its  depredations  upon  the 
slightest  provocation,  and,  as  would  seem  from  breeding-cage  observa- 
tions, is,  for  a short  time  and  if  opportunity  offers,  often  inclined  to 


28 


feed  in  this  way  rather  than  in  the  usual  one.  Whether  the  ants  do 
their  teasing  in  the  hope  of  inducing  boll- worm  fights,  or  only  to  drive 
out  the  larvae  so  as  to  have  full  possession  of  the  ear,  the  fact  remains 
that  in  either  case  their  actions  are  often  responsible  for  the  cannibal- 
ism which  occurs  among  the  Boll  Worms  in  the  ears.  The  ants  seem 
to  prefer  the  fresh  juices  of  grains  of  corn  yet  in  the  milk  to  those 
found  in  the  excrement  of  Boll  Worms  or  the  decaying  grains  which 
have  previously  been  eaten  into.  In  order  to  enjoy  the  freshest  juices, 
however,  they  must  first  drive  the  Boll  Worms  from  the  point.  It 
would  seem,  therefore,  that  the  cannibalism  in  ears  of  corn  due  to  the 
behavior  of  the  ants  is  probably  more  incidental  than  intentional.  The 
importance  of  their  actions,  however,  is  not  to  be  underestimated. 
Their  teasing  process  does  not  need  to  be  repeated  for  each  Boll  Worm 
found  in  an  ear.  When  a large  Boll  Worm  is  once  thoroughly  pro- 
voked in  this  manner  it  often  goes  to  every  part  of  the  ear,  and  wher- 
ever another  larva  is  found  a fight  ending  in  a dead  Boll  Worm  is  quite 
certain  to  follow.  This  may  continue  until  only  one  remains,  or  it  may 
go  only  to  the  extent  of  killing  a few  at  that  time.  The  slightest 
provocation  within  a reasonable  time  thereafter  seems  to  be  sufficient 
to  start  the  exterminating  process  again.  One  such  provocation  by 
ants,  therefore,  often  suffices  to  clear  an  ear  of  all  Boll  Worms  but 
one.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  crowded  conditions 
where  the  larvae  encroach  upon  each  other  furnish  the  same  provoca- 
tion for  fighting.  Cannibalism  among  Boll  Worms,  therefore,  is  not 
the  result  of  a single  agency,  but  of  several,  which  directly  or  indirectly 
contribute  to  bring  about  the  result. 

WASPS. 

The  large  red  wasp,  Polistes  rubiginosus , so  common  in  cotton  fields, 
carries  off  the  larvae  of  many  species  found  feeding  upon  cotton,  and 
doubtless  takes  a Boll  Worm  occasionally  when  they  are  present. 
Polistes  bellicosa , P.  perplexus , P.  gluerosa , P.  annularis , Pompilus  atra , 
P.  americana , P.  philadelphicus , Priocnemis  fulvicornis , and  Chalybion 
cwruleum , are  all  common  in  cotton  fields,  and  doubtless  capture  Boll 
Worms,  as  well  as  other  larvae. 

OTHER  INSECTS. 

Other  insects  which  are  known  to  be  carnivorous  are  often  found 
abundant  on  corn  silks  and  infested  plants.  Notable  examples  on  corn 
silks  are  Scymnus  collaris  and  8.  cervicalis.  These  two  species  proba- 
bly puncture  or  eat  into  the  Heliothis  eggs  found  upon  the  silks. 

Two  species  of  Bobber  Flies  (. Erax  lateralis  and  Deromyia  sp.),  were 
observed  catching  Boll  Worm  moths  on  the  wing. 

Metapodius  femoratus  is  frequently  found  preying  upon  the  Boll  Worm. 
The  young  seem  to  be  especially  beneficial  in  this  respect.  Unfortu- 
nately the  eggs  of  this  species  are  attacked  by  an  egg  parasite  which 


29 


breeds  in  them  in  great  numbers.  This  is  an  undescribed  species  of  the 
Chalcidid  genus  Encyrtus. 

Geocoris  punctipes  attacks  the  small  Boll  Worms  and  the  Spiny 
Soldier-bug,  Podisus  spinosus , has  often  been  observed  at  its  beneficial 
work. 

August  24,  at  Dallas,  Tex.,  upon  tobacco  plants  well  stocked  with 
eggs  of  the  Boll  Worm  were  found  great  numbers  of  the  young  and 
adults  of  a species  of  Dicyphus.  By  counting  a number  of  eggs  which 
were  shriveled  and  evidently  dead,  it  was  determined  that  about  5 
per  cent  were  in  this  condition.  The  Dicyphus  was  the  only  insect 
found  plentiful  upon  the  plants,  and  it  seemed  reasonable  to  conclude 
that  to  it  was  due  the  puncturing  of  the  eggs.  After  long  and  patient 
watching  it  was  finally  found  that  they  really  did  the  work. 

Triphleps  insidiosus  punctures  the  eggs  of  Heliothis  and  sucks  their 
contents.  The  egg-shells  appear  slightly  shrunken  and  shriveled  after- 
wards. From  continuous  observation  one  is  forced  to  realize  that  no 
small  per  cent  of  the  eggs  is  destroyed  in  this  way.  The  empty  egg- 
shells are  met  with  in  almost  every  observation.  Mr.  Banks,  who  made 
most  of  the  observations  upon  this  insect,  estimates  that  probably  10 
per  cent  of  the  eggs  are  destroyed  in  this  way.  From  my  own  studies 
I am  convinced  that  the  estimate  is  none  too  large.  This  insect  preys 
also  upon  its  own  species,  at  least  in  confinement.  Four  specimens, 
collected  from  cotton,  were  placed  in  a vial  for  subsequent  study,  and 
several  hours  later  one  was  found  with  another  impaled  upon  its  beak. 

These  small  insects  are  commonly  found  behind  the  involucres  of 
squares  and  bolls  and  are  very  abundant  in  corn  silks.  Here  the 
Heliothis  eggs  are  most  numerous  and  afford  the  Triphleps  a good  op- 
portunity to  feed  upon  them.  The  young  and  pupm  are  small,  wingless, 
pale  or  often  bright  red,  and  could  readily  be  mistaken  for  the  young 
of  the  Chinch  Bug  in  general  appearance,  though  they  are  shorter  and 
more  triangular  in  shape. 

No  spiders  were  ever  observed  in  the  act  of  devouring  a Boll  Worm, 
but  several  species,  very  common  upon  cotton  plants,  have  been  so  con- 
stantly observed  destroying  other  insects  found  there  that  probably 
the  reason  why  no  Boll  Worms  were  taken  is  because  they  were  scarce. 
The  following  observations  upon  some  of  the  more  carnivorous  species 
may  be  recorded : Phidippus  tripunctatus , devouring  a Syrphid  (Meso- 
grapta  polita)  upon  corn  September  25;  same  species  upon  cotton  bolls 
October  11  and  13.  Chriramnthium  inclusum  on  young  bolls.  Any- 
plixena  gracilis  from  corn  silks.  Dendrypliantes  nubilus  and  D.  octavus 
from  cotton  bolls,  the  former  devouring  a plant-louse.  Pencetia  viri- 
dans  and  Runcinia  aleatoria  on  bolls,  the  former  devouring  a large 
Dipter. 

INSECT  RAVAGES  MISTAKEN  FOR  THOSE  OF  THE  BOLL  WORM. 

Thecla  peeas. — The  larva  of  this  insect  bores  cotton  bolls  just  as  does 
the  Boll  Worm,  Occasionally  it  eats  a hole  into  the  young  portion  of 


30 


the  thick  main  stem  or  at  the  juncture  of  the  peduncle  with  the  stem- 
The  larva?  when  young  are  almost  entirely  whitish,  but  as  they  become 
more  mature  they  turn  to  a livid  green.  Every  larva  collected  during 
the  season  was  parasitized  and  failed  to  mature.  In  one  instance  a 
small  Hymenopter  was  bred.  In  another  a Tachinid  was  reared.  The 
parasitic  larva  issues  from  the  body  of  its  host  near  the  head.  A nearly 
grown  Thecla  larva  was  found  at  Shreveport  as  early  as  July  1,  another 
at  Curtis  July  3,  and  a very  young  specimen  at  Briar  Field  July  25. 
The  distance  between  Curtis  and  Briar  Field  is  about  40  miles,  show- 
ing that  the  species  is  well  distributed  and  that  the  observations  on 
cotton  were  not  exceptional  cases.  Mr.  Mullen,  of  Harrisville,  Miss., 
also  reports  this  species  feeding  upon  beans  and  corn  in  his  locality. 

Prodenia  lineatella. — In  confinement  the  larva  feeds  almost  exclu- 
sively upon  the  young  bolls  and  squares,  showing  that  these  insects 
have  the  genuine  Boll  Worm  habit.  The  very  young  larvae  are  quite 
light-colored,  and  in  May  and  June  are  often  found  in  the  buds  of 
young  corn  plants,  feeding  as  does  the  Boll  Worm.  The  mature  worms 
have  a distinct  velvety  black  appearance,  with  a narrow  yellow  line 
dorsally  and  a whitish  triangular  patch  on  the  front  of  the  head.  In 
September  this  species  was  received  from  Mr.  C.  F.  Yarbrough,  Cam- 
den, Ark.,  as  feeding  in  broom  corn. 

Platynota  rostrana. — The  head  of  the  larva  is  reddish  or  black  and  a 
similarly  colored  calloused  patch  dorsad  of  the  first  segment.  Body 
pale  greenish,  slightly  hairy.  In  the  fields  upon  cotton  plants  or  when 
placed  in  breeding  cages,  they  freely  attack  and  bore  into  young  bolls, 
feeding  upon  their  contents.  July  8,  one  pupated  between  a fold  of  the 
involucre  which  had  been  carefully  fastened  together  by  silk  threads. 
July  13,  a second  larva  pupated.  July  15,  the  first  pupa  hatched,  the 
second  on  July  19,  the  pupal  state  therefore  being  seven  and  six  days, 
respectively. 

During  April,  May,  and  June  several  simcies  of  larvae  ravage  in  the 
buds  of  young  corn,  exactly  as  does  the  Boll  Worm,  and  many  are  not 
easily  distinguishable  from  the  darker  Boll  Worms. 

A grotis  ypsilon. — The  larvae  of  this  species  were  collected  from  corn 
April  20.  These  larvae  are  at  times  cannibalistic.  In  breeding  cages  a 
large  specimen  was  observed  devouring  a younger  one  of  its  own  species. 

Lapliygma  frugiperda  is  abundant  upon  trap  corn  in  June  and  July, 
and  many  planters  had  mistaken  them  for  Boll  Worms.  One  specimen 
of  this  species  was  taken  from  corn  July  10  and  July  29. 

Baris  ccrea  Boh.,  was  found  November  21,  eating  a small  hole  into  the 
peduncle  of  a young  boll.  The  small,  round  hole  could  not  be  distin- 
guished from  the  injury  occasionally  done  by  the  young  Boll  Worms. 

Parajulus  impressus  Say  is  occasionally  found  between  the  involucres 
and  young  bolls  during  September  and  October.  They  sometimes  feed 
at  the  base  of  the  boll,  causing  it  to  drop,  and  leaving  a black  spot 
much  the  same  as  when  a Boll  Worm  starts  to  enter,  but  deseyts  it  with- 
out further  injury. 


31 


Calocoris  rapidus. — This  Capsid  is  very  common  upon  cotton  plants, 
and  is  usually  found  between  the  involucres  and  bolls.  Its  damage  is 
done  by  puncturing  the  bolls  with  its  beak.  This  leaves  a small,  round 
black  dot  at  the  point  of  the  puncture,  and  this  is  the  mark  so  often 
attributed  to  the  moth  of  the  Boll  Worm.  The  injury  nearly  always 
has  the  effect  of  causing  the  boll  to  “ flare”  and  drop,  or  if  not,  then 
the  tuft  of  cotton  in  that  section  of  the  boll  becomes  stained.  Largus 
cinctus  proceeds  in  the  same  manner  as  Calocoris  rapidus , leaving  the 
characteristic  puncture  upon  the  fruit. 

Homalodisca  coagulata. — This  leaf-hopper  can  be  found  quite  common 
upon  cotton  plants  from  the  1st  of  June.  Earlier  it  is  found  most  abun- 
dant upon  the  young  growth  of  poplars  along  the  bayous  about  bottom- 
land cotton  fields.  Though  common  upon  cotton  it  seems  to  prefer  to 
feed  and  breed  upon  the  new  growth  of  the  trees  just  mentioned  so  long' 
as  it  remains  fresh  and  growing.  Nevertheless,  it  does  considerable 
damage  to  cotton  both  by  its  habits  of  feeding  and  those  of  egg  deposi- 
tion. The  female  possesses  two  cutting  serrated  or  saw-like  blades, 
which  fit  together  and  form  the  ovipositor.  With  this  she  makes  punc- 
tures for  the  reception  of  the  eggs.  To  do  this  she  leaves  the  central 
stem  where  the  adults  are  usually  found  and  locates  among  the  tender 
growing  portions,  especially  young  u forms  ” or  u squares.”  The  act  of 
deposi  tion  was  twice  observed  on  the  involucre  or  u ruffle  ” of  these  por- 
tions. The  female  braced  herself  upon  all  legs,  the  head  and  anterior 
portion  of  the  body  elevated.  The  very  thin  pointed  ovipositor  was 
then  exserted,  and  by  a forcible  sawing-like  operation  was  gradually  in- 
serted underneath  the  epidermis.  The  channel  was  made  concave,  the 
distal  end  almost  coming  to  the  surface  again.  The  long,  slightly  curved, 
cylindrical  white  egg  was  then  introduced  and  the  ovipositor  withdrawn. 
The  time  occupied  by  this  process  was  about  one  or  two  minutes.  After 
a short  interval  a second  egg  was  laid  in  like  manner  alongside  of  the 
first  but  slightly  in  advance  of  it.  A few  hours  after  deposition,  slight, 
pale,  blister-like  swellings  were  noted  over  the  points  where  the  eggs  were 
found.  One  egg  was  dissected  from  the  leaf  and  saved  as  a reference 
specimen.  U nfortunately  a 1 arva  of  Thecla peeas  was  temporarily  placed 
in  the  same  bottle  as  the  form  in  which  the  remaining  egg  was  found. 
When  next  observed  the  Thecla  had  eaten  a hole  directly  through  the 
portion  in  which  the  egg  had  been  deposited,  and  the  latter  was  there- 
fore destroyed.  As  a result,  the  duration  of  the  egg  state  could  not  be 
determined.  The  eating  of  the  egg  by  Thecla  was  doubtless  only  a coin- 
cidence. The  recently  hatched  larva  is  entirely  whitish,  and  keeps  hid- 
den among  the  very  young  leaves  or  the  involucres  of  u forms”  and  small 
bolls.  The  very  young  carry  the  abdomen  elevated  almost  at  right 
angles  with  the  body.  They  feed  by  puncturing  the  epidermis  at  the 
base  of  the  flower  bud,  or  the  very  young  boll,  or  quite  frequently  pro- 
ceed to  the  short,  tender  peduncles.  Soon  after  this  injury  is  done  the 
form  or  small  boll  will u flare,”  turn  pale,  and  drop  off.  If  examined  when 


32 


about  to  drop  off,  a small  roundish  black  spot  will  be  found  upon  the 
peduncle,  the  base  of  the  form,  or  boll.  These  markings  the  planters 
designate  as  u sharpshooter  ” work,  many  attributing  it  to  the  Boll 
Worm,  others  to  the  young  Boll  Worm,  and  occasionally  an  observing 
planter  is  found  who  truthfully  assigns  the  injury  to  some  insect  other 
than  the  Boll  Worm.  The  other  extreme  of  intelligence  is  also  found 
which  stoutly  maintains  that  this  small  leaf-hopper  is  the  real  Boll 
Worm  “ fly.” 

The  young  become  gradually  darker  with  each  molt.  When  half 
grown  they  are  quite  bluish  or  lead-colored,  with  distinct  wing-pads. 
At  this  age  they  begin  to  run  about  the  plant  more,,  and  as  they  become 
still  more  mature  are  often  found  on  the  central  stem.  Previous  to 
that  time  they  confine  themselves  quite  closely  to  the  tender,  growing- 
parts  of  the  lateral  branches.  When  disturbed  they  at  once  rush  down 
to  the  central  stem,  run  up  at  first,  then  if  still  pursued,  down  again, 
dodging  from  side  to  side  until  they  feel  that  they  have  escaped,  when 
they  stop  and  rest,  head  downward. 

The  imago  is  brownish,  sometimes  tinged  bluish,  or  in  older  speci- 
mens faintly  reddish.  Fresh  females  often  have  a white  powdery  spot 
on  the  middle  of  the  fore  wings.  This  spot  rubs  off  easily  and  is  not 
apparent  after  a time.  The  adults  make  a distinct  buzz  in  their  short 
flight  from  plant  to  plant.  They  feed  usually  upon  some  part  of  the 
central  stem.  When  feeding  they  rest  head  downward  and  puncture 
the  bark  with  their  beaks.  While  feeding  or  resting  in  this  position 
they  incline  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  outward,  often  throwing  off  some 
half  dozen  drops  of  liquid  in  quick  succession.  The  squirting  of  these 
drops  is  not  noted  in  the  very  young,  and  only  occasionally  in  speci- 
mens not  yet  full  grown.  It  seems  rather  to  be  a habit  of  the  adult. 
The  imago s dodge  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  stem  when  approached 
from  one  side  and  continue  to  do  so  just  as  the  young.  Though  found 
feeding  mostly  on  the  central  stem  of  the  cotton  plant,  the  females 
leave  these  parts  and  locate  among  the  younger  portions  when  they 
deposit  their  eggs.  July  15  Mr.  Banks  dissected  a female  and  found 
nineteen  eggs,  including  those  that  were  being  formed.  The  female  is 
not  easily  disturbed  when  depositing,  and  can  even  be  pushed  aside 
without  inducing  her  to  jump  or  fly.  In  one  instance  the  form  having 
the  depositing  female  upon  it  was  plucked  and  held  in  the  hand,  where 
her  performances  were  quietly  observed  under  cover  of  the  hand  lens. 

Late  in  the  season — that  is,  from  about  the  1st  of  September — the 
habits  and  actions  of  the  adults  become  variable  and  less  characteris- 
tic. There  are  certainly  two,  x>ossibly  three,  broods  during  the  season. 
The  adults  begin  making  their  appearance  in  numbers  from  about  June 
1.  By  the  middle  and  latter  part  of  June  numerous  young  can  be 
found.  The  second  brood  begins  depositing  about  the  latter  part  of 
July.  After  the  first  days  in  August  the  adults  are  not  so  abundant 
"Until  the  young  begin  maturing  again.  The  male  adults  are  easily  at- 


tracted  to  lights,  while  the  female  is  rarely  caught  in  this  way.  Of 
twenty-two  specimens  trapped  twenty  were  males  and  two  females. 
At  a lamp  experiment  July  19  nine  specimens  were  captured,  all  males. 
Mr.  Banks  often  collected  adults  at  random,  and  without  regard  to  sex? 
from  cotton  plants  during  the  day.  Eight  specimens  were  taken  on 
one  trip,  four  males  and  four  females.  July  15  fifteen  were  captured, 
fourteen  being  lemales  and  one  male.  A third  capture  was  found  to 
contain  six  females  and  two  females.  This  shows  that  females  were 
plentiful  in  cotton  fields  at  the  time  the  lamp  experiment  had  been  made, 
but  were  not  attracted.  The  damage  to  cotton  by  this  species  is  due 
in  great  measure  to  the  immature  forms  of  the  insect. 

It  appears  that  during  July  and  August  cotton  fields  surrounded  by 
poplar  growths  along  the  bayous  sutler  the  greatest  attack.  This  is  to 
be  expected,  since  during  June  the  insect  lives  mostly  upon  these  trees, 
the  young  growth  of  which  becomes  too  hard  and  tough  Jater  in  the 
season.  As  has  been  stated,  it  is  most  numerous  along  river  bottoms 
and  bayous.  Away  from  these  regions  this  species  is  not  at  all  com- 
mon in  cotton  fields.  In  the  upland  regions  of  Texas,  where  continuous 
observations  for  one  week  in  August  were  made,  not  a single  specimen 
was  found  upon  cotton.  Mr.  Banks,  who  took  an  extensive  trip  through 
central  and  southwestern  Texas  during  July,  reports  the  rare  occur- 
rence of  this  insect  in  those  regions.  Young  poplar  is  probably  their 
choice  for  food  and  egg  deposition,  but  they  are  often  found  upon  vari- 
ous kinds  of  weeds  and  miscellaneous  plants.  This  being  the  case,  the 
question  of  a remedy  becomes  a difficult  one.  The  only  recourse  which 
seems  at  all  practical  is  to  control  the  number  of  young  poplar  trees 
along  the  bayous,  keeping  them  at  a minimum  so  as  to  obtain  the 
maximum  number  of  insects  upon  them.  Then  about  the  middle  or 
latter  part  of  June  give  them  a thorough  application  of  a strong  solution 
of  kerosene  emulsion.  This  would  kill  many  of  the  adults  and  most  of 
the  young,  which  are  abundant  upon  them  at  this  time. 

Another  nearly  related  species,  Proconia  undata,  mostly  found  upon 
willow,  is  occasionally  noted  upon  cottoip  Whether  its  injury  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  Homalodisca  has  not  been  positively  determined,  but  the 
facts  already  noted  for  tfie  latter  indicate  that  it  may  be. 

REMEDIES  FOR  THE  BOLL  WORM, 

LIGHTS  FOR  ATTRACTING  THR  MOTH. 

The  experiments  presented  in  Bulletin  24  (pp,  33-38)  proved  con- 
clusively that  the  ordinary  lamps  used  by  farmers  and  the  methods  of 
using  them  were  inefficient.  Until  proven  otherwise,  the  reasons  as- 
signed for  such  results  were  that  the  lights  were  not  brilliant  enough, 
together  with  being  unprovided  with  extending  wings  as  a background 
against  which  insects  flying  near  by  might  strike  and  be  trapped.  A 
lamp  was  devised  to  meet  all  these  requirements  so  that  it  could  be  ef- 
14935— Fo,  29 3 


34 


ticient  if  the  nature  of  the  case  permitted.  The  following  is  a descrip- 
tion of  the  lamp:  A tin  can,  0 inches  in  diameter,  holding  about  a half 
gallon  of  oil,  was  provided  with  a No.  2 wick  burner  capable  of  receiv- 
ing and  holding  a large  chimney.  Around  the  tin  can  was  fitted  a 
movable  tin  band  to  which  had  been  soldered  four  stout  upright  wires. 
To  these  wires  were  fastened  sheets  of  tin  a foot  square,  extending  at 
right  angles  and  from  the  top  of  the  can.  These  wings,  together  with 
the  6-inch  space  between  for  the  lamp,  furnished  a surface  of  2£  feet 
toward  any  direction  against  which  insects  flying  near  might  strike 
and  drop  into  the  large  pan  in  which  the  lamp  was  placed.  The  lamp 
is  not  easily  blown  out  of  the  pan  if  the  precaution  is  taken  to  have 
the  wings  extend  out  far  enough  to  catch  the  rim  of  the  pan.  Though 
a chimney  was  always  used,  in  no  instance  was  the  light  blown  out 
when  a strong  breeze  was  prevailing.  By  experiment  this  lamp  was 
found  to  emit  a brilliant  light,  which  was  not  hindered  in  its  transmis- 
sion by  the  extended  wings. 

Experiments  were  begun  as  early  as  May  13,  1891,  and  repeated  at 
intervals  on  through  the  season.  The  results  were  all  so  uniform  that 
only  a few  experiments  need  be  reported  in  detail. 


Experiment  2. 

May  15. — Lighted  at  8 : 30  p.  in.  Sweet  corn  in  a garden.  Locality,  upland  in  edge 
of  timber.  During  the  afternoon  of  that  day  many  recently  deposi  ted  Heliothis  eggs 
were  found  on  the  corn  silks. 

8:40. — Boll-worm  moth  flying  along  a row  of  corn  next  to  the  one  in  which  the 
lamp  is  placed.  When  opposite  the  lamp,  only  3 feet  distant,  it  flew  at  right  angles 
away  from  it.  Lamp  was  on  a level  with  the  ears  of  corn  on  the  plants  and  could 
be  seen  over  the  entire  patch. 

9:00. — Another  moth  flying  as  before  came  near,  but  flew  away  without  showing 
any  attraction  to  the  light. 

9 : 06. — One  passed  the  lamp,  turned,  came  near  again,  alighted  upon  the  edge  of  the 
pan  and  sat  there.  In  attempting  to  fly  away  it  struck  one  of  the  tin  wings  and 
dropped  into  the  pan. 

No  more  moths  being  observed,  the  experiment  was  closed  at  9:40. 

Though  the  moths  were  not  abundant  several  females  were  seen  de- 
positing upon  the  fresh  corn  silks. 

To  convey  a general  idea  of  the  nature  of  the  various  trappings  aside 
from  the  primary  insect  desired,  experiments  3,  4,  and  5 have  been  col- 
lated and  are  presented  in  Table  XXII. 


35 


Table  XIII. — Number  and  kind  of  insects  caught. 
LEPIDOPTERA. 


Experi- 

ment. 

Date. 

Noctuida?. 

Geometridae. 

Pyralidse. 

Tortricidfe. 

Tineidae. 

| Total 

Spe- 

cies. 

Speci- 

mens. 

Spe- 

cies. 

Speci- 

mens. 

Species. 

a . 1 
Speci- 
mens. 

Spe- 

cies. 

Speci- 

mens. 

Species. 

Speci- 

mens. 

j speci- 
mens. 

3 

4 

5 

J hup.  9 

1 

•{ 

3 

Eotis  . . 

12 
. 15 

1 

51 

2 

Plutella 

9 

7 

Total 

1 

5 

4 

27 

1 

5 

3 

16 

53 

June  12 

1 



2 

7 

1 

*{ 

3 

Plutella. 

10 

15 

Total  .... 



I 

2 

7 

1 

4 

4 

25 

36 

June  27 

1 

2 

5 

3 

6{ 

3 

Botis. . 

3 

30 

i 1 

4 

4 

4 

I 5 

15 

Total 

2 

5 

3 

6 

1 

4 

33 

1 5 | 8 

1 

5 

15 

67 

COLEOPTEEA. 


Experi- 

ment. 

Date. 

Carab- 

idae. 

Staphy- 

linidte. 

1 

Scarabaeidae. 

o 5 

i.. 

g 8 

tj 

o s 

Coccinel* 

lidaB. 

Total. 

3 

June  9 

30 

5 

Lacbnosterna. . 15 
Cyclocepbala  . .35 

l i 

7 

88 

i 

5 

u 

Large  8 
! Small  70 

Pelidnota  1 

4 

June  12. ..  | 

o 

o 

o 

Lachnosterna . . 30 

10 

4 

6' 

1, 194 

Cyclocepbala  40 

5 

j June 27. . . | 

1 

1 Large  1 2 
| Small  150 

on 

o 

o 

Lachnosterna . . 55 
Cyclocepbala  ..75 

\ 50 

7 

5 

7 

9 

Megilla  2 

1,172 

HETEROPTERA. 


Experi- 

ment. 

T>ate. 

Cyd- 

nidae. 

Pen- 
ta  to- 
rn idae. 

Lygaeidae. 

Cap- 

ridae. 

Acanthiidae. 

Corisidae. 

3 

4 

5 

1 June  9. 

2 

$ 

f"* 

Corisa 60 

Corisa 15 

Corisa . .1, 000 

i June  12... 
i June  27... 

! 



| 30 

I 

Melanocorypbus. . . 18 
TSIelanocoryphus.  .100 
Myodocba 3 

6 

Triphleps  ..4 

HOMOPTERA. 


Experi- 

ment. 

Date. 

JassidaB. 

Fulgoridae. 

Membracidse. 

1 

| Totals. 

3 

J une  9 

Aulacises 20 

Ormenis  . 

. .11 

37 

4 

June  12 

35 

17 

13 

65 

5 

' June  27 

Aulacises 15 

j Ormenis  . 

1 

..10 

45 

Deltoeephalus . . 20 

36 


Table  XIII.  — Number  and  kind  of  insects  caught — Continued. 
DIPTERA. 


Experi- 

ment. 

Date. 

Mosquitoes. 

Tipulklae. 

[ 

Mycetopliilida*. 

Totals. 

3 

J une  9 

1,  000 

30 

15 

11 

1, 026 

4 

June  12 

12 

13 

5 

J une  27 

200 

100 

300 

NEUROPTERA. 


Experi- 

ment. 

Date. 

Caddice  flies. 

Chrysopa. 

May  flies. 

Totals. 

3 

June  9 

20 

10 

30 

4 

June  12  

5 

6 

11 

5 

J une  27  

7 

1 

8 

1 

ORTHOPTERA. 


Experi- 

ment. 

Date. 

(Ecanthus. 

Xemobius. 

Platamodes. 

Totals. 

3 

4 

5 

June  9 

3 

3 

4 

5 

June  12 

4 

.Tune  27 

1 

4 

Very  few  parasitic  or  beneficial  Hymenoptera  were  trapped  at  any 
time  and  hence  this  order  is  omitted. 

Table  XIII  can  best  be  reviewed  by  taking  up  the  orders  seriatim. 

Lepidoptera  (Moths). — The  only  species  of  any  considerable  economic 
importance  in  the  South  is  the  Cabbage  Plutella  ( Plutella  crucifer  arum). 
Experiments  3 and  4 were  both  located  near  a gardener’s  cabbage 
field.  Its  significance  in  this  connection  lies  in  the  suggestion  that 
gardeners  growing  cabbages  extensively  and  troubled  with  this  pest 
might  resort  to  lamp  trapping  with  advantage. 

Coleoptera  (Beetles). — Some  of  the  large  and  well-known  predaceous 
beetles  were  captured  together  with  hundreds  of  many  of  the  smaller 
species.  Of  the  beneficial  ladybird  family  a few  specimens  were 
trapped  at  various  intervals.  But  this  loss  of  beneficial  insects  is  in 
part  counterbalanced  by  the  capture  of  several  injurious  species  none  of 
which,  however,  except  the  white  grub  beetles,  Lachnosterna  longitar- 
sus  and  Cyclocepliala  immaculata  were  caught  in  great  numbers.  The 
last  two  species  and  a species  of  the  wireworm  beetles  Monoerepidius 
vespertinus  were  caught  by  hundreds  and  may  be  considered  a profit- 
able catch.  Several  species  of  injurious  weevils  and  flea  beetles  were 
commonly  trapped  though  not  in  great  numbers.  Following  is  a se- 
lected list  of  some  of  the  beneficial  and  injurious  beetles  which  were 
quite  constantly  trapped  during  the  progress  of  the  experiments. 
None  of  these  were  captured  in  great  numbers.  For  the  determina- 
tions of  the  species  I am  indebted  to  Mr,  E,  A,  Schwarz  of  this  Division, 


37 


BENEFICIAL. 


Predaceous  beetles : 
Loxandrus  agilis. 
Badister  micans. 
Chiasmus  laticollis. 

Cli  l ami  us  pen  n s y l van  i cus. 
Cratacanth us  dubi us. 
Stenolophus  di ss  i m i Us. 
Bradycellus  nigriceps. 


Megilla  maculata. 
Hippodam  ia  con  rergens. 
Coccinella  9-punciata. 
CoccineUa  oculata. 

Alysia  pullala. 

Exoclionius  m a rg i n ipennis . 
Scymnus  cervicalis. 


INJURIOUS. 


Wire-worm  beetles: 

Glyphonyx  inquinatus. 
Monocrepi dius  vesperti n us. 
Monocrepidius  H vidus. 


Flea-beetles: 

Systena  elongata. 
Epitrix  fuscula. 
Clicetocnema  pulicaria. 
Haltica  ignita. 
Phyllotreta  bipustulata. 


Miscellaneous : 

Lachnosterna  longilarsus. 
Cyclocephala  immaculata . 
Calandva  oryzas. 
Typophorus  canellus. 

Lina  scripla. 

Diabrotica  12-pnnctata. 
Balaninus  caryw. 
Myoclirous  den  ticollis. 
CoUispis  flavida. 


Heteroptera  (True  Bugs). — Only  one  species  of  known  beneficial  im- 
portance is  noted.  It  is  tlie  small  Tr  iphleps  insidiosus  which  punctures 
boll- worm  eggs.  In  other  experiments  not  tabulated  an  occasional 
soldier-bug  was  caught  usually  Podisus  spinosus.  In  some  of  the  ex- 
periments an  insect  (Calacoris  rapidus)  which  contributes  much  to  What 
is  popularly  termed  u sharpshooter ,7  damage  was  trapped  in  small  num- 
bers. A probably  injurious  cotton  insect  which  the  planters  often  mis- 
took for  the  genuine  Cotton  Stainer  (Dysdercus  suturellus)  is  Melanocorg- 
phus  bicrucis.  This  insect  was  trapped  by  hundreds  but  subsequent 
study  proved  that  fully  90  per  cent  were  males. 

Homoptera  ( Leaf-lioppers , etc.). — Homalodisca  coagulata  was  caught 
in  great  abundance.  Subsequent  study  showed  that  about  90  per  cent 
were  males. 

In  the  three  orders,  Diptera,  Neuroptera,  and  Orthoptera,  nothing 
worthy  of  consideration  was  captured  except  a few  specimens  of  the 
beneficial  lace-wing  flies. 


Experiment  6. 


Arlington,  Tex.,  August  27. — Lighted  at  7 p.  m.  and  placed  between  rows  of  cow- 
peas  adjoining  a cotton  field.  The  rows  of  cowpeas  were  6 to  8 feet  apart  and  had 
many  Boll  Worm  moths  flying  about  them  feeding.  The  weather  was  warm  and 
pleasant,  the  night  very  dark.  Being  placed  between  the  rows,  a distance  of  only 
about  4 feet  remained  from  which  to  attract  the  passing  moths.  For  an  hour  the 
moths  kept  flying  up  and  down  the  rows  on  either  side  of  the  lamp,  fed  freely,  de- 
posited eggs,  and  paid  no  attention  whatever  to  the  light.  A volunteer  pea  vine 
was  near  the  center  of  the  row  having  a few  branches  extending  well  up  projecting 
over  the  edge  of  the  pan  within  10  inches  of  the  flaring  light.  Some  fresh  blossoms 
upon  them  proved  attractive,  and  a few  adventurous  females  visited  them,  sipped  of 


38 


their  sweets  tor  a time  by  lamplight  and  then  flew  away  to  continue  their  usual 
vocation.  This  act  of  defiance  sent  consternation  to.  the  hearts  of  some  15  or  20 
planters  who  had  been  invited  to  attend  the  experiment  and  who  during  the  day 
had  insisted  that  if  properly  conducted,  lights  were  effective  agencies.  All  ad- 
mitted that  the  test  had  been  made  under  the  most  auspicious  circumstances  and 
yielded  their  former  position  with  commendable  grace  and  sincerity.  Their  atten- 
tion was  further  called  to  a number  of  parasitic  Hymenoptera  which  had  been 
caught,  some  beneficial  and  predaceous  beetles,  soldier  bugs,  lace-wing  flies,  and 
many  other  species  of  little  known  economic  importance  such  as  have  heretofore 
been  given  in  detail  and  need  not  be  repeated. 

To  summarize  briefly,  it  must  be  concluded  that  the  use  of  lights  for 
attracting  and  trapping  the  Boll  Worm  moth  is  entirely  useless.  The 
character  and  habits  of  the  other  insects  caught,  as  shown  by  Table 
XIII  and  its  discussion,  are  found  to  be  pretty  evenly  divided  between 
those  which  are  beneficial  and  those  considered  injurious.  Most  of  the 
insects  noted  as  injurious  are  not  of  special  economic  importance 
throughout  the  cotton  region,  and  hence  their  consideration  in  this 
connection  may  be  justly  omitted.  The  use  of  lights,  so  far  as  the  cot- 
ton planter  is  concerned,  results  only  in  the  destruction  of  beneficial 
insects  and  is,  therefore,  an  absolute  disadvantage.  Such  being  the 
case  money  expended  in  this  practice  is  an  entire  loss.  As  a protective 
agency  lights  are  a failure  and  should  be  unhesitatingly  discouraged 
and  condemned. 


POISONED  SWEETS. 

Much  has  been  claimed  for  this  method  of  destroying  the  moths  and 
a number  of  experiments  were  made  to  test  the  value  and  importance 
of  the  remedy.  The  various  mixtures  were  applied  with  a Woodason 
liquid  sprayer  upon  rows  of  cowpeas  which  had  made  a rank  growth 
and  were  blooming  profusely.  They  were  freely  visited  by  Heliothis 
from  about  4 p.  m.  until  8 or  9 at  night.  All  conditions  for  the  experi-  4 
ments  were  favorable  and  furnished  a good  test  of  the  poisons.  The 
experiments  were  made  upon  Mr.  0.  F.  Mercer’s  farm  at  Arlington, 
Tex.,  where  Dr.  L.  O.  Page,  of  that  city,  also  rendered  valuable  assist- 
ance. By  direction  Dr.  Page  prepared  saturated  aqueous  solutions  of 
the  poisons,  and  mixtures  of  desirable  strengths  with  vinegar  or  beer 
were  made  subsequently. 

j Experiment  1. 

August  27  (4:15). — Beer,  8 ounces;  saturated  cold-water  solution  of  arsenic,  4 
ounces. 

August  28  (3  p.m.). — Leaves,  blossoms,  or  young  pods  slightly  or  uncertainly  in- 
jured. 

Experiment  2. 

August  27  (4:25). — Beer,  4 ounces,  with  4 ounces  of  the  same  poison  solution  used 
in  experiment  1. 

August  28  ( p.  m.). — Foliage,  blossoms,  aud  very  yoimg  pods  badly  scorched. 


39 


Experiment  3. 

August  27  (4:35). — Vinegar,  4 ounces;  3 ounces  saturated  arsenic  solutiou. 

August  28  (p.m.). — Foliage,  blossoms,  and  an  occasional  young  pod  badly 
scorched. 

August  27. — Dr.  Page  was  directed  to  prepare  the  following  solutions: 

(1)  Saturated  cold-water  solution  of  commercial  arsenic. 

(2)  1 ounce  corrosive  sublimate  to  1 pint  cold  water. 

(3)  1 ounce  potassium  cyanide  to  1 pint  cold  water. 

Samples  of  each  solution  were  kept,  taken  to  Shreveport,  and  tested.  They  had 
been  perfectly  prepared,  and  the  poisons  were  therefore  actually  in  solution  at  the 
time  of  application. 

The  following  two  mixtures  were  prepared  and  used  to  dilute  the  poisoned  solu- 
tions in  experiments  4 to  6.  inclusive: 

(1)  3 pints  beer  to  1 pint  molasses. 

(2)  3 pints  vinegar  to  1 pint  molasses. 

Upon  leaving  Arlington,  on  the  night  of  August  28,  Mr.  C.  F.  Mercer,  of  that  city, 
was  requested  to  make  notes  upon  the  damage  done  to  the  foliage  by  the  several 
solutions  iu  experiments  4 to  6,  inclusive.  These  notes  were  submitted  by  him  in  a 
letter  September  1,  and  the  facts  contained  are  includedwith  their  respective  experi- 
ments. 

Experiment  4. 

August  28  (4:15). — Beer,  8 ounces;  cold-water  solution  commercial  arsenic,  4 ounces. 
‘ijrst  29. — Foliage  scorched. 


Experiment  5. 

August  28  (4:45). — Beer,  4 ounces  to  2 ounces  potassium  cyanide  solution. 

August  29. — Foliage  shows  no  signs  of  damage. 

August  30 — No  damage  to  pea  vines  indicated  yet. 

Experiment  6. 

August  28  (4:55). — Beer,  4 ounces  to  2 ounces  corrosive  sublimate  solution. 

August  29. — Foliage  wilting. 

August  30. — Dead  and  badly  damaged. 

Notes  taken  during  tlie  progress  of  the  experiments  show  that  re- 
cently issued  females  or  those  just  beginning  to  deposit  do,  in  fact 
must,  meet  with  the  poisoned  liquid  on  the  vines.  Soon  the  moths 
began  to  alight  upon  the  leaves  or  pea  pods  and  sip  of  the  drops  of 
sweets  to  the  practical  neglect  of  the  blossoms.  After  sipping  the 
moths  became  somewhat  uncertain  in  their  flight  and  soon  flew  away 
and  hid.  It  was  evident  to  anyone  familiar  with  their  flight  that  the 
moths  were  affected  and  it  was  only  a question  of  a short  time  when 
death  would  occur.  In  fact  the  day  following  the  first  three  experi- 
ments dead  moths  could  be  found  here  and  there  when  the  pea  vines 
were  raised  from  the  ground.  The  specimens  were  not  old  or  worn-out 
individuals  and  their  death  was  evidently  attributable  to  the  poisoned 
liquid  which  they  had  sipped  from  the  vines  the  evening  before. 

The  practicability  of  this  remedy  is  somewhat  lessened  by  the  fact 
that  the  poisoned  mixture  dries  rather  quickly.  To  attain  the  best 
results  it  must  be  applied  each  day  for  a time  during  the  egg  laying 


40 


period.  This  objection  is  valid  only  to  a certain  extent  as  will  be 
noted  later.  The  remedy  is  certain  to  be  effective  if  properly  man- 
aged. Where  Boll  Worm  ravages  are  very  great  the  additional  expense 
and  application  upon  a minimum  area  of  trap-planted  peas  becomes 
proportionately  a matter  of  secondary  consideration.  The  crop  which 
can  be  most  easily  and  successfully  managed  for  this  purpose  is  that 
of  cowpeas  planted  in  rows  6 or  8 feet  apart  as  a trap,  bordering  the 
cotton  held.  They  should  be  planted  late  so  as  not  to  reach  the  height 
of  their  blooming  period  before  the  destructive  August  brood  of  moths 
appears.  The  area  should  be  the  minimum  and  will  depend  largely 
upon  the  size  of  the  cotton  field  to  be  protected.  The  blooming  pea 
vines  attract  the  issuing  moths  for  feeding  purposes  provided  the  cotton 
be  early  enough  to  have  passed  its  attractive  blooming  period.  It  be- 
comes important,  therefore,  that  the  cotton  be  as  early  as  possible. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  experiments,  the  difficulty  arises  that  even 
moderately  weak  solutions  of  the  poisons  scorch  the  pea  vines  if  the 
weather  be  hot  and  sunshiny.  This  scorching  at  once  brings  to  an  ab- 
rupt end  the  utility  of  these  plants  as  a trap  crop.  This  result  can  be 
obviated  by  making  the  applications  as  weak  as  is  advisable  to  insure 
death  to  the  moths  and  then  only  applying  it  to  portions  of  a row  upon 
any  one  evening.  This  leaves  unsprayed  healthy  portions  for  a series  of 
evenings  to  follow.  Applications  should  be  made  to  only  a portion  of 
each  row  at  any  given  time,  since  observation  lias  shown  that  a moth 
once  starting  in  a certain  row,  if  undisturbed,  is  inclined  to  follow  it 
up  or  down  for  some  distance.  The  chances  of  poisoning  are,  there- 
fore, greater  than  were  only  certain  of  the  rows  sprayed  and  others 
not  at  all.  In  experiments  1 and  4 the  same  strength  of  the  arsenical 
solutions  was  used.  In  the  former  the  foliage  was  but  slightly  injured, 
in  the  latter,  badly  scorched.  This  is  due  to  the  arsenic  for  experiment 
1 having  been  placed  in  cold  water  for  about  six  hours  before  using, 
while  in  experiment  4 it  was  in  cold  water  for  twenty-four  hours  pre- 
vious. Hence  a greater  per  cent  of  arsenic  had  been  dissolved  in  the 
latter.  A poisoned  mixture  of  arsenic  prepared  as  in  experiment  1 and 
applied  while  fresh  in  the  proportion  of  12  parts  of  the  vinegar  solution 
to  4 of  the  poisoned  liquid  will  be  efficient  and  yet  not  injure  the  vines. 
From  experiment  6 it  will  be  noted  that  the  corrosive  sublimate  mix- 
ture of  the  same  strength  as  those  of  experiments  1 and  4 was  less  im- 
mediate in  its  effects.  If  the  dilutions  were  carried  to  the  same  extent 
as  just  advised  for  the  arsenic  it  could  doubtless  be  used  with  safety 
and  good  results.  The  experiment  with  a preparation  of  potassium 
cyanide,  designated  as  No.  5,  shows  that  the  solution  did  no  appreciable 
injury  to  the  plants.  Since  it  is  a swift  poison  for  insects,  its  use  is 
undoubtedly  effective.  There  could  be  no  hesitation  in  concluding  from 
the  experiments  that  preference  should  be  given  to  the  cyanide  prepa- 
ration and  its  use  in  the  proportion  given  in  the  trial  recommended 
were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  it  was  lately  determined  that  there  was  a 


41 


question  as  to  the  quality  of  the  substance  used.  The  test  of  the  prep- 
aration at  Shreveport  after  the  experiments  had  been  made  proved 
beyond  question  that  some  cyanide  was  in  solution,  but  no  qualitative 
test  could  be  made  to  determine  the  probable  quality  of  the  article 
used. 

There  seems  to  be  little,  if  auy  choice  in  the  use  of  beer  or  vinegar 
with  the  molasses.  Vinegar  and  molasses  are  probably  more  easily  ob- 
tainable in  the  country  districts,  and  hence  are  the  cheapest.  Fruit 
vinegar  should  be  used,  and  a mixture  of  4 parts  to  1 of  molasses  is 
quite  as  effective  as  the  ones  used  in  the  experiments. 

For  the  application  a tine  spray  is  not  necessary,  as  it  is  preferable 
that  the  liquid  should  be  formed  in  large  drops  on  the  plants.  Any  of 
the  larger  spraying  machines  in  use  provided  with  a coarse  nozzle  can 
be  used  for  the  purpose. 

Plates  of  the  poisoned  liquids  were  left  standing  upon  short  pedestals 
among  the  pea  vines,  but  the  moths  failed  entirely  to  visit  them.  Stakes 
which  had  been  set  among  the  vines  were  sprayed  to  excess,  but  formed 
no  attraction.  In  fact,  anyone  who  has  closely  observed  the  feeding 
habits  of  the  moth  can  have  no  hope  for  the  efficiency  of  any  remedy 
except  an  actual  application  upon  the  food  plants  themselves.  The 
usual  methods  of  utilizing  poisoned  sweets  against  this  pest  are  evi- 
dently useless  and  involve  expenditures  of  time  and  money  which  are 
practically  an  entire  loss.  This  conclusion  is  based  upon  the  behavior 
of  the  moths  toward  the  sweets  during  the  egg-laying  period.  That 
time  over,  many  individuals  may  be  caught,  but  then  their  capture  has 
no  real  economic  significance. 

Some  advise  cutting  into  halves  numbers  of  ripened  melons  in  patches 
adjoining  cotton  fields  and  saturating  the  cut  surface  with  poisoned 
liquids  such  as  have  been  mentioned.  While  at  Arlington,  Tex.,  a 
melon  patch  was  found  between  rows  of  pea  vines  and  a large  cotton 
field.  During  the  day  it  was  found  that  where  melons  had  been  broken 
open  and  left  lying  during  a hot  day,  Boll  Worm  moths  visited  them  in 
the  afternoon  from  about  3 o’clock.  The  moths  unquestionably  fed  upon 
the  exudations;  but  the  practice  is  objectionable,  since  during  the  day 
it  had  been  noted  that  scores  of  the  preying  wasps  constantly  flying 
about  cotton  fields,  honey  bees,  and  some  miscellaneous  beneficial  in- 
sects made  visits  to  the  broken  melons.  All  of  these  would  necessarily 
be  poisoned  and  would  be  a direct  loss.  To  a certain  extent  the  same 
objection  can  be  maintained  against  liquids  applied  to  cowpeas.  On 
these  plants,  however,  the  poisoned  sweet  is  not  applied  until  after  the 
heat  of  the  day,  when  beneficial  insects  are  flying  about  less  plentifully. 
Furthermore,  the  application  dries  the  next  day  as  soon  as  the  dew  of 
the  night  evaporates,  which  greatly  lessens  the  danger  of  destroying 
desirable  insects.  The  drying  of  the  poisoned  application  is,  therefore, 
in  one  sense  an  advantage,  as  it  partially  counterbalances  the  loss  in 
efficacy  of  the  application. 


•42 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  PYRETHRITM. 

Simple  aqueous  decoctious,  as  reported  in  Bulletin  24  (pp.  39-44), 
having  proven  a signal  failure,  it  was  thought  advisable  to  experiment 
with  some  of  the  oils  as  agents  for  drawing  out  the  insecticidal  element. 
Headlight  oil  was  selected,  for  the  reason  that  the  quality  obtained  from 
country  dealers  is  much  more  constant  and  reliable  and  lienee  bet- 
ter for  a series  of  experiments.  Comparative  tests  of  the  power  of  ex- 
traction of  the  oil  by  various  methods  were  made,  as  also  of  the  oil 
combined  in  an  emulsion  with  other  than  oil  extracts.  As  a check  upon 
the  py rethrum  emulsions  the  simple  oil  emulsion  was  used  in  several  ex- 
periments, in  order  that  the  effect  of  the  oil  in  the  combination  might 
be  known  and  any  additional  advantage  of  the  second  factor  rendered 
capable  of  more  definite  determination. 

Simple  Emulsion. 

Method  of  preparation. — Oil  2 parts,  water  1 part,  and  enough  soap  to  emulsify 
well.  Water  heated  and  oil  added  while  the  water  boiled.  Churned  until  the  mixture 
thickened.  Prepared  October8,  and  is  yet  in  perfect  condition  November  10.  Used 
in  .experiments  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

As  Boll  Worms  were  scarce,  the  larvae  of  the  Cotton  Worm  ( Aletia  xylina)  were 
used  in  all  pyrethrum  experiments. 


Experiment  1. 

October  10  ( 12:35 ). — A 4 per  cent  water  dilution  was  made  and  sprayed  upon  larva? 
on  cotton  plants  in  the  field.  The  larvae,  seventeen  in  number,  were  taken  from  the 
sprayed  plants  and  placed  upon  fresh  unsprayed  leaves  in  a box,  later  being  placed 
upon  fresh  food  in  breeding  cages.  This  method  was  followed  in  all  subsequent  ex- 
periments. The  sprayed  branches  in  the  field  were  always  appropriately  marked,  in 
order  that  the  effect  of  the  emulsions  upon  the  foliage  might  be  noted  at  any  time. 


Date. 

Living. 

Dead. 

October  12 

1 pupating 

2 half  grown. 

T ot.nl 

10  grown 

4 naif  grown 

15 

2 

Experiment  2. 

October  10  (12:30). — A 6 per  cent  dilution  was  sprayed  upon  32  larvse.  At  5 p.  m. 
it  was  noticeable  that  the  younger  worms  were  somewhat  affected,  but  the  larger 
ones  showed  no  uneasiness. 


Date. 

Living. 

Dead. 

Ofitnhflr  12  

4 grown .......... 

2 half  grown. 

10  very  young. 

12  half  grown 

4 very  young 

Total 

20 

12 

43 


The  living  larvae  less  active  than  those  in  experiment  1.  The  foliage  in  experiments 
1 and  2 was  examined  October  12  and  November  23  and  found  uninjured.  The  emul- 
sion did  not  seem  to  render  the  foliage  distasteful,  for  young  larvae  were  subse- 
quently found  feeding  upon  it  with  a relish. 

« 

Experiment  3. 

October  24  (11:15). — A 13  per  cent  dilution  sprayed  upon  12  larvae;  all  nearly 
grown.  At  4:43  1 seems  slightly  affected,  others  active. 

October  26. — All  active  and  have  fed  freely;  two  have  webbed. 

October  29. — Two  larvae  feeding  vigorously;  1 webbed  and  3 pupated. 

October  31. — Webbed  larvae  all  pupated;  1 not  perfectly  formed. 

November  10. — Five  imagos  have  issued.  The  imperfect  pupa  is  dead,  as  also  4 
others,  which  do  not  seem  to  have  been  normally  formed,  due  probably  to  the  effect 
of  the  emulsion  by  inducing  premature  pupation.  Foliage  slightly  injured. 

Experiment  4. 

October  30  (4:40). — A 19  per  cent  dilution  used  upon  10  larvaB. 

October  31  ( 9:30  a.  m.). — Three  larvae  badly  affected;  rest  active  and  feeding. 

November  2. — Six  are  badly  affected  and  will  probably  die;  others  feeding. 

November  3. — Six  are  dead,  2 pupated  normally,  and  2 are  attempting  to  do  so. 

November  4. — Last  two  have  pupated,  but  only  about  half  the  normal  size. 

November  17. — Two  pupae  are  dead;  one  imago  lias  issued. 

December  16. — Remaining  pupa  produced  an  imago. 

Foliage  examined  November  10  and  found  badly  scorched. 

Pyrethrum'  Emulsions. 

COLD-WATER  DECOCTIONS. 

Method  of  preparing  first  Emulsion. — To  one  pint  of  cold  water  one-fourth  ounce  of 
pyrethrum  was  added,  well  mixed  and  left  to  stand  over  night  in  a sealed  Mason  jar 
at  a temperature  of  66°  F.  This  was  done  at  4:30,  October  6.  Filtered  on  the  morn- 
ing of  October  7.  Of  the  resulting  filtrate  one  part  was  emulsified  with  two  of  head-  . 
light  oil  and  soap  as  before  and  left  to  stand  in  a sealed  Mason  jar.  This  is  the  emul- 
sion used  in  experiments  5 and  6.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  on  October  10  the-* 
simple  water  decoction  which  was  perfectly  clear  when  filtered  had  undergone 
some  chemical  change — fermentation  probably.  It  became  very  turbid,  offensive  in 
smell,  and  evidently  unfit  for  further  use.  On  the  other  hand,  the  emulsion  was  still 
perfect  a month  later. 

Experiment  5. 

October  10(1:35). — Four  per  cent  dilution.  Number  of  larvae  sprayed,  16. 

October  12. — Both  large  and  small  active  and  feeding.  One,  about  half  grownv  dead. 

Experiment  6. 

October  10  (1:20). — Seven  per  cent  dilution.  Number  of  larvae,  21. 


Date. 

Living.  Dead. 

Ootobfr  1 2 

1 pppfl.  T __  ! o linlf  trrown 

Total 

2 grown [ 

9 bait’  prawn * 

_ 8 _ 

12  9 

1 1 

44 


Foliage  in  experiments  5 and  6 uninjured. 

The  second  emulsion  was  prepared  as  the  first  experiment,  except  that  the  propor- 
tions were  3 ounces  of  pyrethrum  to  pints  rain  water.  This  is  the  emulsion  used 
in  experiments  7,  8,  and  9. 


Experiment  7. 

October  10  ( 12  m.). — Four  per  ccnt.dilution.  Number  of  larvae,  16. 


Date. 

Living. 

Dead. 

October  12 

1 grown 

4 half  grown. 

4 half  grown 

5 very  young 

2 very  young. 

Total 

10 

6 

Experiment  8. 

October  10  (It:  iJ  a.  nl.). — Six  and  one-half  per  cent  dilution.  Number  of  larvae,  19. 


Date. 

Living. 

Dead. 

October  12 

Total 

6 grown 

6 half  grown 

12 

5 half  grown 

2 very  young 

7 

Experiment  9. 

October  24  (11 :55  a.  m.) — Thirteen  per  cent  dilution.  Number  of  larvae,  10.  At  4 :37 
p.  m.  1 larva  had  webbed,  but  was  badly  affected.  The  other  9 were  active  and 
feeding. 

October  26. — One  pupa,  8 active  and  feeding;  1 dead,  half  grown. 

October  27. — One  more  webbed. 

October  29. — One  more  pupa,  4 webbed,  and  3 feeding. 

November  20. — All  but  one  pupa  which  was  imperfectly  formed,  have  produced 
imagos.  The  imperfect  pupa  is  dead.  The  foliage  in  experiments  7,  8,  and  9 was 
uninjured. 

HOT- WATER  DECOCTION. 

Three  ounces  of  pyrethrum  were  added  to  1|  pints  rain  water,  placed  in  a sealed 
Mason  jar,  and  boiled  for  one  hour.  Filtered  and  emulsified  a portion  of  the  filtrate 
with  headlight  oil.  This  is  the  emulsion  used  in  experiments  10,  11,  and  12. 

Experiment  10. 

October  10  (11 : 25). — Four  per  cent  dilution.  Number  of  larvae,  19. 


Date. 

Living. 

Dead. 

October  12 

4 grown 

2 half  grown 

Total 

9 half  grown 

2 very  young 

15 

2 very  young 

4 

45 


Experiment  11. 


October  10  (11:05). — Six  per  cent  dilution^  Number  of  larvae,  40. 


Date. 

Living. 

Dead. 

October  12 

1 webbing 

6 half  grown. 

7 grown 

22  Half  grown 

1 very  young 

3 very  young. 

Total 

1 

E 

9 

1 

Experiment  12. 

October  24  (12:05  p.  m.). — Thirteen  per  cent  dilution.  Number  of  larvae,  9.  At 
4 :53  larvae  still  active  and  apparently  unaffected. 

October  26. — Have  fed  freely;  3 webbed. 

October  29. — One  feeding;  5 webbed;  3 pupae. 

November  IS. — Two  pupated  imperfectly  and  died;  others  have  issued. 

COLD-OIL  DECOCTION. 

One  and  one-lialf  ounces  pyrethrum  added  to  one-half  pint  headlight  oil  placed  in 
a sealed  Mason  jar  and  left  over  night  at  a temperature  of  68°  F.  Filtered  th.e  next 
morning  and  emulsified  the  filtrate  with  half  as  much  rain  water.  This  emulsion 
was  used  in  experiments  13,  14,  and  15. 

Experiment  13. 

October  10  (1:05 p.m.). — Four  per  cent  solution. 

October  12. — Three  nearly  grown  larva?  lively;  5 dead,  all  about  half  grown.  This 
breeding  cage,  as  also  the  one  of  experiment  14,  was  found  to  have  cracks  in,  which 
had  been  unnoticed,  and  many  of  the  larvae  escaped. 

Experiment  14. 

October  10  (12:55). — Seven  per  cent  dilution.  Late  in  the  evening  the  larvae  ap- 
peared somewhat  uneasy. 

October  12. — Two  half-grown  ones  may  live;  11  half-grown  ones  are  dead. 

Experiment  15. 

October  24  (11:25). — Thirteen  per  cent  solution.  Number  of  larvae,  10.  At  4:25,  4 
half-grown  larvae  are  unable  to  crawl;  2,  about  a third  grown, in  the  same  condition ; 4 
nearly  grown  ones  can  travel  about,  though  their  actions  are  not  perfectly  normal. 

October  26. — Two  trying  to  web  up;  1 larva  feeding,  and  7 dead.  Of  the  dead,  5 
are  half  grown,  the  other  2 younger. 

October  29. — A Boll  Worm  in  the  cage  attacked  and  devoured  one  of  the  webbed- 
up  larvae;  the  second  one  pupated,  and  the  third  died  in  the  attempt. 

November  17. — Pupa  has  produced  an  imago. 

In  experiments  13  and  14  the  foliage  remained  unimpaired,  bat  in  experiment  15 
it  was  slightly  scorched. 


IIOT-OIL  DECOCTION. 

One  and  one-half  ounces  pyrethrum  added  to  1 pint  headlight  oil,  and  at  10 :45  a.  m, 
thejar  was  placed  in  a water  bath  to  heat  to  a temperature  a few  degrees  short  of 
the  point  of  explosion,  namely  f70J  F.  At  11  a.  tip  a temperature  of  f60°  F.  was? 


46 


reached  and  maintained  for  an  hour.  Filtered  while  hot  into  another  Mason  jar, 
sealed  and  set  aside  to  cool.  After  cooling  the  filtrate  was  emulsified  as  before. 
This  emulsion  was  used  in  experiments  16, 17,  and  18. 

Experiment  16. 

October  24  (11:45). — Four  and  one-half  per  cent  solution.  Larvae,  9 in  number.  At 
5:10  7 larva?,  half  grown  or  over,  though  quite  active,  appear  slighly  affected;  2 are 
badly  affected. 

October  26. — Three  large  ones  alive  and  feeding;  another  is  alive,  but  not  active; 

1 has  webbed  up,  and  4 half-grown  ones  are  dead. 

October  29. — One  live  pupa;  2 webbed;  2 dead,  including  the  one  which  had  webbed 
October  26. 

October  31.-- Two  more  pup®,  1 well  formed,  the  other  not. 

November  29. — Two  imagos  issued;  the  imperfect  pupa  dead. 

Experiment  17. 

October  24  (11:35). — Thirteen  percent  solution.  At  4:48,  3 nearly  grown  hardly 
able  to  crawl.  All  are  evidently  uncomfortable. 

October  26. — All  but  one  are  dead.  This  one  is  making  a poor  attempt  at  pupating. 
None  fed  any  before  dying. 

October  29. — Succeeded  in  pupating,  and  is  still  alive.  Later,  pupa  dead. 

Experiment  IS. 

October  30  (4:15). — Twenty-one  per  cent  solution.  Number  of  larva1,  10;  almost 
grown.  At  4:30  all  are  off  the  fresh,  unsprayed  branches  and  tumbling  about  in  the 
cage.  All  but  one  are  in  convulsions ; the  one  exception  is  not  active — in  fact,  can 
not  crawl. 

October  31  (9:30  a.  m). — Every  effort  to  place  the  larvae  upon  the  branches  proves 
useless  today,  as  it  did  last  evening.  The  larvae  have  not  the  slightest  control  of 
themselves. 

November  2. — All  are  dead.  In  experiment  16  the  foliage  was  unharmed;  in  17 
slightly  scalded,  and  in  18  badly  scorched. 

SIMPLE  COLD-WATER  DECOCTION. 

Three  ounces  pyrethrum  were  added  to  1£  pints  rain  water  and  left  to  soak  over 
night  at  68°  F.  Filtered  the  next  morning  and  the  filtrate  kept  in  sealed  Mason  jar. 
Decoction  prepared  October  7 to  8.  Used  in  experiments  19,  20,  and  21. 

Experiment  19. 

October  8 (4:55 p.  m). — Full  strength  decoction  sprayed  upon  larvae  of  all  sizes  on  a 
branch  of  cotton  in  the  field.  The  smaller  ones  began  dropping  off  almost  immedi- 
ately. The  larger  ones  showed  no  desire  other  than  to  get  away  from  their  moist- 
ened quarters. 

October  9. — Many  worms  feeding,  some  nearly  grown,  others  very  young,  and  but 
recently  hatched,  none  appearing  much  affected;  16  larvae,  all  less  than  half  grown, 
dead.  • 

October  10. — Can  now  tell  which  ones  will  survive.  Three  almost  grown,  5 half 
grown,  and  7 very  young.  The  dead  numbered  22,  all  very  young  and  recently 
hatched. 

In  experiment  20  only  half  strength  of  the  decoction  was  used.  This  gave  even 
less  effective  results  than  the  full  strength,  and  need  not  be  presented. 

The  filtrate  of  the  fresh  decoction  on  October  8 was  clear,  and  had  rather  a pleas-  ■ 
ant  smell.  Subsequently,  though  kept  in  a sealed  Mason  jar,  it  became  decidedly 


47 

turbid,  formed  a precipitate,  and  lias  a sour  or  vinegar-like  smell.  The  pyrethrum 
smell  is  but  faintly  recognizable. 

Experiment  21  was  made  for  the  purpose  of  determining  any  difference  in  the 
effect  of  the  changed  or  fermented  decoction  and  the  fresh  filtrate. 

Experiment  21. 

October  24  {12:25). — Full  strength  applied.  At  5 p.  m.  all  the  larvae,  8 in  number, 
lively. 

October  26. — All  well  and  active.  2 having. webbed. 

October  29—  One  feeding  vigorously,  4 webbed,  and  3 pupae.  Evidently  no  results, 
and  experiment  closed. 


SIMPLE  HOT-WATER  DECOCTION. 

Three  ounces  pyrethrum  to  1|  pints  rain  water,  boiled  for  one  hour  in  a sealed 
Mason  jar.  After  boiling,  filtered  and  kept  filtrate  in  sealed  Mason  jar.  This  decoc- 
tion was  prepared  October  8,  and  used  in  experiments  22,  23,  and  24. 

Experiment  22. 

October  8 (4:20). — Full  strength  sprayed  upon  49  larvae.  The  very  young  began 
tumbling  off  in  a few  minutes.  By  5 p.  m.  many  of  the  newly  hatched  larvae  were 
evidently  dying. 


Date. 

Living. 

Dead. 

Oct.  10 

Total  . 

3 grown 

7 half  grown. 

24  very  young. 

10  half  grown 

5 very  youn°* 

is  

31 

Experiment  23  was  a half  strength  of  the  same  decoction  and,  as  no  special  results 
were  obtained,  can  be  omitted. 

Though  this  decoction  had  been  boiled,  the  filtrate  subsequently  became  turbid 
and  formed  a whitish  precipitate.  Practically  in  the  same  condition  as  the  decoc- 
tion used  in  experiment  21. 

Experiment  24. 

October  24  (12:15). — Full  strength  of  the  fermented  decoction  sprayed  upon  the 
larvae.  Their  behavior  in  all  important  respects  was  the  same  as  of  those  in  experi- 
ment 21. 

Experiment  25. 

October  10  (1:40). — A number  of  worms  were  simply  sprayed  with  cold  water 
as  a check  upon  the  effect  which  a forcible  wet  spray  would  have  upon  the  very 
young  and  half-grown  larvae.  Almost  immediately  occurred  the  usual  dropping  off 
of  the  very  young  larvae  and  the  seeking  of  dry  quarters  noted  in  the  other  experi 
ments  with  the  aqueous  decoctions. 

October  12. — All  but  one  half-grown  one  are  quite  active  and  feeding. 


Date. 

Living. 

Dead. 

Oct.  19 

5 pupae 

3 half  grown. 

7 very  young. 

10 

Total 

1 half  young- 

G 

43 


Experiment  26. 

As  a check  on  the  deaths  due  to  picking  and  transferring  the  larvae  to  breeding 
cages,  as  also  upon  feeding  in  confinement,  a number  of  larvae  were  picked  October 
10,  as  in  the  other  experiments,  transferred,  and  in  all  respects  cared  for  as  tlie  others 
had  been. 


Date. 

Living. 

Dead. 

Oct.  12 

3 grown 

1 2 half  grown. 

4 very  young, 

[« 

Total 

5 half  grown 

I 8 

The  facts  contained  in  the  several  experiments  are  tabulated  for  convenience  in 
Tables  XIV  and  XV. 

Table  XIV. — Results  of  experiments  with  various  insecticides. 


Insecticide. 


Oil  emulsion 


coction . 


Pyrethrum  emulsion,  hot- water  de-  -j 
coction. 

Pyrethrum  emulsion,  cold-oil  ex- 
tract. 

Pyrethrum  emulsion,  hot-oil  extract  j 

Cold-water  decoction  of  pyrethrum  | 
Hot-water  decoction  of  pyrethrum  . ^ 
Check  experiments | 


Strength. 

Experiment. 

( Number  of 
larvae. 

4 per  cent 

1 

1 j 17 

6 per  cent. . . . 

2 : 32 

13  per  cent 

1 3 j 12 

19J  per  cent.. . 

4 : lo 

j 4 per  cent 

5 i 16 

7 per  cent 

6 j 21 

| 4 per  cent 

7 i 16 

6£  per  cent 

8 j 19 

I 13  per  cent 

9 1 10 

4 per  cent , 

10  : 19 

6 per  cent 

11  1 40 

13  per  cent 

12  9 

4 per  cent 

13  j (*) 

7 per  cent 

14  (*) 

13  per  cent 

15  10  ! 

4£  per  cent 

!6  j 9 

13  per  cent 

17  S 6 

21  per  cent 

18  MO  | 

Full 

19  37  ! 

Full 

21  ! 8 ; 

Full 

22  : 49  | 

Full 

24  ! (*)  I 

Cold  water. . ... 

25  ! 16  i 

Picked  larvae  . 

1 

26  | 14  j 

Survived.  | Dead. 


Totals. 


<0  1 75  Js  te  ' > I u O i & a •—  > u 

S' Is-  S sltfgi  I I W 1 

H fa  O Mr  >*\  pH  I g : M 


1 1- 


V 


1 

.1  4 
.!  6 


5 I 7i- 


10 


.!  5 
• ! 8 
5 
3 


* Not  counted ; see  record  of  experiments  in  the  text, 
t See  record  of  expei  iment  in  the  text, 


49 


Table  XV. — Experiments  with  different  strengths  of  pyrcthrum* 


Strength. 

Experi- 

ment. 

Nura 
her  of 
larvai. 

Survived. 

Dead. 

Totals. 

Grown. 

Half 

grown. 

n.  bD 
u P 

. « P 
> ? 

Pupae. 

j Grown. 

Halt- 

grown. 

© 5 
t>  o 

bit) 

a 

►3 

Dead. 

1 

17 

1 1 

4 

2 

15 

0 

16 

8 

1 

15 

1 

7 

16 

1 

4 

5 

4 

2 

10 

8 

10 

1!) 

4 

9 

2 

4 

15 

4 

13 

(') 

3 

4£  per  cent 

16 

9 

2 



1 

2 

3 

i 

2 

7 

Totals 

77 

25 

25 

7 

1 

2 

14  3 

57 

20 

fi  per  OPint, 

32 

4 

12 

1 4 

2 

10 

20 

12 

fi  per  cOTlt1 

n 

40 

8 

22 

1 

6 

3 

31 

9 

per  cent 

8 

19 

6 

6 

5 

2 

12 

7 

7 per  cent 

6 

21 

9 

9 

12 

9 

7 per  cent 

14 

(*) 

l 

8 

3 

Totals 

112 

21 

49 

5 

22 

15 

75 

I 37 

13  per  cent 

3 

12 

7 

r 

7 

5 

13  per  cent 

0 

10 

8 

i 

8 

2 

13  per  cent 

12 

9 

2 

1 3 ppr  cent 

15  | 

10 

2 



l 

r 

2 

2 

8 

13  pp.r  rent, 

17 

6 

; 

i 

3 

2 

0 

1 

* Totals 

i 

47 

24 

1 

10 

3 

8 

2 

□£ 

Ls 

19|  per  cent 

4 ! 

10 

2 ' 

2 

6 

2 

8 

9,1  pp,r  ep.nt, 

18  1 

10 

3 

10 

10  i 

. 



Totals 

20 

2 

2 

13 

3 

2 

18 



* Not  counted ; see  record  of  experiment  in  text.  Larvm  of  this  experiment  not  included  in  tlie  totals. 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  EXPERIMENTS. 

When  studying  the  above  tabulated  results  it  must  be  constantly 
borne  in  mind  that  the  larvm  of  Boll  and  Cotton  Worms  resist  the  ordi- 
nary liquid  insecticides  of  such  strengths  as  are  usually  effective  against 
other  insects,  such  as  bugs  or  leaf-hoppers.  Another  important  fact  to 
notice  is  that  whatever  effect  was  obtained  from  a certain  solution  or 
decoction  is  to  be  attributed  solely  to  it,  since  the  larvm  were  transferred 
to  cages  in  the  shade  away  from  the  direct  sunlight.  The  assistance 
of  direct  sunlight  in  producing  scorching  effects  with  the  oil  emulsions 
is  entirely  eliminated,  and  explains  why  the  larvm  seem  to  have  with- 
stood unusually  strong  solutions.  For  this  reason  the  results  obtained, 
though  possibly  less  striking,  have  greater  significance  as  to  the  real 
value  as  insecticides  of  the  combinations  made. 

The  foliage  in  the  field  was  injured  less  than  might  be  expected  with 
such  strong  solutions  on  account  of  the  cool,  dewy  nights  and  moderate 
temperatures  during  the  day  at  the  time  when  the  experiments  were 
made.  It  is  needless  to  dwell  further  upon  these  conditions,  except  to 
state  that  the  same  strengths  of  emulsions  if  applied  during  the  heat  of 
day  in  midsummer  would  affect  both  larvm  and  foliage  proportionately 
in  a more  decided  and  vigorous  manner,  This,  however,  has  no  direct 
bearing  upon  the  primary  purpose  of  the  experiments,  which  was  to 
14935— $o.  29—4 


50 


discover  some  easy  and  practical  method  of  obtaining  an  extract  of 
pyrethrum,  which  really  added  some  insecticidal  property  to  the  remedy 
with  which  it  was  combined.  For  this  reason  in  the  oil  experiments  it 
was  manifestly  necessary  to  eliminate  the  factor  of  direct  sunlight. 

In  order,  however,  that  this  series  might  be  complete  in  itself  a few 
experiments  with  cold  and  hot  water  decoctions  of  pyrethrum  were 
repeated.  Their  results  are  presented  in  experiments  It)  to  24,  inclu- 
sive. Comparing  these  with  check  experiments  25  and  26  it  becomes 
evident  that  neither  cold  nor  hot  aqueous  extracts  have  any  value  as 
remedies  against  the  more  mature  larvae,  and  have  but  slight  utility 
even  against  the  younger  worms.  This  agrees  with  what  has  already 
been  reported  in  Bulletin  24,  p.  43.  Results  to  be  of  great  value  in 
making  comparative  tests  of  the  remedies  should  on  the  whole  be  ob- 
tained by  experimenting  with  older  individuals.  In  the  experiments 
not  already  discussed  considerable  selection  was  exercised  in  this  re- 
spect. 

The  aqueous  decoctions  of  the  powder  having  proven  of  no  value 
against  the  more  mature  larvae,  we  should  expect  to  find  that  the  re- 
sults of  these  experiments  with  the  oil  emulsions  combined  with  these 
aqueous  decoctions  would  uot  differ  materially  from  those  of  the  sim- 
ple oil  emulsions  of  equal  strengths.  Inspecting  Table  XVI  it  is  found 
that  experiments  1 to  4,  inclusive,  were  with  simple  oil  emulsions ; those 
of  experiments  5 to  12,  inclusive,  were  the  same  combined  with  cold  and  hot 
decoctions  of  pyrethrum.  In  Table  XV  equal  streng  ths  have  been  tabu- 
lated. Noting  in  this  table  the  experiments  just  referred  to,  ^appre- 
ciable difference  is  found  in  comparing  experiments  1 with  5,  2 with 
6,  8,  or  11,  3 with  9 or  12.  For  a series  of  independent  trials  the  vari- 
ation, in  results  is  but  slight,  and  the  combinations  in  question  seem, 
therefore,  to  have  no  special  advantage  over  the  simple  emulsion. 

Studying  next  the  cold  oil-extract  emulsions  by  comparing  experi- 
ment 15  with  3,  9,  or  12,  which  latter  are  simple  oil  emulsions  of  equal 
strengths,  some  difference  favorable  to  the  oil  extract  is  shown.  The 
difference  can  not  be  fully  discussed,  since,  by  an  accident,  the  records 
of  two  of  the  experiments  are  not  complete.  It  was  observed,  however, 
that  the  activity  of  the  larvae  treated  with  the  oil-extract  emulsion  was 
more  excited  and  pronounced  than  that  of  those  treated  with  the  sim- 
ple emulsions. 

Coming  now  to  the  hot  oil-extract  emulsions,  we  find  some  remarka- 
ble results.  For  example,  in  experiment  16,  where  a 4£  per  cent  dilu- 
tion of  this  emulsion  was  used,  it  is  found  that  grown  larvae  were  affected 
to  an  extent  almost  equal  to  a 13  per  cent  solution  of  the  simple  emul- 
sion. Again,  in  experiments  15  and  17,  Table  XV,  it  is  found  that  when 
13  per  cent  solutions  of  the  hot  and  cold  oil  extracts  were  applied  to 
grown  larvae,  results  favorable  to  the  emulsified  hot  oil  extract  folio  wed, 
the  latter  killing  every  larva  used  in  the  experiment.  The  hot  oil  ex- 
tract having  greatly  increased  the  efficacy  of  the  emulsion,  it  is  to  be 
existed  that  the  cold  oil  will  add  to  itself,  in  a less  degree  and  more 


51 


slowly,  a portion  of  the  active  principle  of  the  pyrethrum.  The  slight 
advantage  of  the  emulsified  cold  oil  extract  over  the  simple  emulsion 
as  already  indicated  is,  therefore,  corroborated  by  the  decided  advan- 
tage of  the  emulsified  hot  oil  extract  preparation. 

The  effect  of  pyre-thrum  upon  larvae  is  to  throw  them  into  convul- 
sions or  paralyze  the  muscles  so  that  they  have  no  power  to  direct  their 
movements.  None  of  the  emulsified  extracts  applied  to  the  larvae  pro- 
duced such  effects  until  we  come  to  the  emulsified  cold  oil  applications. 
In  these,  the  characteristic  effects  are  rather  uncertainly  indicated  in 
the  stronger  applications.  With  the  hot  oil-extract  emulsion  such  ac- 
tions were  already  manifested  in  the  weaker  4J  per  cent  dilution,  and 
very  decidedly  in  the  stronger  applications.  For  example,  in  experi- 
ments 17  and  18,  fifteen  minutes  after  the  application  the  full-grown 
larvae  had  utterly  lost  control  of  themselves,  and  it  merely  became  a 
process  of  dying  from  that  time.  No  chance  for  pupation,  as  in  some 
of  the  other  experiments. 

These  facts  show  that  there  was  really  an  additional  insecticidal 
effect  acquired  by  the  hot  oil  decoction  process,  the  extract  of  which 
was  subsequently  emulsified. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  EMULSIFIED  HOT-OIL  EXTRACT  OF  PYRETHRUM. 

The  experiments  above  summarized  again  prove  that  the  ordinary 
methods  of^extracting  the  active  principle  of  pyrethrum  are  question- 
able, or  at  least  unsatisfactory.  The  hot  oil  experiments  show  con- 
clusively that  this  method  does  to  some  extent  draw  out  the  insecticidal 
element  of  the  powder,  and  retains  it  in  the  emulsion.  However,  its 
use  upon  host  plants  which  are  able  to  resist  without  injury  an  oil 
emulsion  application  of  sufficient  strength  to  destroy  the  insect  is  more 
expeditious  and,  perhaps,  more  economical  than  the  use  of  the  pyre- 
thrum  emulsion.  But  plants  which  are  injured  by  such  an  emulsion  can 
be  successfully  treated  with  a weaker  solution  of  the  pyrethrum  emul- 
sion, not  injuring  the  foliage,  and  destroying  the  pest  as  effectually.  This 
is  shown  by  Table  XIV,  where,  with  a 4J  per  cent  pyrethrum  emulsion 
in  experiment  16,  we  have  practically  the  same  effect  upon  the  growing 
larvae  that  a 13  per  cent  oil  emulsion  has  in  experiments  3,  9,  or  12. 
The  two  latter  can  be  regarded  as  purely  oil  emulsions,  since  it  has 
been  shown  that  the  aqueous  decoctions  of  the  powder  really  contained 
no  insecticidal  properties. 

During  high  temperatures  and  bright  sunshine  it  is  well  known  that 
more  or  less  danger  of  injury  to  the  plant  is  risked  by  the  use  of  an  oil 
emulsion  when  the  strength  which  must  be  applied  comes  very  near  the 
maximum  which  the  foliage  will  bear.  This  risk  can  be  greatly  lessened 
by  using  the  pyrethrum  emulsion,  because  the  maximum  strength  which 
the  plant  will  withstand  need  not  be  approached  so  closely.  This  ad- 
vantage should  not  be  interpreted  as  a protective  effect  of  the  pyre- 
thrum to  the  foliage,  but  as  an  additional  insecticidal  factor  making 
the  usual  quantity  of  oil  unnecessary. 


52 


HAND-PICKING  OF  CORN. 

In  May,  from  the  time  when  boll  worm  injuries  are  first  noticed  in  the 
buds  of  corn  plants,  the  infested  ones  should  be  crushed  in  the  hands  so 
as  to  kill  the  worms  found  in  them.  To  determine  whether  this  could  be 
successfully  done,  the  method  was  tried  while  taking  notes  on  the  num- 
ber of  worms  and  infested  plants  in  a field  during  May  and  June.  The 
result  is  given  in  Table  I,  and  shows  that  of  a total  of  26  larvrn,  23  (7 
half  grown  and  16  very  young)  were  crushed.  It  is  therefore  a sat- 
isfactory process.  From  the  same  table  it  is  found  that  only  2.6  per 
cent  of  the  plants  showed  injury.  Hence  but  little  time  will  be  required 
to  go  over  a large  field  in  this  manner.  After  an  interval  of  two  weeks, 
the  process  should  be  repeated.  This  will  decrease  the  numbers  of  the 
later  broods  to  such  an  extent  that  in  many  slightly-infested  regions 
nothing  further  will  be  necessary,  especially  if  infested  ears  of  sweet 
corn  be  burned  instead  of  simply  thrown  away. 

TRAP-CORN  EXPERIMENTS. 


Experiment  1. 

A portion  of  a plantation  owned  hy  Mr.  Dan.  Nicholson  was  kindly  set  aside  by 
him  for  a trap-corn  experiment.  The  field  was  rich  Red  River  bottom  land,  bordered 
on  the  east  by  a large  forest,  hut  surrounded  on  all  other  sides  hy  cotton  fields. 
Five  rows  were  left  vacant  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  field,  then  eighteen  rows  of  cot- 
ton planted,  four  more  rows  left  vacant,  then  eighteen  of  cotton,  and  so  on.  The 
cotton  was  planted  at  the  usual  time.  Two  rows  of  each  of  the  vacant  strips  were 
jdanted  in  corn  April  4.  May  7 this  corn  averaged  about  1 foot  in  height.  No  boll 
worms  were  found  in  the  buds  of  the  plants,  though  in  a field  of  corn  some  300  yards 
away,  which  had  been  planted  at  the  usual  time,  a few  were  collected.  This  field 
of  early  planted  corn  was  near  the  garden  and  was  surrounded  on  two  sides  by 
fences  which  were  thickly  grown  over  hy  flowering  plants  and  dewberry  vines.  As 
no  worms  were  found  some  distance  from  the  edge  of  the  field,  it  was  evident  that 
the  first  brood  of  moths  had  been  somewhat  attracted  to  the  adjoining  blossom- 
ing plants  near  the  hedge  and  in  the  garden,  and  had  confined  their  deposition  to 
the  outer  edges  of  the  field.  This  becomes  an  important  factor  when  considering  the 
feasibility  of  resort  to  killing  the  first  brood  of  worms  in  the  buds  of  corn  by  crush- 
ing. This  does  not  apply  to  larger  areas  of  corn  where  similar  attractions  are  not 
near  at  hand.  The  trap  corn  was  not  so  situated,  but  was  in  the  midst  of  a large 
plantation,  away  from  such  early  inducements. 

On  July  3 a visit  to  the  trap  crop  was  made.  It  was,  and  probably  for  some  days 
had  been,  silking  profusely  just  as  the  second  brood  of  moths  was  issuing.  By  July 
6 the  first  planting  had  passed  its  i>rime  in  point  of  silking,  though  still  in  fit  con- 
dition to  receive  the  deposition  of  many  eggs.  At  the  time  of  the  July  3 visit  the 
following  study  of  the  number  of  larvae,  found  in  the  young  ears  was  made: 


Plant. 

Ears. 

Larvae. 

1 

2 

6 

2 

1 

1 

3 

2 

4 

4 

2 

3 

2 

7 

6 

2 

5 

7 

9 

3 

8 

1 

1 

1 

9 

7 

10 

2 

2 

11 ,,,,, 

1 

2 

Total . j 

18 

41 

53 


The  larvae  at  this  time  were  nearly  all  less  than  half  grown,  only  two  of  the  num- 
ber being  nearly  grown.  These  tAvo  were  found  alone  in  the  ears  of  plants  2 and  8. 
In  the  ear  of  plant  9,  which  contained  seven  larvae,  all  less  than  half  grown,  two 
were  discovered  being  eaten  by  others. 

By  July  25,  the  second  planting  in  the  remaining  two  vacant  rows  was  in  its  prime, 
but  by  August  1 had  passed  its  best  condition.  The  time  of  its  greatest  attractive- 
ness covered  the  period  of  the  issuance  of  the  third  brood.  This  brood  deposited 
upon  the  fresh  silks  to  such  an  extent  as  to  produce  an  extremely  crowded  condition, 
for  the  larvae  expected  to  find  food  upon  such  a limited  number  of  ears.  Many  ears 
were  examined  and  all  presented  so  nearly  the  same  condition  that  only  a few  counts 
were  made.  These  were : 


•Plant. 

Ears. 

Larvae. 

1 

1 

10 

2 

2 

8 

3 

3 

15 

Total 

6 

33 

At  the  time  of  this  examination,  August  1,  the  larvae  were  still  all  very  small, 
probably  two-thirds  having  never  molted.  In  addition,  the  ears  above  noted  for  the 
larvae  seldom  bore  less  than  six  to  a dozen  fresh  eggs  upon  their  silks,  often  ranging 
froln  a dozen  to  twenty.  In  the  same  held,  in  ears  in  which  nearly-grown  larvae 
were  found,  only  a few,  if  any,  younger  ones  were  present.  This  indicates  that  the 
crowded  condition  led  the  larger  and  stronger  ones  to  prey  upon  the  others,  thus 
giving  the  victors  more  room  and  food. 

The  ears  of  the  first  planting  had  now  hardened,  and  no  larvae  were  found  in  them 
and  no  fresh  eggs  were  being  deposited  on  their  leaves  and  husks.  Eggs  were  still 
being  deposited  upon  the  plants  of  the  second  planting.  The  cotton  between  the 
rows  of  trap  corn  was  carefully  examined  during  the  egg-laying  period  without 
finding  eggs  or  bored  bolls,  even  in  the  rows  immediately  adjoining  those  of  the  trap 
corn. 

Experiment  2. 

Through  the  kindness  of  Mr.  A.  Curtis,  of  Curtis,  La.,  a large  and  fertile  tract  of 
land,  also  in  Ked  River  bottom,  was  placed  at  my  disposal  for  experimental  pur- 
poses. The  cotton  was  planted  at  the  usual  time,  one  row  for  every  fifteen  being 
left  unplanted.  This  one  row  was  planted  in  corn  April  9.  May  7 the  rows  of  young 
corn  were  examined,  but  no  larvse  were  found  in  the  plants.  A small  field  of  crop 
corn,  planted  earlier  and  joining  the  experimental  field  on  one  side,  had  a few  worms 
in  the  buds  of  some  of  its  plants.  The  second  visit  was  made  July  3,  when  the  corn 
was  found  in  splendid  condition  for  egg-deposition.  The  following  studies  were 
made  of  infested  ears : 


Plant. 

Ears. 

Larvae. 

1 

2 

5 

2 

2 

2 

2 

10 

1 4 

1 

7 

5 

1 

3 

6 

1 

1 

7 

2 

3 

8 

1 

1 

9 

1 

3 

10 

2 

7 

Total 

15 

42 

54 

A similar  study  was  made  of  the  adjoining  small  field  of  rapidly  maturing  crop 
corn,  with  the  following  results: 


Plant. 

Ears. 

Larvse. 

1 

Borecl* 

0 

2 

Unroll 

0 

3 .. 

Eorp.fl 

o 

4 

i 

1 

5 

2 

2 

0:.... 

1 

1 

7 

1 

0 

8 - 

1 

0 

9 

Bored  .... 

o 

10 

Bored 

0 

Total....' 

11 

4 

* By  bored  is  meant  that  a worm  had  been  in  the  ear  but  bad  left,  either  for  another  ear  or  to  pupate. 

Inasmuch  as  eggs  were  found  quite  plentiful  upon  the  trap  com  and  none  were 
found  upon  the  other,  it  is  apparent  that  the  moths  had  chosen  between  the  two. 

The  number  of  plants  and  ears,  such  as  the  females  would  readily  deposit  upon, 
was  counted.  One  row  contained  148  plants  with  267  ears.  Each  of  the  remaining 
rows  was  of  the  same  length  (about  10  or  15  rods)  and  contained  approximately  the 
same  number  of  plants  and  ears.  From  the  count  of  the  number  of  worms  in  the  cars 
of  this  trap  corn,  as  above  given,  an  average  of  2.8  worms  per  ear  is  derived.  There- 
fore the  above  row  contained  about  747.6  worms.  For  the  eight  rows  of  trap  corn  in 
this  field,  this  makes  5,981  as  the  approximate  number  of  worms  trapped.  This  leaves 
out  of  consideration  the  unhatched  eggs  found  in  the  silks  at  that  time. 

May  23  a second  trap  planting  was  made,  in  a field  immediately  to  the  right  of  the 
first  experimental  field.  By  July  6 it  had  not  yet  tasseled,  though  it  was  badly  in- 
fested with  another  species  which  was  feeding  in  the  buds,  just  as  the  Boll  Worm 
does. 

Later,  about  the  1st  of  August,  the  second  experimental  field  had  silked  and  was 
well  stocked  with  boll-worm  eggs,  many  of  which  were  parasitized.  The  larvae 
were  plentiful  in  the  ears,  and  as  nothing  of  further  interest  qould  be  attached  to 
the  experiment,  Mr.  Curtis  cut  the  corn  and  fed  it  for  forage. 

Experiment  3. 

[Mr.  J.  H.  Eullilove’s  plantation.] 

Corn  was  planted  April  13.  May  7 it  was  still  small.  No  Boll  Worms  in  the 
young  plants.  Two  hundred  yards  away  was  a field  of  corn  which  had  been  planted 
much  earlier.  In  this  a few  young  Boll  Worms  were  found.  July  3 the  ears  of  the 
trap  corn  were  badly  infested  with  Boll  Worms  and  many  unhatched  eggs  were 
upon  the  silks.  The  conditions  in  general  were  much  the  same  as  in  the  preceding, 
and  need  not  be  repeated  in  detail. 


Experiment  4. 

[Mr.  S.  J.  Ziegler’s  Plantation.] 

One  field  was  rather  more  upland  and  less  favorable  for  a good  growth  of  late- 
planted  corn.  The  first  planting  of  corn  was  April  9.  April  24  the  corn  was  from 
4 to  6 inches  high,  but  contained  no  Boll  Worms.  It  tasseled  and  silked  subse- 
quently and  the  ears  were  badly  infested. 

June  29  the  second  row  was  planted.  July  28  the  plants  were  10  to  15  inches  high, 
and  had  boll- worm  eggs  upon  the  leaves.  The  weather  had  been  very  dry  during 
July,  and  the  corn  made  an  unsatisfactory  growth,  few  plants  producing  ears  with 
large  flowing  silks. 


In  another  of  Mr.  Ziegler’s  fields  corn  was  planted  May  19.  July  28  this  was  in 
fine  silk.  By  actual  count  the  silk  of  a single  ear  was  found  to  have  twenty-five 
unhatched  boll-worm  eggs.  Most  of  the  silks  had  only  about  a dozen  eggs,  with 
from  three  to  six  larva?  in  the  ears. 

Late  in  July  notice  was  received  from  Mr.  .John  Glassell,  jr.,  a leading  planter  at 
Rush  Point,  La., who  had  read  the  recommendations  given  by  the  Division  upon  the 
boll -worm  question,  and  had  prepared  to  test  the  suggestion.  By  his  invitation  the 
plantation  was  visited  July  25,  and  a complete  verification  of  our  own  experiments 
proved  to  be  in  waiting.  Mr.  Glassell  had  planted  corn  at  the  time  of  the  second 
hoeing,  when  the  cotton  was  about  knee-high,  or,  as  he  informed  me,  about  May  20. 
At  the  time  of  the  visit  the  third  brood  of  moths  was  fairly  issuing.  The  trap  corn 
was  in  fine  silk,  and  the  record  of  a few  of  the  many  ears  examined  will  suffice  to 
indicate  what  they  were  accomplishing.  One  ear,  11  larva?,  7 eggs  on  silks;  another 
ear,  6 larvae,  10  eggs  on  silks.  The  closest  inspection  of  the  cotton  plants  surround- 
ing this  corn  failed  to  reveal  any  traces  of  boll-wonn  injury.  Various  fields  of  corn 
near  by  were  examined  but  no  boll- worm  eggs  were  found.  The  fresh  silking  corn 
was  nearly  in  the  center  of  a number  of  these  fields  and  seemed  to  be  receiving 
almost  the  entire  egg  deposition  of  the  issuing  brood  in. that  immediate  locality. 
Mr.  Glassell  enthusiastically  accompanied  your  agent,  during  all  the  observations, 
with  a view  of  thoroughly  informing  himself  of  the  facts  and  enabling  himself  to 
estimate  the  value  of  this  method  of  protecting  cotton.  Subsequently  he  continued 
to  make  close  observations  and  reported  himself  {is.  being  well  satisfied  with  the 
remedy.  In  this  connection  it  may  also  be  stated  that  much  valuable  corroborative 
evidence  was  obtained  from  Mr.  S.  B.  Mullen,  of  Harris ville,  Miss.,  who  had  been 
advised  of  the  trap-corn  experiments.  He  arranged  several  small  fields  to  make  a 
test  of  the  idea,  and  all  of  his  reports  by  letter  are  in  entire  accord  with  what  has 
already  been  stated. 

The  plantations  thus  far  considered  were  bottom  lands.  The  cotton  in  and  about 
trap-planted  fields  was  practically  free  from  boll- worm  injury.  This  could  in  a 
measure  be  said  of  other  cotton  fields  in  the  valley,  because  the  Boll  Worm  did  not 
appear  in  destructive  numbers  during  the  season.  This  in  reality  does  not  affect 
the  facts  recorded  for  the  corn  experiments,  and  their  significance  relative  to  the 
moths  which  did  appear  remains  the  same. 

In  the  “ hill  country  ” of  Louisiana  and  portions  of  Mississippi  away  from  the  river 
valleys,  the  Boll  Worm  is  not  noticed  or  feared  much  except  during  very  destruc- 
tive years,  when  it  spreads  from  the  bottom  lands. 

A small  farm  in  the  uplands  west  of  Shreveport  was  prepared -for  experiment  in 
much  the  same  way  as  those  in  the  valley.  Corn  was  planted  May  16.  By  June  16 
it  was  knee-high,  but  no  worms  were  found.  July  9 corn  was  tasseling  and  be- 
ginning to  silk,  but  as  no  moths  appeared  in  this  locality,  no  eggs  were  found.  To 
trap  the  first  brood  requires  corn  in  silk  from  about  May  15  to  June  1.  This  is  too 
early  a date  to  be  reached  bjT  the  yellow  or  Dent  corns.  In  its  stead  a sweet  corn, 
commonly  planted  in  the  south  for  table  use,  meets  the  requirements.  This  corn 
had  passed  silking  and  was  in  good  roasting  ears  before  the  first  of  June.  Some  of 
the  studies  made  upon  it  are  exhibited  in  Table  II,  which  shows  how  badly  it  was 
and  had  been  attacked.  At  the  time  of  the  count  many  unliatched  eggs  were  still 
to  be  found  upon  the  silks.  Care  must  be  taken,  however,  not  to  estimate  the 
abundance  of  the  Boll  Worm  and  the  extent  of  its  injuries  from  such  examples. 
The  Dent  corns  also  make  an  unsatisfactory  growth  when  planted  late  enough  to 
bring  silking  about  the  first  of  August.  In  its  stead  the  sweet  corn  again  meets  the 
conditions. 

The  plan,  therefore,  to  be  recommended  to  the  planter  for  using  the 
trap-corn  method  of  protecting  his  cotton  against  boll-worm  injury  may 
be  summed  up  as  follows : When  planting  the  cotton  leave  vacant  strips 


of  five  rows  for  every  twenty-five  of  cotton  to  be  planted  in  corn.  At 
tbe  earliest  possible  time  plant  one  row  of  this  with  an  early  maturing 
sweet  corn.  It  should  not  be  drilled  in  too  thickly,  since  only  a mini- 
mum number  of  plants  and  ears  is  desired.  During  the  silking  period 
of  this  corn  frequent  careful  examinations  must  be  made  as  to  thenuin 
ber  of  small  white  or  brownish  banded  eggs,  hardly  larger  than  a pin 
head,  found  upon  them.  As  soon  as  no  more  fresh  white  eggs  are 
found  each  morning,  the  silks  and  ends  of  the  ears  should  be  cutaway 
and  fed  or  burned  in  order  to  destroy  the  young  worms  and  the  eggs. 
A few  eggs  may  be  on  the  leaves  of  the  plants,  and  since  no  more 
growth  is  to  be  made,  they  also  should  be  cut  and  taken  from  the  field. 
There  is  no  reasonable  objection  to  this  method  of  handling  the  first 
planting,  since  the  natural  enemies  are  not  yet  numerous  and  the  egg 
parasites  appear  in  greater  numbers  during  the  egg-laying  period  of 
the  next  brood.  The  next  planting  should  be  three  rows  of  Dent  corn, 
drilled  in  late  enough  to  bring  the  silking  period  about  the  first  of 
July  or  a little  later.  These  rows  catch  immense  numbers  of  eggs  and 
larvae,  but  should  be  left  to  mature  in  order  that  the  natural  enemies 
which  parasitize  the  eggs  and  prey  upon  the  larvae  may  not  be  de- 
stroyed. Furthermore,  the  cannibalism  previously  discussed,  which 
occurs  in  this  corn  under  such  crowded  conditions,  reduces  the  number 
of  worms  reaching  maturity  to  a minimum,  and  these  can  well  be  al- 
lowed to  escape  if  the  natural  enemies  be  saved  thereby.  To  trap 
these  escaped  individuals,  the  fifth  and  last  row  of  the  vacant  strips 
should  be  planted  to  sweet  corn  at  a time  calculated  to  make  it  reach 
full  silk  about  August  1st,  when  the  moths  begin  issuing  again.  This 
expedient  allows  the  planter  to  save  the  second  planting  as  a crop. 
The  corn  produced  in  this  way  is  large  enough  in  quantity  to  pay  for 
the  expense  of  cultivation  and  management  and  the  sacrifice  made  in 
cropping  the  five  rows  with  corn  instead  of  cotton.  However,  it  must 
be  understood  that  this  is  immaterial  so  long  as  protection  is  afforded 
to  the  surrounding  cotton.  The  last  row  of  sweet  corn  should  be  care- 
fully watched.  If  it  is  found  that  a great  many  eggs  are  parasitized, 
a fact  which  is  indicated  by  their  uniform  grayish  or  blackish  color, 
it  may  be  as  well  to  allow  it  to  mature  as  before  and  thus  save 
the  parasites.  If  this  condition  is  not  found,  the  corn  should  be  cut 
and  taken* from  the  fields  as  soon  as  it  shall  appear  that  no  more  eggs 
are  being  deposited. 

If  the  first  two  plantings  are  well  managed,  the  number  of  the  earlier 
broods  will  be  so  reduced  that  the  August  brood  will  not  be  capable  of 
inflicting  great  injury,  and  in  less  infested  regions  the  third  planting 
may  even  become  superfluous. 

It  is  not  necessary  or  advisable  to  crop  the  entire  plantation  with 
corn  and  cotton  as  recommended.  The  end  will  be  attained  if  five-acre 
strips  of  alternate  corn  and  cotton  be  planted  for  every  fifty  acres  of 


Bull  29,  Division  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture. 


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Corn 

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Diagram  of  Cotton  Field,  showing  location  of  Trap  Corn- 


57 


cotton.  For  less  infested  regions  5 acres  of  trap  crop  for  75  or  100 
acres  of  cotton  may  suffice  to  insure  tlie  same  protection.  By  a .judi- 
cious arrangement  of  the  trap  crop  and  cotton  lots  the  five  acres  of  the 
former  may,  in  the  same  proportions  as  above  given,  be  made  to  act 
as  a protection  for  just  twice  the  number  of  acres  of  cotton  above  desig 
nated.  To  illustrate  this,  the  accompanying  diagram  (Plate  i)  for  a 
plantation  of  1,000  acres  is  presented,  and  is  suggested  as  probably 
the  best  plan  for  placing  the  trap  corn  to  the  best  advantage  and  in- 
suring the  greatest  immunity. 

On  May  27,  in  company  with  Prof.  Jerome  McNeill,  a trip  was  taken 
to  Rustan  and  Calhoun  about  00  miles  east  of  Shreveport.  This  region 
is  quite  heavily  wooded,  mostly  hilly  and  broken.  Along  the  entire 
route,  often  passing  beyond  the  Red  River  Valley,  the  crops  were  at 
least  three  weeks  behind  those  of  the  river  bottoms.  A similar  differ- 
ence occurs  in  Texas.  Southern  Texas  is  about  two  or  three  weeks 
earlier  in  point  of  season  than  the  northern  portions.  From  this  great 
extent  of  the  cotton  producing  regions,  and  the  variability  of  the  con- 
ditions in  different  localities,  it  becomes  advisable  to  waive  all  specific 
recommendations  and  depend  upon  the  planter  to  determine  the  exact 
time  during  which  the  broods  of  moth^to  be  feared  deposit  their  eggs 
in  his  immediate  locality  and  mauage  his  trap  crop  accordingly.  By 
way  of  emphasis  and  to  avoid  being  misunderstood  by  farmers,  it  may 
be  remarked  that  the  time  of  appearance  and  egg  deposition  of  the 
moths  is  the  point  in  question,  and  not  the  worms.  Should  the  farmer 
base  his  calculations  on  the  latter,  he  will  fail  entirely,  since  the  females 
will  have  issued  a week  or  ten  days  previously  and  have  laid  their  eggs 
upon  some  other  host. 

The  regular  crop  corn  can  be  protected  to  a certain  extent  if  care  is 
taken  to  plant  it  as  early  as  is  expedient,  calculating  to  have  it  beyond 
its  prime  in  silking  before  June  10.  If  tows  of  corn  near  by  are 
planted  at  a time  to  bring  silking  about  July  1,  the  protection  to  the 
corn  crop  will  be  still  more  complete.  For  this  reason  late  planted 
corn  which  silks  about  July  1 is  much  more  eaten  by  Boll  Worms  than 
that  planted  earlier. 

It  has  already  been  intimated  that  the  earliest  appearances  of  Boll 
Worm  injury  are  noticed  in  patches  of  early  sweet  corn  in  the  numer- 
ous small  gardens  throughout  the  cotton  country.  These  practically 
form  a breeding  ground  for  the  first  brood.  The  evident  importance  of 
hand  picking  and  destroying  the  larvae  in  these  patches  is  hardly  to  be 
overestimated.  In  fact,  it  may  be  quite  as  practicable  to  recommend 
that  these  small  patches  be  planted  with  the  intention  of  destroying 
the  corn  as  soon  as  an  examination  of  the  ears  shall  show  them  to  be 
well  stocked  with  worms  and  eggs.  An  early  planting  of  sweet  corn 
as  a trap  crop  in  cotton  will  divide  the  attack  upon  the  gardener’s  corn 
intended  for  the  market  and  meet  this  source  of  complaint  as  well. 


As  lias  been  previously  noted,  tlie  worst  infested  Boll  Worm  districts 
seem  to  correspond  to  a certain  extent  with  those  regions  in  which  the 
proportional  area  of  corn  is  greatest.  By  some  this  is  put  forth  as  an 
objection  to  the  trap  corn  method.  The  greater  acreage  of  corn  re- 
sults in  a greater  number  of  individual  ears  in  which  the  worms  can 
mature  without  inducing  cannibalism  among  them.  For  this  reason 
the  first  broods  succeed  in  maturing  a greater  number  of  individuals 
which  leave  the  corn  when  it  matures  and  attack  cotton.  At  the  time, 
therefore,  when  the  trap  corn  matures  and  the  adults  of  the  destruc- 
tive brood  begin  appearing,  the  properly  managed  rows  of  trap  corn 
will  be  in  suitable  condition  and  will  attract  to  themselves  the  greater 
portion  of  the  egg  deposition.  The  objection,  therefore,  is  not  well 
taken,  but  rather,  in  view  of  the  greater  number  of  the  August  brood 
resulting,  the  adoption  of  the  method  recommended,  becomes  still  more 
imperative.  In  such  districts  as  those  just  mentioned  it  may  be  advis- 
able to  cut  out  the  trap  corn  and  feed  or  burn  it,  if  examination  proves 
that  the  egg  parasites  and  natural  enemies  are  not  especially  abundant 
upon  it.  These  points  each  planter  must  necessarily  determine  for 
himself  and  act  accordingly. 

EARLY  AND  LATE  COTTON. 

While  upon  a tour  of  one  week  in  August,  in  the  worst  infested  re- 
gion ot  Texas,  the  late  blooming  and  maturing  cotton  (whether  the 
lateness  was  due  to  a peculiarity  of  the  variety  or  to  the  late  planting 
is  immaterial)  was  almost  invariably  found  to  be  the  worst  infested, 
and  often  the  only  infested,  cotton  in  any  given  locality.  In  most  cases 
this  explains  why  one  cotton  field  is  greatly  infested  and  an  adjoining 
one  not,  or  but  slightly  injured;  the  former  usually  being  late,  the  lat- 
ter early  as  to  the  time  of  most  profuse  blooming.  Where  early  and 
late  cottons  occur  side  by  side,  the  latter  is  at  a great  disadvantage,  for 
it  actually  forms  a trap  crop,  attracting  to  itself  almost  the  entire  egg 
deposition,  which  otherwise  would  have  been  distributed  over  the  two 
fields. 

It  is  therefore  advisable  to  calculate  upon  having  the  cotton  as  far 
advanced  as  possible  during  July  and  August,  for  it  must  be  evident 
that  if  the  cotton  be  late  and  blooming  profusely  at  the  time  when  the 
destructive  broods  of  those  months  appear,  the  attractions  of  the  trap 
crop  will  be,  to  a certain  extent,  divided.  From  an  entomological 
standpoint,  it  matters  not  whether  this  be  accomplished  by  planting 
early  varieties  of  cotton  or  by  planting  late  varieties  early  enough  to 
attain  the  same  end. 


59 


BACTERIOLOGICAL  EXPERIMENTS  WITH  INSECT 

DISEASES. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

The  first  portion  of  the  work  upon  the  availability  of  certain  disease 
germs  of  insects  as  remedies  against  the  Boll  Worm  was  begun  by 
another,  whose  report  you  already  have.  The  writer  assumed  charge 
of  this  work  at  the  (‘lose  of  the  season,  when  it  was  impossible  to  ac- 
complish anything  further  until  the  following  year.  Fresh  material  for 
further  studies  could  not  be  obtained,  and  the  cultures  at  hand,  as  a 
result  of  the  outgoing  season's  labors,  were  entirely  unsafe  and  unsatis- 
factory for  scientific  purposes.  The  following  season  the  conditions  were 
disappointing,  in  that  the  insect  upon  which  the  experiments  were  to  be 
made  was  not  plentiful  and  the  weather  conditions  were  such  as  to  ob- 
struct progress  at  every  step.  The  laboratory  was  not  complete  enough 
for  the  most  extended  and  exhaustive  researches,  and  the  time  at 
command  was  considerably  divided  in  attending  to  other  portions  of 
the  investigation. 

No  noteworthy  discoveries  were  made  and  no  reliable  ones  could  be 
rightfully  expected  in  so  short  a time.  So  far  as  the  strictly  bacterio- 
logical work  is  concerned,  it  has  just  reached  a satisfactory  basis  for 
exhaustive  studies  along  the  lines  which  the  results  of  the  investiga- 
tion indicate  as  the  most  promising. 

The  studies  were  conducted  as  directed  upon  the  practicability  of  ar- 
tificially utilizing  the  germs  of  insect  diseases  as  remedial  agents.  Ac- 
cordingly the  germs  were  isolated  as  pure  cultures  by  the  usual  methods 
and  artificial  infection  experiments  made  to  ascertain  the  facts.  The 
results  as  such  are  entirely  satisfactory,  though  in  no  sense  solving 
or  setting  at  rest  the  problem  under  consideration.  Yet,  if  properly  in- 
terpreted, they  contribute  valuable  suggestions  relative  to  the  basis 
upon  which  the  problem  should  be  considered,  or  a solution  attempted. 
The  results  can  not  rightfully  be  taken  in  a negative  sense  except  in 
respect  to  the  method  and  the  basis  upon  which  they  were  obtained. 

Practicability  having  been  the  object  in  these  studies,  only  such 
experiments  and  observations  are  presented  in  this  report  as  bear  di- 
rectly upon  that  phase  of  the  problem.  The  minutiae  of  some  new 
methods  of  staining  the  germs,  their  specific  descriptions,  and  like  mat- 
ters, are  entirely  omitted,  since,  for  the  purposes  of  this  report,  they 
might  be  confusing  and  misleading.  If  this  discussion  contributes  in 
any  way  towards  freeing  the  minds  of  some  from  misleading  and  un- 
bacteriological  opinions  concerning  the  problem,  or  assists  in  putting 
future  efforts  ou  a more  scientific  basis,  it  will  serve  as  great  a purpose 
as  our  present  knowledge  of  the  specific  organisms  and  the  attending 
difficulties  involved  will  permit. 


60 


GENERAL  PRECAUTIONS. 

It  will  be  unnecessary  to  enter  into  a detailed  description  of  the 
laboratory  and  apparatus  used,  for  both  were  such  as  are  always  re- 
quired for  preliminary  bacteriological  studies.  In  general  it  can  be 
stated  that  all  the  customary  cleanliness  and  precautions  were  success- 
fully observed.  The  apparatus  was  thoroughly  cleansed  after  using, 
and  either  disinfected  or  sterilized.  Glassware  requiring  it  was  placed 
in  sulphuric  acid  for  a time,  subsequently  washed,  rinsed  in  alcohol, 
and  sterilized.  Test  tubes  in  which  cultures  had  been  made  were  first 
filled  with  water,  again  plugged,  and  boiled  for  a couple  of  hours,  kill- 
ing the  germs  and  lessening  the  danger  of  accidental  infection  from  es- 
caping spores.  After  boiling,  the  tubes  were  washed  quite  clean  in 
water  and  placed  in  sulphuric  acid  over  night.  The  following  day  they 
were  washed,  rinsed  in  alcohol,  and  sterilized.  When  making  trans- 
fers of  cultures  from  old  to  fresh  media,  the  needles  were  always  first 
dipped  in  acid  and  sterilized,  then  in  distilled  water,  and  again  ster- 
ilized. To  some  these  may  seem  to  be  extreme  precautions,  but  the  fact 
that  the  sterilizing,  filtering,  and  culture  inoculating  was  all  done  in 
the  same  small  room,  fully  justifies  them.  That  cleanliness  and 
thorough  disinfections  were  constantly  practiced,  may  be  concluded 
from  the  fact  that  at  no  time  were  any  stock  media  lost  through  acci- 
dental infection  or  faulty  sterilization.  At  no  time  was  a culture  lost 
through  accidental  contamination. 

The  incubator  was  provided  with  a thermostat,  and  the  temperature 
controlled  at  will  for  any  given  purpose  or  set  of  conditions. 

The  infection  experiments  wTere  carried  on  in  another  portion  of  the 
city.  Two  large  rooms  were  fitted  up,  thoroughly  cleaned  and  fumi- . 
gated.  In  one  the  experiments  with  the  particular  microbe  under  study 
would  be  carried  on,  in  the  other  the  check  experiments.  Six-incli 
flower  pots,  covered  with  netting,  were  used  as  cages.  These  were 
thoroughly  washed  with  a disinfectant  before  being  employed  in  any 
experiment.  For  each  experiment  a different  pot  was  used,  to  avoid 
the  danger  of  mixing  the  germs.  After  each  experiment,  the  room 
was  thoroughly  fumigated  before  another  was  begun. 

CULTURE  MEDIA. 

Many  media  could  be  profitably  experimented  with  in  the  study  of 
reducing  the  problem  of  insect  diseases  to  a practical  basis.  When, 
however,  immediate  practical  results  are  wrongly  considered  the  pri- 
mary objects  and  experimentation  is  inaugurated  upon  that  basis,  it 
becomes  impossible  to  use,  at  first,  more  than  a few  of  the  standard 
media.  Those  used  in  this  work  were  beef  broth,  broth  agar-agar, 
broth  gelatine,  and  potato.  The  two  most  extensively  used  were  beef 
broth  and  broth  agar-agar,  and  for  the  purposes  of  this  report  it  will 


be  sufficient  to  consider  only  these  two.  The  following  is  a brief  ac- 
count of  your  agent’s  experience  with,  and  methods  of  preparing,  these 
two  media: 


BEEF  BROTH. 

The  formula  is  the  one  most  frequently  used  by  Dr.  S.  A.  Forbes  and 
Prof.  T.  J.  Burrill,  of  Champaign,  111.:  One  pound  of  round  steak,  free 
of  fat,  is  chopped  fine,  placed  in  1 quart  of  water,  soft  preferably, 
and  allowed  to  stand  over  night.  The  next  morning  the  meat  is  pressed 
dry.  It  is  well  to  pour  some  of  the  liquid  back  on  the  meat,  stir  up 
thoroughly,  let  stand  for  half  an  hour,  and  press  again.  Strain  the 
liquid  through  cheese-cloth,  measure,  and  add  enough  to  make  the 
original  quantity  (1  quart).  Pour  into  a flask,  boil  in  steam,  sterilize 
for  an  hour  and  a half.  Strain  through  cheese-cloth  or  white  flannel, 
filter,  and  allow  to  cool.  Measure,  and  if  necessary  add  enough  dis- 
tilled water  to  make  1 quart.  When  about  60°  C.,  neutralize  with 
sodium  carbonate  (or  if  alkaline,  with  lactic  acid).  Cool  to  about  45° 
C.,  and  allow  to  stand  for  half  an  hour.  Filter.  Boil  for  an  hour,  cool 
to  60°,  and  filter  through  doable  thickness  of  best  German  filter  paper. 
Sterilize  for  an  hour,  and  let  stand  over  night.  If  sediment  forms,  filter 
while  cold.  It  is  now  safe  to  fill  test  tubes  and  proceed  with  three  dis- 
continued sterilizations  on  as  many  successive  days.  In  test  tubes  the 
sterilizations  need  not  be  continued  for  more  than  twenty  minutes.  In 
large  quantities  an  hour  or  more  is  required. 

The  addition  of  the  neutralizing  agent  often  makes  the  liquid  turbid. 
Added  a little  at  a time  and  the  liquid  shaken,  this  cloudiness  disap- 
pears. If  so,  it  only  indicates  that  the  liquid  is  not  yet  neutral.  As 
the  point  of  neutrality  is  reached  the  cloudiness  disappears  less  per- 
fectly upon  being  shaken,  and  finally  not  at  all,  gradually  forming  a 
light,  flocculent  precipitate.  The  task  of  obtaining  and  retaining  an 
absolute  neutrality  is  a difficult  one  and  the  reaction  just  described,  if 
carefully  noted,  will  be  of  great  assistance  in  making  a delicate  test. 

Some  recommend  the  use  of  the  white  of  an  egg  to  assist  in  clarifying 
the  broth.  The  method  already  detailed  was  so  satisfactory  that  egg  was 
used  in  only  a few  instances  and  then  more  as  an  experiment.  It  was 
found,  if  the  broth  was  neutral  or  alkaline  when  the  white  was  added, 
that  it  coagulated  imperfectly  when  boiled  and  caused  considerable 
difficulty.  The  broth  had  to  be  acidulated  and  theu  boiled  to  produce 
the  proper  coagulation.  The  filtrate  was*clear  at  first,  but  the  process 
of  neutralizing  produced  the  same  effect  as  to  cloudiness  and  fine  sedi- 
ment as  already  explained. 

The  white  of  old  eggs  is  somewhat  more  liquefied  than  that  of  fresh 
ones,  and  when  used  in  a quantity  of  slightly  acid  broth  it  was  difficult 
upon  boiling  to  produce  perfect  coagulation.  This  merely  emphasized 
the  fact  that  only  fresh  eggs  should  be  used  in  the  work, 


62 


AGAR-AGAR. 


Ill  the  preparation  of  this,  medium  beef  broth  prepared  as  already 
described  was  used  in  every  instance.  For  the  most  part,  peptone  did 
not  seem  to  be  required  in  the  preliminary  studies,  and  no  time  was 
spent  in  using  it  to  determine  additional  differences  in  the  growth  ot 
the  microbes  studied.  The  agar-agar  was  finely  cut  before  being  placed 
in  the  broth  to  soak.  It  was  found  that  the  difficulty  as  to  cloudiness 
in  the  media  could  be  greatly  lessened  by  soaking  the  agar-agar  in 
water  for  a time  and  thoroughly  washing  before  placing  it  in  the  broth. 
With  these  preliminary  explanations,  the  following  may  be  given  as 
the  formula,  which  is  also  the  one  used  by  Prof.  Forbes  and  Prof.  Bur- 
rill: 

One  quart  beef  broth. 

Ten  grams  agar-agar. 

Five  grains  sugar  (yellow  clarified). 

Five  grams  salt  (druggist’s  best). 

After  shaking  well,  allow  to  stand  and  soak  over  night. 

The  following  morning  boil  for  three  hours.  Strain  until  clear;  cool 
to  about  60°  C.  Stir  in  the  white  of  an  egg  and  boil  until  well  coagu- 
lated. Strain  until  clear;  neutralize  if  necessary;  keep  hot  without 
boiling,  and  allow  to  stand  for  fifteen  minutes.  Filter;  sterilize  for  an 
hour.  If  sediment  forms,  filter  again;  sterilize  for  another  hour,  and 
let  stand  over  night.  If  wpon  warming  the  next  morning  a sediment 
forms,  filter  again,  after  which  it  will  be  safe  to  fill  the  test  tubes.  These 
are  then  further  sterilized  the  same  as  beef  broth.  After  the  last  ster- 
ilization of  the  tubes  the  wire  cage  containing  them  should  be  laid  on 
an  incliued  plane,  so  as  to  give  a slanting  and  therefore  greater  surface 
in  the  tube  for  the  growth  of  the  germs. 

The  agar-agar  medium  sometimes  looks  slightly  cloudy  while  yet  hot 
or  upon  being  heated,  but,  as  in  the  broth,  this  disappears  upon  cool- 
ing. 


SPECIAL  APPARATUS. 

The  filtering  of  agar-agar  and  other  solid  media  is  often  attended 
with  great  difficulties  in  winter,  since  the  hot  liquid  cools  and  thickens 
so  rapidly.  For  this  reason  an  apparatus  for  hot  filtering  is  necessary. 
A separate  appliance  requiring  additional  gas  and  burners  is  in  com- 
mon use.  Your  agent  was  compelled  to  secure  the  necessary  apparatus 
speedily  and  economically,  and  accordingly  the  following  combination 
of  the  steam  sterilizer  and  hot  filter  was  devised  (see  Plate  u,  Figs. 
A,  B,  C,  I),  E).  The  lower  portion  (A)  of  the  sterilizer  was  made  as 
usual;  this  particular  one  10  inches  in  diameter  and  L foot  high,  with 
three  circles  of  tips  ( a , a,  a)  on  the  inside,  on  which  to  lodge  the 
perforated  diaphragms  (B)  at  various  heights  above  the  water.  The 
legs  (b)  were  high  enough  to  allow  an  ordinary  two-burner  oil  stove  to 


Bull.  29,  Division  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture. 


Plate  II. 


Special  Apparatus  for  Bacteriological  Work. 


63 


be  placed  under.  The  top  or  lid  (c)  was  made  8 inches  high,  of  the 
same  diameter  as  the  lower  portion,  fitting  irtto  it  tightly,  so  as  to 
avoid  the  escape  of  steam  and  decrease  of  pressure  as  much  as  pos- 
sible. Through  the  center  of  this  cover  was  fitted  a collar  (d)  in  the 
shape  of  an  inverted  cone,  about  8 inches  long,  4 inches  in  the  larger 
and  2 J in  the  smaller  diameters.  For  this  collar  a tight-fitting  lid  like 
that  for  a tin  pail  was  provided,  in  order  that  the  same  top  might  be 
used  either  for  hot  filtering  or  simply  for  sterilizing.  To  one  side  of 
the  funnel  collar,  in  the  top  of  the  lid  a second  small  collar  was  fitted, 
for  the  reception  of  a thermometer.  On  the  side  a slender,  slightly  bent 
handle  for  lifting  the  top  off  and  on  was  placed. 

When  any  hot  filtering  is  to  be  done,  the  flask  containing  the  me- 
dium is  placed  in  the  sterilizer  and  brought  to  a boil.  At  the  same 
time  a second  empty  flask  is  put  in  on  the  diaphragm.  The  top  is  then 
placed  on.  The  funnel  is  provided  with  the  necessary  filter  paper  and 
the  whole  inserted  through  the  collar  (d)  in  the  top  of  the  sterilizer. 
The  steam  around  the  funnel  keeps  it  hot  and  that  escaping  through 
the  neck  moistens  the  filter  paper.  When  the  liquid  to  be  filtered 
reaches  the  boiling  point,  the  flask  containing  it  is  taken  out,  the  hot 
funnel  at  once  fitted  through  the  collar,  into  the  empty  flask,  inside 
the  sterilizer.  The  liquid  is  then  poured  into  the  funnel  and  the  filter- 
ing x>roceeds  without  further  interruption  or  special  care.  The  body 
of  the  funnel  being  inside  the  sterilizer  the  steam  has  full  play  upon 
it,  keeping  it  and  the  liquid  almost  at  boiling  during  the  entire  process. 
At  the  same  time  other  flasks  containing  media  can  be  placed  in  and 
sterilized  while  the  filtering  goes  on.  The  flask  receiving  the  filtrate 
being  in  the  sterilizer,  any  danger  of  falling  germs  or  spores  in  the  air 
settling  upon  the  liquid  is  avoided. 

The  funnel  collar  should  not  extend  more  than  a half  inch  above  the 
level  of  the  top,  so  as  to  allow  almost  the  whole  of  the  funnel  to  be 
inside  the  sterilizer. 

For  some  media  the  pressure  of  the  steam  through  the  funnel  checks 
the  rapidity  of  the  filtering.  To  avoid  this  a ruffled  collar,  instead  of 
a perfectly  circular  one,  can  be  made,  thus  allowing  the  escape  of  steam 
and  relieving  tin1  internal  pressure.  The  lid  to  the  collar  must  be  made 
to  fit  accordingly.  If  desirable  a plain  top(D)  can  be  made  for  ordinary 
use  in  sterilizing,  in  which  case  the  lid  to  the  funnel  collar  in  the  other 
is  not  necessary.  The  respective  dimensions  must  of  course  be  adapted 
by  each  maker  to  his  particular  purpose.  To  prevent  the  radiation  of 
heat  as  much  as  possible,  the  sterilizer  is  covered  or  bound  in  the  usual 
manner  with  asbestos  (g). 

Another  piece  of  apparatus,  which  may  be  called  an  u incubating 
cage,”  Fig.  F,  was  also  devised  which  in  many  respects  materially 
facilitates  work.  The  cages  in  which  culture  tubes  are  usually  placed 
when  transferred  to  the  incubator  are  the  well-known  wire  cages,  hold- 
ing some  twenty  or  thirty  tubes.  This  entails  a great  inconvenience 


64 


when  many  cultures  are  in  consideration,  since  neither  the  labels  on 
the  tubes  nor  the  nature  of  the  growth  can  be  readily  seen  without 
taking  out  each  individual  t ube.  This  difficulty  is  overcome  in  the 
new  cage,  the  frame  of  which  consists  of  wooden  strips  three  eighths 
or  one  half  inch  thick,  and  about  1£  inches  wide.  The  two  upright 
(aids  (a,  a)  should  be  about  4 inches  high,  with  grooves  (ft,  ft)  cut  along 
each  side  into  which  a plate  of  glass,  c,  can  be  slipped.  The  two  up- 
rights are  dovetailed  into  the  horizontal  piece  ( d ),  pegged  and  firmly 
glued.  This  done,  the  two  plates  of  glass  are  inserted,  the  bottom 
covered  with  cotton  to  the  depth  of  half  an  inch,  and  the  tubes  placed 
in  as  shown  in  the  figure.  In  doing  so  the  slanting  surface  of  solid 
media  should  be  turned  to  the  outside  and  the  label  placed  on  the  same 
side.  In  this  way  no  difficulty  is  experienced  in  speedily  finding  any 
tube  desired  and  watching  from  the  outside  what  progress  any  growth 
may  be  making.  The  cage  should  be  wide  enough  to  receive  two  rows 
of  tubes,  as  then  there  is  less  danger  of  its  falling  over  so  easily.  They 
can  be  made  any  desired  length,  and  the  uprights  to  any  height  de- 
manded for  the  best  tubes  in  use. 

OBSERVATIONS  AND  EXPERIMENTS. 

June  11  a Boll  Worm  was  placed  in  a cage  to  rear  in  confinement. 
It  fed  until  June  13,  when  it  entered  the  earth  for  pupation,  but  died 
in  the  attempt,  June  15.  The  anterior  part  of  the  body  began  to  decay 
and  then  darken.  At  the  decaying  portion  a cut  was  made  dorsally 
with  the  proper  precautions,  and  a brownish  golden-colored  liquid  is- 
sued. A drop  of  this  was  transferred  to  a tube  of  broth  and  a liquid 
culture  made.  From  this  in  the  usual  manner  pure  cultures  were  ob- 
tained on  solid  media.  The  posterior  portion  of  the  body  did  not  de- 
compose so  rapidly,  and  though  rather  spongy,  retained  its  natural 
color  for  some  time.  As  the  rotting  proceeded,  the  color  changed  to  a 
brownish  or  darker  color. 

The  germ  which  probably  caused  death  changes  beef  broth  to  a de- 
cided white  turbidity,  with  scant  white  deposit  at  first.  As  the  growth 
advances  the  deposit  becomes  more  abundant  and  the  liquid  begins 
turning  greenish.  Finally,  the  broth  clears  and  is  a beautiful  deep 
green,  with  plenty  of  white  sediment  at  the  bottom.  On  agar-agar 
the  growth  is  very  thin  and  scant,  beginning  by  numerous  small,  ir- 
regularly roundish,  almost  colorless  colonies.  They  gradually  spread 
a little,  and  if  numerous  enough  form  a thin,  rather  granular-appear- 
ing white  film.  The  first  pure  cultures  on  solid  agar  media  give  the 
medium  a faint,  greenish  tinge,  but  this  power  seems  gradually  to 
weaken  with  subsequent  cultures,  The  germ  was  fouud  to  be  quite 
sensitive  to  artificial  cultivation,  and  doubtless  loses  much  of  its  origi- 
nal power  by  such  a process.  In  some  respects  the  growths  upon  agar- 
agar  and  beef  broth  are  quite  similar  to  those  of  the  cabbage- worm 


65 

(. Pieris  rapcr)  disease,  but  a microscopic  examination  shows  the  former 
to  be  a rather  small  bacillus. 

A similar  observation  was  made  June  19,  when  one  of  a lot  of  Boll 
Worms  kept  in  a breeding  cage  for  life-history  purposes  was  found 
dead.  A bacteriological  study  was  made.  The  alimentary  canal  seemed 
to  be  the  only  portion  of  the  body  containing  much  liquefied  matter, 
the  fatty  portions  being  rather  slow  to  decay.  Pressure  of  the  decay- 
ing anterior  third  of  the  body  forced  out  a drop  of  a rather  golden- 
colored  liquid,  from  which  a broth  culture  was  made.  At  the  same  time 
a pro-leg  was  snipped  off  with  sterilized  scissors,  a platinum  needle  in- 
serted so  as  to  miss  the  alimentary  canal,  and  a second  tube  of  broth 
inoculated.  Prom  each  pure  cultures  upon  agar-agar  were  isolated. 
In  the  beef  broth  the  changes  were  the  same  as  just  described  in  the 
preceding  study.  Upon  agar-agar  a more  profuse  and  vigorous  growth 
was  obtained,  which  was  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  tubes  had  been 
more  recently  prepared  and  were  not  so  dry  as  in  the  first  study.  The 
film  was  smooth  and  white,  with  margins  entire  though  irregular  in 
some  portions. 

This  affection  of  Boll  Worms  is  not  very  prevalent,  though  occasion- 
ally one  is  found  in  ears  of  corn  dead  or  dying.  From  these  in  most 
cases  the  germ  just  considered  can  be  isolated  by  the  usual  pure  cul- 
ture methods.  When  affected,  the  larvae  seem  to  lose  their  appetites, 
cease  feeding,  become  rather  sluggish,  and  appear  somewhat  disturbed. 
The  color  of  the  skin  remains  either  partly  or  entirely  normal,  occa- 
sionally even  for  a time  after  death.  At  the  same  time,  however,  the 
tissues  of  the  body  are  decaying  and  becoming  watery,  more  especially 
along  the  alimentary  tract.  This  condition  at  last  imparts  a grayish- 
brown  or  rose-tinted  color  to  the  body. 

Both  cultures  of  this  boll-worm  bacillus  were  made  from  the  pure 
ones  on  agar,  and  allowed  to  grow  for  eighteen  days,  when  they  were 
used  in  experiments  1,  2,  and  3,  which  follow. 

Experiment  1. 

July  8 ( 5:30  p.  m). — The  husks  of  an  ear  of  corn  were  torn  aside  and  the  silks  and 
grains  for  a considerable  space  were  well  washed  with  the  broth  culture  of  the  ba- 
cillus. One  nearly  grown  Boll  Worm  and  one  half  grown,  were  placed  within  the 
husks,  after  which  these  were  well  closed  down  upon  the  ear.  The  ear  was  kept  in 
a pot  prepared  as  heretofore  explained. 

The  following  day  both  larva*,  had  fed  freely  upon  grains  of  corn  which  had  been 
drenched  with  the  broth  culture.  No  unfavorable  symptoms.  The  second  day  the 
large  worm  had  left  the  ear  and  entered  the  earth  for  pupation.  The  small  one  was 
still  feeding  but  showed  no  unhealthy  symptoms.  The  third  day  the  young  larva 
molted.  After  this  it  continued  to  feed  in  the  ear,  pupating  there  and  completing 
its  transformations  by  issuing  as  a moth  July  27.  The  first  pupa  had  hatched  a few 
days  earlier. 

Experiment  2. 

During  the  same  period  of  time  four  cabbage  worms  (Pieris  rapw)  were  fed  upon 
a cabbage  leaf  which  had  previously  been  well  drenched  with  a portion  of  the  broth 

14935— IS  o.  29 5 


66 


culture  used  in  experiment  1.  One  of  the  larvae  was  almost  grown,  one  about  half 
grown,  and  the  others  younger. 

The  following  day,  July  9,  the  drenched  leaf  had  been  almost  entirely  eaten  up. 
They  were  left  to  feed  upon  the  remains  until  the  second  day,  when  a fresh  leaf  was 
placed  in. 

Up  to  July  14  no  symptoms  of  disease  appeared  in  any  of  the  larvae,  and  on  that 
day  the  last  two  pupated.  July  15  the  two  oldest  pupaB  died.  One  of  these  had 
beed  noted  as  turning  darker  the  previous  day  as  if  beginning  to  rot.  To-day  its 
wing-covers  and  head  are  entirely  black,  while  the  abdomen  practically  retains  the 
normal  color.  The  other  dead  pupa  is  entirely  of  a uniform  dusky  color.  The  two 
living  pupae  were  lying  just  alongside  the  two  dead  ones,  and  were  thoroughly  ex- 
posed to  infection,  if  any.  Both,  however,  hatched,  one  on  July  18,  the  other 
July  22. 

Experiment  3. 

July  8 . — The  -culture  liquid  used  was  the  same  as  in  experiments  1 and  2.  A small 
cabbage  leaf  was  drenched  and  four  Pieris  rapce  larvae  placed  to  feed.  Two  of  them 
were  nearly  grown,  the  others  about  half  grown.  By  July  10  the  leaf  had  been  en- 
tirely eaten,  but  no  symptoms  of  disease  were  noted.  Fresh  leaves  were  placed  in 
July  13.  July  15  two  pup®  were  found,  one  being  imperfectly  formed.  The  two 
remaining  larvae  fed  freely,  but  did  not  seem  to  grow  as  rapidly  as  usual.  At  times 
their  skin  seems  to  be  someAvhat  puckered  and  appears  rather  dusky.  July  16  the 
ill-formed  pupa  is  dead.  July  18  the  last  larvae  pupated.  July  27,  without  any 
apparent  outward  changes  to  forewarn  such  a result,  it  was  found  that  all  the  pup® 
had  died.  About  the  time  of  death,  or  soon  after,  the  color  becomes  slightly  brown- 
ish or  dusky.  The  special  attention  due  this  experiment  was  frequently  interrupted 
and  fresh  food  was  not  provided  the  larv®  as  often,  perhaps,  as  was  conducive  to 
their  best  development.  This  may  have  induced  them  to  attempt  pupation  rather 
prematurely,  or  have  weakened  them  so  as  not  to  be  able  to  cope  with  the  germ. 

Checks  on  experiments  2 and  3. 

The  larv®  in  experiment  1 having  completed  their  transformations  without  diffi- 
culty, a consideration  of  its  check  will  not  be  necessary.  For  experiments  2 and  3 
a number  of  Pieris  rapce  larv®  were  placed  upon  cabbage  loaves  in  a separate  jar  to 
act  as  a check. 

July  9 the  following  was  the  condition  of  the  larv®  in  the  check:  1 pupated,  3 
pupating,  4 grown,  1 half  grown,  and  3 younger.  Up  to  July  16  the  younger  larv® 
had  kept  on  feeding  perfectly,  and  succeeded  in  maturing  and  pupating.  Two 
adults  issued  on  this  day,  and  one  pupa,  which  had  been  injured  a few  days  before, 
was  dead.  July  17,  8 pup®  remained.  Two  had  become  darker  in  color,  as  if  begin- 
ning to  decay  internally.  Later  these  2 were  found  to  be  certainly  dead,  the  one 
having  turned  quite  blackish,  the  other  more  brownish  gray.  The  other  6 hatched. 

One  of  the  dead  pup®  of  experiment  3 was  taken  for  further  study.  The  contents 
were  a blackish  liquid  mass,  from  which  a drop  was  taken  with  which  to  inoculate 
a tube  of  broth.  From  this  other  liquid  cultures  were  made,  and  from  these  pure 
cultures  upon  agar-agar  were  obtained  by  the  ordinary  process.  One  of  the  dead 
pup®  was  taken  from  the  check  for  a similar  study.  Its  contents  were  of  the  same 
nature  as  of  the  one  just  noted.  In  the  same  manner  liquid  cultures,  and  from  these 
pure  cultures  upon  agar-agar  were  obtained.  A careful  comparative  study  proved 
that  the  pure  cultures  obtained  from  the  two  pup®  were  identical,  and  a microscopic 
study  developed  the  fact  that  both  were  cultures  of  the  Micrococcus  of  the  cabbage- 
worm  disease.  Accordingly  the  pup®  in  experiments  2 and  3 did  not  come  to  their 
deaths  solely  through  the  agency  of  the  boll- worm  disease,  though  the  greater  per 
cent  of  deaths  in  the  experiments,  as  compared  with  that  of  the  check,  would  indi- 
cate that  the  latter  germ  contributed  in  some  manner  to  this  end 


67 


Some  diseased  cabbage  worms  were  received  October  4 from  Prof.  C.  P.  Gillette, 
Ames,  Iowa.  From  one  of  these  larv«e  a pure  culture  of  the  Pieris  rupee  micrococcus 
was  obtained.  In  this  condition  it  was  kept  iu  a healthy  growing  state  during  the 
winter  by  frequent  transfers  to  fresh  media.  Iu  this  manner  the  germ  had  been 
transferred  eleven  times,  nine  times  on  agar-agar  and  the  last  two  in  beef  broth. 
The  eleventh  culture  was  used  in  the  experiments  August  20,  after  having  had  about 
ten  months  of  artificial  cultivation.  The  culture  was  two  days  old  when  used  in 
experiment  4. 

Experiment  4. 

August  20. — The  culture  liquid  just  spoken  of  was  applied  as  follows:  Two  small 
bolls  with  involucres  were  well  drenched  in  the  liquid  and  two  half-grown  Heliothis 
larvae  were  placed  on  them.  The  larvae  began  sipping  of  the  liquid,  which  insured 
their  infection  if  possible.  A small  round  cavity  had  been  cut  into  the  bolls  and  filled 
with  the  culture  liquid.  The  worms  decided  to  enter  the  bolls  at  these  injured 
points,  again  exposing  themselves  to  infection.  Both  continued  healthy  and  fed 
freely,  so  much  so  that  one  fell  a victim  to  the  other  through  cannibalism.  The 
survivor  continued  healthy  to  the  last,  pupated,  alfd  hatched  later  as  a robust,  active 
moth. 

In  isolating  the  cabbage-worm  micrococcus  from  the  diseased  larvae  received  from 
Profs.  Osborn  and  Gillette,  two  other  germs  were  isolated.  On  agar  media  the  one 
produces  a yellow  growth,  the  other  a beautiful  pink  one.  In  all  the  previous  and 
subsequent  studies  the  germ  producing  the  pink  growth  was  almost  constantly  ob- 
tained from  diseased  cabbage  worms.  It  was  therefore  thought  advisable  to  give  it 
a trial  upon  the  Boll  Worm.  A broth  culture  was  made  and  allowed  to  grow  for 
two  days,  when  it  was  applied  as  detailed  in  experiment  5.  The  germ  had  been 
carried  over  winter  by  artificial  cultivations  for  a period  of  eight  months  and  was  the 
tenth  pure  culture. 

On  agar-agar  the  growth  may  be  described  as  follows : At  first  small  elevated  round 
colonies  having  a translucent  whitish  appearance.  These  gradually  spread  and  fuse, 
forming  a continuous  white  growth.  If  it  continues  growing  from  the  margins, 
these  may  be  finely  fringed,  slightly  branching  or  corrugated.  As  the  growth  be- 
comes thick,  the  surface  becomes  very  much  wrinkled  or  ridged.  At  this  stage,  and 
often  earlier,  the  growth  begins  turning  to  a pinkish  color,  finally  becomingdistinctly 
pink.  The  pink  color  appears  iu  smooth  growths  or  isolated  colonies,  as  well, 
seemingly,  developing  as  the  germ  ceases  its  most  vigorous  growth.  The  wrinkled 
scum  seems  rather  to  be  evidence  of  a vigorous  culture  and  the  result  of  a very  pro- 
fuse growth. 

Experiment  5. 

August  15. — The  husks  of  an  ear  of  corn  were  torn  away  just  enough  to  expose  the 
silks  and  grains  of  corn.  The  culture  liquid  was  then  poured  on  the  tip  of  the  ear 
and  allowed  to  soak  in  through  the  silks  and  run  down  the  length  of  the  ear.  One 
large  Boll  Worm  and  one  half  grown  were  in  the  ear.  The  liquid  came  into  contact 
with  both,  and  each  was  seen  to  sip  of  it.  The  following  day  the  larva?  had  eaten 
plentifully  of  the  corn,  including  most  of  the  grains  which  had  been  drenched  with 
the  charged  liquid.  Both  larvae  continued  to  feed,  the  larger  one  pupating  and 
hatching  later.  The  smaller  one  fed  for  a time  longer,  during  which  no  unfavorable 
symptoms  appeared,  but  finally  made  good  its  escape  from  the  pot  while  searching 
for  a more  desirable  place  to  pupate. 

The  disease  of  Pieris  rapee  is  found  occasionally  in  most  portions  of 
Louisiana;  but  it  is  not  of  a virulent  form  in  most  cases,  not  causing 
death  until  the  pupal  stage  is  reached.  June  8 two  dead  pup*  of  this 
species  were  found  upon  cabbage  plants  in  the  field.  A careful  study 


68 


proved  that  they  were  not  parasitized,  and  had  not  been  injured.  Pure 
cultures  on  solid  media  were  isolated  from  the  germs  found  in  the 
liquid  contents  of  the  pupal  skins.  One  of  these  germs  proved  to  be 
the  cabbage-worm  micrococcus.  In  most  portions  of  the  South  the  dis- 
ease affects  only  a small  percentage  of  the  larvae,  and  as  it  is  usually 
fully  developed  only  in  the  pupal  form,  the  contagion  among  cabbage- 
worms  is  reduced  to  a minimum. 

A DISEASE  OF  PLUSIA  BEASSIC^E. 

The  first  symptoms  begin  to  appear  about  the  region  of  the  two  white 
lateral  patches  just  below  the  median  line  and  over  the  first  pair  of  pro- 
legs. The  patches  look  like  whitish,  cheese-like  fatty  bodies  under  the 
skin.  From  these  the  pale  cream  color  of  the  body  begins  and  spreads, 
the  skin  gradually  becoming  entirely  of  a lemon-yellow  color.  The  pos- 
terior portion  of  the  body  shows  these  symptoms  first,  the  anterior  por- 
tion remaining  quite  natural  in  color  until  about  the  time  of  death.  No 
fluids  appear  to  issue  from  the  mouth  or  vent  during  the  course  of  the 
disease.  When  well  affected  by  the  progress  of  the  disease,  the  larva 
ceases  feeding,  dying  soon  afterward.  The  entire  body  deliquesces  very 
rapidly  after  death,  producing  a blackish,  semifluid  mass  suspended 
in  a bag  of  grayish  skin,  which  finally  bursts  and  allows  its  contents  to 
escape. 

September  4,  some  living  Plusia  larvae  were  found  on  a cabbage  leaf 
near  a dead  Plusia  larva,  which  was  already  black  and  entirely  de- 
liquesced. 

Two  Plusia  larvae  and  two  of  Pieris  from  the  same  plant  were  placed 
together  in  a collecting  box,  and  later  placed  in  the  same  breeding  cage 
to  rear.  By  September  7 the  Plusia  larvae  had  died  and  deliquesced. 
The  Pieris  larvae  had  certainly  come  in  contact  with  the  sick  Plusia 
while  crawling  about  and  feeding  upon  the  same  cabbage  leaves,  and 
had  thus  been  thoroughly  exposed  to  infection.  Both  larvae,  however, 
completed  their  transformations,  and  the  butterflies  showed  no  unfa- 
vorable symptoms.  This  experiment  was  repeated  with  a greater 
number  of  larvae  of  each  species  with  exactly  the  same  results. 

From  this  it  becomes  evident  that  the  Plusia  disease  could  not  be 
very  contagious  so  far  as  Pieris  rapce  was  concerned ; at  the  same 
time  the  disease  acts  very  decidedly  and  rapidly  among  Plusia  larvae. 
They  often  begin  turning  pale  cream -colored,  then  yellowish,  dying, 
and  the  body  deliquescing,  all  within  thirty  to  forty  hours.  This 
applies  to  nearly  grown  larvae.  Those  less  than  half  grown  succumb 
in  half  that  time. 

In  the  usual  manner  pure  cultures  were  obtained  from  the  dead  and 
deliquescing  larvae.  Three  distinct  germs,  two  of  which  were  found 
almost  constantly  in  the  several  specimens  from  which  cultures  were 
made,  were  isolated  by  the  usual  process.  On  agar-agar  one  of  these 
germs  produces,  at  the  beginning,  numerous  small,  white  roundish 


69 


colonies,  which  gradually  spread  and  form  a thin,  white  granular  film, 
margins  wavy  or  sometimes  slightly  corrugated.  The  growth  has  a 
slight  tendency  to  liquefy  at  a certain  period  of  its  development.  The 
second  produces  a pink  growth,  such  as  has  been  noted  and  described 
in  considering  experiment  5.  The  third  is  a profuse  beautiful  yellow 
growth,  beginning  at  first  by  dense,  thick  round  colonies,  rather  whitish 
at  first,  but  soon  turning  yellow.  When  fused  and  the  growth  pretty 
nearly  completed  it  is  nearly  always  quite  thick  and  deep  yellow,  with 
margins  entire  or  wavy.  The  first  and  third  of  these  are  the  ones 
which  seem  to  be  constantly  associated  with  the  disease.  The  one 
producing  the  thin,  white  film  is  the  one  which  is  parasitic,  or  at  least 
partially  so,  in  its  relations  to  Plus i a brassicce. 

Pure  cultures  of  this  germ  were  also  received  June  3 from  I)r.  J.  C. 
Neal,  Lake  City,  Fla.  Upon  unsealing  the  tubes  a small  amount  of 
gas  escaped  with  a fizz,  accompanied  by  a smell  reminding  one  of 
rotten  eggs.  Fresh  agar  cultures  were  made,  and  from  these,  liquid 
cultures  were  prepared  for  use  in  experiments  G and  7.  The  culture 
liquid  used  in  these  experiments  was  eighteen  days  old. 

Experiment  6. 

June  27. — A cabbage  leaf  was  drenched  with  the  charged  liquid,  and  four  Pieris 
larva*,  placed  on  to  feed.  The  day  following  all  were  feeding  briskly.  Two  days 
later  the  leaf  had  all  been  eaten  and  fresh  food  was  placed  in.  No  indications  of 
disease  three  days  afterward.  Later  three  larvae  pupated,  one  of  which  was  acciden- 
tally injured  and  died.  The  fourth  larva  died,  but  did  not  rot  or  turn  dark.  It  dried 
up  gradually,  which  indicated  that  the  pot  had  been  too  strongly  disinfected  and 
that  the  larva  had  been  poisoned  from  crawling  about  its  walls.  No  cultures  were 
subsequently  obtained  from  it.  The  two  living  pupse  hatched  in  due  time. 

Experiment  7. 

June  27. — Two  bolls  were  prepared  as  described  in  experiment  4,  but  using  the 
same  culture  liquid  designated  for  experiment  6,  namely,  the  Plusia  disease  germ. 
Two  Boll  Worms  were  placed  on,  and  each  was  subsequently  observed  sipping  of 
the  liquid.  One  of  the  larvae  was  full  grown,  and  had  shortened  some,  preparatory 
to  pupation ; the  other  was  also  about  full  grown,  but  fed  until  mature.  Both  sub- 
sequently entered  the  earth  and  completed  their  transformation  without  any  diffi- 
culty. 

Checks  during  the  progress  of  the  experiments  recorded,  and  many 
others  were  carefully  continued.  Since  no  results  were  obtained  from 
the  experiments  requiring  it,  the  consideration  of  the  checking  will,  in 
this  report,  be  superfluous,  save  to  remark  that  disease  did  not  appear 
in  them  in  any  instance,  except  experiments  2 and  3,  which  have  already 
been  included. 


DISCUSSION  OF  THE  RESULTS. 

From  the  beginning  complicating  conditions  were  discovered.  The 
most  important  one  was  that  the  species  in  question  (Heliothis  armiger) 
was  subject  to  a disease  which  was  probably  as  prevalent  as  the  nature 


70 


of  the  case  permitted.  Great  results  li ad  been  anticipated  by  some 
from  an  introduction  of  the  disease  of  the  Cabbage  Worm  [Pieris  rupee) 
as  a remedy  for  destroying  the  Cotton  Catterpillars  (Aletia  xylina ) or 
the  Boll  Worm.  Upon  investigation  it  was  found  that  this  disease 
had  already  been  introduced  with  its  host  through  the  natural  dissemi- 
nation of  the  disease  from  the  locality  of  its  first  appearance.  The 
third  complication  arose  when  it  was  observed  that  about  80  per  cent 
of  the  larvae  of  Plusia  brassicce , a very  common  cabbage  insect  in  the 
South,  were  dying  of  disease.  The  importance  and  relation  of  these 
three  conditions  to  each  other  will  be  better  appreciated  by  bacteriol- 
ogists when  it  is  explained  that  the  system  of  small  negro  tenantry, 
which  is  customary  in  the  greater  portion  of  the  cotton  district,  results 
in  numerous  small  garden  patches  along  the  edges  of,  and  often  within, 
the  centers  of  the  fields.  The  one  vegetable  which  can  safely  be  pre- 
dicted to  be  present  in  nearly  all  of  them  is  cabbage.  These  plants 
were  always  infested  with  either  Pieris  rupee  or  Plusia  brassicee , or 
both,  and  concerning  both  it  was  known  that  disease  made  its  appear- 
ance. The  Boll  Worm  and  Cotton  Catterpillar  were  therefore  con- 
stantly exposed  to  the  danger  of  infection.  As  a consequence,  in  the 
studies  for  the  artificial  infection  of  the  Boll  Worm,  the  following 
sources  of  error  required  elimination:  First,  infection  through  its  own 
peculiar  germ ; second,  through  that  of  Pieris  rapce , and,  third,  through 
that  of  Plusia  brassicce.  This  could  be  best  guarded  against  by  deter- 
mining, as  much  as  possible,  the  relation  of  the  three  germs  to  the  three 
insects  involved.  Before  these  points  are  discussed,  it  is  advisable  to 
dwell  upon  some  other  conditions  of  environment  which  will  contribute 
to  a better  interpretation  later. 

It  is  asked,  why  does  not  the  disease  of  the  Boll  Worm  itself  spread 
more  freely?  The  diseased  Boll  Worms,  with  few  exceptions,  were 
found  in  ears  of  corn.  Here,  as  has  been  stated  in  the  first  part  of  this 
report,  a struggle  for  food,  due  to  crowded  conditions,  may  and  often 
does  occur.  This  compels  more  or  less  traveling  in  search  of  suitable 
quarters.  This  in  turn  increases  exposure  to  all  sorts  of  unfavorable 
conditions,  including  the  attack  by  parasites  and  natural  enemies,  as 
well  as  disease.  Further,  having  probably  fought  for  its  freedom,  the 
larva  is  forced  to  change  at  a time  when  it  is  weak  and  least  fit  to  resist 
such  conditions.  It  is  under  these  conditions  that  the  Boll  Worm  some- 
times falls  a victim  to  disease,  usually,  however,  getting  under  the 
cover  of  another  ear  before  dying,  thereby  lessening  the  chances  for  its 
infecting  others  of  its  own  species.  I n view  of  these  facts,  the  trap-corn 
method  recommended  in  another  portion  of  this  report  becomes  an  im- 
portant factor,  in  that  for  this  species  it  furnishes  those  conditions 
which  are  lavorable  for  the  greatest  propagation  of  disease. 

When  the  Boll  Worm  infests  cotton,  the  chances  for  infection  are  even 
more  diminished,  in  that  each  individual  becomes  a hermit  in  addition 
to  feeding  on  the  inside  of  the  cotton  boll.  Upon  cotton  they  seldom 


71 


come  in  contact  with  each  other,  and  then  for  a brief  time  only.  There- 
fore, should  a Boll  Worm  become  diseased  upon  either  corn  or  cotton, 
the  natural  conditions  and  habits  of  the  past  are  such  that  the  chances 
for  infecting  other  individuals  through  it  are  reduced  to  a minimum. 
This  also  explains  the  failure  of  the  disease  of  Pieris  rapcc  and  Plusia 
brassicce  to  attack  the  Boll  Worm,  and  spreading  to  it  through  the  nat- 
ural processes  of  infection  and  dissemination.  On  this  point,  however, 
another  consideration  must  be  noted  in  the  case  of  Pieris  rapcc.  From 
the  observations  already  recorded  for  this  disease,  it  is  found  that, 
though  present,  it  developed  rather  tardily  in  its  host  under  the  pre- 
vailing conditions.  In  addition,  it  appears  to  be  less  virulent  and  ap- 
parently has  less  power  of  contagion,  since  it  does  not  seem  to  infest 
others  of  its  own  species  so  readily  as  in  more  northern  districts,  such 
as  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Iowa.  This  seems  to  be  due  mostly  to  the  dif- 
ferences in  climatic  conditions,  the  atmosphere  being  drier,  much  higher 
in  temperature,  and  the  hot  summer  season  much  more  protracted  in  the 
South.  The  well-known  devitalizing  effect  of  hot,  scorching  sun  light 
under  high  temperatures  upon  many  bacteriological  organisms  seems 
therefore  to  explain  the  lesser  virulence  of  this  germ  in  the  locality 
where  the  investigation  was  prosecuted.  Accordingly,  the  Pieris  dis- 
ease is  unpromising  at  present  as  an  agent  in  destroying  the  Boll  Worm 
in  that  section.  The  germ  is  doubtless  becoming  more  acclimated  and 
adapting  itself  to  prevailing  conditions,  so  that  it  may  be  expected  to 
become  more  efficient  in  that  region  in  the  future. 

For  the  Plusia  disease,  however,  the  high  temperature  seems  to  be  a 
necessary  factor,  and,  so  far  as  the  writer’s  information  goes,  is  less 
virulent  in  the  cooler  or  northern  districts. 

Experiment  1,  in  which  a pure  culture  of  the  boll-worm  germ  obtained 
by  artificial  culture  methods  was  fed  to  healthy  Boll  Worms,  failed 
again  to  produce  the  disease.  The  same  germ  was  fed  to  larvae  of 
Pieris  rapcc  as  detailed  in  experiments  2 and  3.  In  experiment  2,  50 
per  cent  died.  In  experiment  3,  all  died.  Subsequent  studies  of  the 
dead  pupae  in  these  two  experiments,  as  also  the  records  of  the  checks 
upon  them,  together  with  microscopic  examinations,  proved  that  death 
could  not  be  attributed  to  the  boll- worm  germ  with  any  degree  of  cer- 
tainty. On  the  contrary,  death  seems  to  have  been  due  to  their  own 
specific  germs,  as  noted  in  the  experiment.  Reversing  the  trial,  the 
germ  of  Pieris  was  used  in  experiment  4,  and  fed  to  the  Boll  Worms 
without  producing  disease.  The  Plusia  germ  was  then  fed  to  Pieris 
larvae  as  in  experiment  0,  and  to  Boll  Worms  as  in  experiment  7,  with- 
out bringing  about  diseased  conditions.  Furthermore,  Pieris  larvae, 
feeding  upon  the  same  plants  and  leaves  along  with  diseased  Plusias, 
did  so  with  perfect  immunity. 

What  does  it  all  mean?  It  is  unsafe  to  hazard  any  positive  state- 
ments and  the  discussion  must  be  understood  as  being  provisional. 
Granting  that  the  germs  in  question  are  truly  parasitic  upon  their  re- 


72 


spective  hosts,  the  first  important  fact  indicated  is  that  they  are  em- 
phatically specific  as  to  the  conditions  required  for  their  development. 
If  this  be  so,  the  great  differences  in  the  life  constitution  and  food  of 
the  three  species  of  larvae  under  consideration  would  at  once  render 
mutual  intercommunication  of  their  respective  diseases  impossible. 
The  theory  held  by  some  that  a parasitic  germ  is  readily  transmissible 
from  one  species  to  another  with  power  to  produce  disease,  must  be 
dismissed.  Experience  has  shown  that  producing  disease  by  artificial 
means  in  one  species  furnishes  no  guarantee  that  the  same  germ  can 
in  like  manner  be  used  to  produce  disease  in  a nearly-related  species 
and  certainly  not  for  those  of  distant  relations.  Actual  experiment 
may  prove  it  to  be  possible,  which  should  therefore  be  done  before  any 
assertions  are  justifiable. 

The  behavior  of  the  germs  in  question,  under  the  artificial  culture 
conditions  recorded  in  the  experiments,  indicates  that  they  are  faculta- 
tive rather  than  true  parasites.  This  means  that  the  germs  can  and  do 
under  certain  conditions,  develop  as  parasitic  organisms,  but  under 
unfavorable  conditions  can  undergo  their  development  in  other  than 
living  matter  and  thus  tend  toward  saprophytism.  Accordingly  they 
may  gradually  adapt  themselves  to  being  more  saprophytic  or  more  par- 
asitic, whichever  the  prevailing  environment  may  favor.  This  is  quite 
certainly  the  nature  of  these  organisms  in  relation  to  species  of  insects 
other  than  the  one  which  for  convenience  may  be  called  the  natural 
host.  Therefore  the  apparently  negative  results  shown  in  the  experi- 
ments are  negative  only  as  concerns  the  utility  of  the  germ  when  used 
in  the  facultative  condition  in  accordance  with  the  usual  method  of 
procedure.  The  germs  being  facultative  in  their  nature,  cultivations 
on  artificial  culture-media  begin  at  once  to  weaken  their  power  to  pro- 
duce disease.  When  a facultative  organism,  therefore,  is  used  in  the 
usual  manner  to  produce  artificial  infection,  failure  is  rather  to  be  ex- 
pected, and  it  is  manifestly  erroneous  to  consider  the  results  as  having 
any  direct  bearing  upon  the  practicability  of  parasitic  organisms  as 
remedial  agents.  The  only  interpretation  which  should  be  given  the 
results  recorded  in  the  preceding  experiments  is  that  to  the  insect  in 
question  (. Heliothis  armiger ) the  germs  cultivated  and  experimented 
with,  bear  only  a facultative  relation.  This  fact  suggests  the  abandon- 
ment, as  a primary  method,  of  the  generally  accepted  one  for  experi- 
menting with  germs  in  the  attainment  of  practical  economic  results. 
This  consists  in  the  simple  isolation  of  an  organism  as  a pure  culture, 
feeding  it  to  a given  insect,  and  passing  final  judgment  according  to 
the  results  which  follow.  It  further  suggests  that  before  the  question 
of  artificial  infection  can  be  satisfactorily  solved,  the  germ  used,  whether 
really  parasitic  or  only  a facultative  parasite,  must  first  be  studied  in  all 
its  relations  to  environments  which  allow  the  organism  to  produce  dis- 
ease. This  done,  the  next  step  will  be  to  determine  how  best  to  con- 
trol those  conditions  by  artificial  means,  either  in  relation  to  the  host 


73 


itself  or  for  fixing  upon  the  microbe  a greater  power  for  infection  or  a 
cooperation  of  both  upon  the  same  basis.  Either  cause  would  result 
in  attaining  the  greatest  infection. 

In  preparing  pure  cultures  the  records  show  that  in  the  process  of 
isolating  the  desired  germs  from  the  dying  host,  at  least  one  and  some- 
times two  additional  well-defined  germs  were  obtained,  which  were 
either  associated  or  coincident  with  the  disease.  It  is  an  interesting 
and  important  study  to  determine  what  are  the  relations  of  these  germs 
to  each  other,  either  preceding  or  during  the  progress  of  the  disease. 

Primarily  the  results  of  the  observations  and  experiments  develop 
the  following  facts: 

(1)  That  the  germs,  experimented  with  are  only  facultative  in  their 
relation  to  the  Boll  Worm. 

(2)  That,  as  such,  in  the  manner  cultivated  and  in  the  condition 
applied,  they  fail  to  produce  results  which  are  of  primary  economic 
importance. 

(3)  That  such  failure  has  no  primary  bearing  upon  the  availability  of 
strictly  parasitic  organisms  to  assist  in  producing  infection  by  artificial 
methods  and  obtaining  practical  economic  results. 

Secondarily  they  rather  definitely  suggest  the  following  general  prop- 
ositions : 

(1)  The  importance  of  giving  the  most  exhaustive  study  to  ascertain 
what  environments,  as  to  both  the  insect  and  the  germ,  are  favorable 
or  unfavorable  to  the  infection  and  development  of  disease  among  in- 
sects. 

(2)  The  importance  of  first  determining  the  biological  character  of 
the  organism,  i.  e .,  whether  truly  parasitic  or  only  facultatively  so. 

(3)  The  determination  of  the  first  and  second  specifies  to  a great  ex- 
tent the  further  method  of  procedure,  and  the  basis  of  experimenta- 
tion. 

(4)  The  importance  of  the  three  preceding  considerations  demon- 
strates the  folly  of  attempting  to  obtain  practical  results  by  pure  culti- 
vations and  artificial  disseminations,  purely  as  such. 

(5)  That  making  the  attainment  of  practical  results  the  primary  ba- 
sis of  such  investigations  is  a mistake,  and  an  obstacle  to  real  progress 
in  their  final  attainment.  This  suggests  that — 

(6)  The  biological  and  physiological  properties  of  the  germs,  together 
with  their  environments,  should  first  be  studied  and  determined  upon 
a purely  scientific  basis,  without  regard  primarily  to  the  attainment  of 
practical  results. 


O 


> 


/ 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


DIVISION  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Bulletin  No.  30. 


REPORTS 

OF 

OBSERVATIONS  AND  EXPERIMENTS 

IN 

* 

THE  PRACTICAL  WORK  OF  THE  DIVISION, 

MADE 

UNDER  THE  DIRECTION  OF  THE  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


(PUBLISHED  BY  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE.) 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 

1893. 


DEPARTMENT  OF 


LIBRARY  OF  THE 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS. 

Books  are  not  to  be  taken  from  the  Library  Room. 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


DIVISION  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Bulletin  No.  30, 


REPORTS 

OF 

OBSERVATIONS  AND  EXPERIMENTS 

IN 

THE  PRACTICAL  WORK  OF  THE  DIVISION, 


MADE 


UNDER  THE  DIRECTION  OF  THE  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


(PUBLISHED  BY  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE.) 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 

1893. 


CONTENTS 


Page. 

Letter  op  transmittal  5 

Introduction 7 

Report  on  some  of  the  Beneficial  and  Injurious  Insects  of  Califor- 
nia  D.  W.  CoquiUett  9 

Report  upon  Insect  Injuries  in  Nebraska  during  the  Summer  of 

1892 Lawrence  Bruner  34 

Report  on  Insects  of  the  Season  in  Iowa Herbert  Orborn  42 

Entomological  Notes  for  the  Season  of  1892 Mary  E.  Murtfeldt  49 

Report  on  Experiments  in  Apiculture,  1892 J.  H.  Larrabee  57 

3 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Division  of  Entomology, 
Washington , D.  (7.,  March  25,  1893 . 

Sir:  I have  the  honor  to  transmit  for  publication  Bulletin  No.  30  of 
this  Division.  It  comprises  the  reports  of  the  field  agents  of  the  Divi- 
sion for  the  past  year  (1892),  a summary  of  which  has  been  included  in 
my  annual  report. 

Respectfully, 


Hon.  J.  Sterling  Morton, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 


C.  Y.  Riley, 

Entomologist. 


6 


REPORTS  OF  OBSERVATIONS  AND  EXPERIMENTS  IN  THE 
PRACTICAL  WORK  OF  THE  DIVISION. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  present  bulletin  is  a continuation  of  the  series  of  annual  reports 
of  the  field  agents  of  the  Division,  Bulletins  22,  23,  and  26  of  this  Divi- 
sion comprising  those  for  1889, 1890,  and  1891,  respectively. 

Mr.  Koebele’s  continued  absence  in  Australia  up  to  the  middle  of  the 
summer,  and  other  duties  connected  with  the  closing  up  of  his  last 
Australian  mission,  have  occupied  his  time  to  such  an  extent  that  no 
regular  report  from  him  is  included. 

Owing  to  the  reduction  in  the  appropriations  for  the  Division,  Mr.  F. 
M.  Webster,  in  Ohio,  and  the  apicultural  agent,  Mr.  J.  H.  Larrabee, 
in  Michigan,  were  suspended  from  duty  July  1,  1892.  The  former  was 
immediately  appointed  entomologist  of  the  Ohio  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  and  has  made  no  report  upon  his  operations  as  agent  of 
the  Division  for  the  first  six  months  of  the  year. 

Mr.  Larrabee,  however,  has  sent  in  a somewhat  full  report  upon  the 
experimental  work  in  apiculture,  which-is  published  herewith,  and  which 
will  be  found  of  interest  to  apiarists.  Accounts  of  his  experiments  upon 
the  important  questions  of  cross-breeding,  temporary  removal  of  the 
queen  to  prevent  swarming,  the  amount  of  honey  consumed  by  bees  in 
secreting  one  pound  of  wax,  the  cultivation  of  honey  plants,  and  others, 
are  included. 

Mr.  D.  W.  Coquillett,  agent  at  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  reports  in  full 
upon  his  experiments  with  the  beneficial  insects  received  from  Mr. 
Koebele  from  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  giving  detailed  descriptions 
of  the  different  states  of  the  species  brought  over.  He  also  treats  of 
a span-worm  ( Boarmia  plumigeraria  Hulst),  which  has  lately  proved 
very  injurious  to  Walnut  in  parts  of  California,  and  closes  with  some 
account  of  experiments  against  the  Codling  Moth  and  a few  other 
insects  which  have  been  injurious  to  fruit  trees  in  California  during 
the  year. 

The  Nebraska  agent,  Mr.  Lawrence  Bruner,  reports  upon  the  outlook 
for  destructive  locusts,  but  devotes  the  main  part  of  his  report  to  a 
consideration  of  certain  sugar-beet  insects,  closing  with  a short  sum- 
mary of  the  miscellaneous  injurious  insects  of  the  season. 


7 


8 


The  Iowa  agent.  Prof.  Herbert  Osborn,  gives  a general  summary  of 
the  injurious  insects  of  Iowa  for  the  season  of  1892,  reports  upon 
further  experiments  upon  grass  insects,  and  gives  an  account  of  cer- 
tain tests  made  with  the  White  Grub  fungus  of  Europe  against  our 
American  species. 

The  Missouri  agent,  Miss  Mary  E.  Murtfeldt  (who  was  also  fur- 
loughed at  the  close  of  the  last  fiscal  year  on  account  of  the  reduction 
in  the  appropriation),  gives  in  her  report  an  account  of  certain  insects 
which  have  been  prominent  in  her  vicinity  during  the  season,  bringing 
out,  notably,  an  important  point  in  the  life-history  of  the  Cabbage 
Curculio,  and  describing  a serious  attack  upon  Spinach  by  a small 
leaf-beetle. 


C.  Y.  R. 


REPORT  ON  SOME  OF  THE  BENEFICIAL  AND  INJURIOUS 
INSECTS  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


By  D.  W.  Coquillett. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 

Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  November  3,  1892. 

Sir:  I submit  herewith  my  annual  report  for  the  year  1892.  The  major  portion  of 
this  report  consists  of  an  account  of  the  beneficial  insects  sent  to  me  from  Australia 
and  New  Zealand  by  Mr.  Albert  Koebele  under  your  directions.  The  caring  for  these 
insects  and  the  working  out  of  the  life  history  of  the  most  important  ones  has  con- 
sumed a large  portion  of  my  time  during  the  past  season.  The  present  indications 
are  that  the  Orem  australasice  will  prove  of  more  benefit  than  any  other  of  these 
recently  introduced  species. 

Early  in  the  season  reports  were  received  of  the  occurrence  in  destructive  numbers 
of  certain  kinds  of  caterpillars  or  span-worms,  in  the  counties  of  Santa  Barbara, 
Alameda,  and  Santa  Clara;  and  in  accordance  with  your  instructions  I visited  each 
of  these  localities,  and  spent  several  days  in  investigating  these  destructive  insects. 
The  species  causing  the  damage  in  Santa  Barbara  County  proved  to  be  a kind  of 
span-worm  which  had  occasioned  considerable  injury  to  the  leaves  of  English  wal- 
nut trees;  an  account  of  this  pest  is  given  in  the  following  pages.  The  principal 
depredator  in  Alameda  and  .Santa  Clara  counties  proved  to  be  also  a span-worm  or 
canker-worm,  closely  resembling  the  well  known  Fall  Canker-worm  ( Anisopteryx 
pometaria  Harr.),  but  as  the  moths  have  not  yet  issued  the  species  can  not  be  deter- 
mined at  present,  but  will  be  reported  upon  later. 

The  Fluted  or  Cottony-cushion  Scale  (Icerya purcliasi  Mask.),  is  still  held  in  subjec- 
tion by  the  Vedalia  cardinalis.  Since  sending  in  my  last  annual  report  I have,  at 
your  instance,  sent  colonies  of  this  useful  insect  to  New  Zealand,  South  Africa,  and 
Egypt,  besides  sending  a large  number  of  colonies  to  various  parts  of  this  State. 

The  treatment  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  is  coming  into  more  general  use  and  con- 
tinues to  be  the  most  effectual  remedy  at  present  known  for  the  extermination  of 
the  various  kinds  of  scale-insects.  The  sheet  fumigator,  described  in  my  letter  to 
you  of  March  18,  and  published  in  the  June  number  of  Insect  Life,  is  more  widely 
used  than  any  other  kind,  being  less  expensive  and  easier  to  operate  than  those  here- 
tofore in  use.  During  the  present  season  the  supervisors  of  Los  Angeles  County 
instructed  Mr.  John  Scott,  the  horticultural  commissioner,  to  purchase  seventy  tents 
and  the  necessary  chemicals,  and  to  fumigate  the  infested  trees  at  cost  to  the  owners. 
The  city  of  Riverside  has  also  purchased  a large  fumigating  outfit  with  which  to 
exterminate  any  scale-insects  that  may  be  introduced  there,  and  the  citizens  of  Ana- 
heim, in  the  adjoining  county  of  Orange,  have  also  purchased  a fumigating  outfit 
and  have  treated  nearly  all  of  the  infested  trees  in  that  vicinity.  From  the  States 
of  Louisiana  and  Florida  I have  received  letters  in  relation  to  this  treatment,  and 

9 


10 


the  entomologist  of  the  experiment  station  in  the  former  State,  Mr.  H.  A.  Morgan, 
recently  wrote  me  that  he  was  making  preparations  to  test  it  on  certain  kinds  of 
scale-insects  infesting  orange  trees  in  his  State. 

As  in  former  years,  I am  greatly  indebted  to  you  for  numerous  favors,  especially 
in  the  matter  of  identifying  insects,  for  all  of  which  please  accept  thanks. 

Very  respectfully  yours, 

D.  W.  COQUILLETT, 

Special  Agent. 

Dr.  C.  V.  Riley, 

U.  S.  Entomologist. 


BENEFICIAL  INSECTS  IMPORTED  FROM  AUSTRALIA  AND  NEW  ZEA- 
LAND. 

At  tlie  last  session  of  the  legislature  of  this  State  the  sum  of  $5,000 
was  appropriated  for  the  purpose  of  importing  from  foreign  countries 
beneficial  insects  that  would  prey  upon  the  injurious  ones  found  in  the 
State,  and  this  sum  having  been  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Secre- 
tary of  Agriculture  at  Washington,  D.  0.,  Mr.  Albert  Koebele,  one  of 
the  agents  of  the  Division  of  Entomology,  was  sent  on  this  mission, 
with  instructions  to  collect  specimens  of  all  kinds  of  beneficial  insects 
and  forward  them  to  the  writer  for  propagation  and  distribution.  A 
large  portion  of  my  time  has  been  consumed  in  caring  tor  and  working 
out  the  life  histories  of  the  insects  thus  received.  Many  of  the  species 
originally  preyed  upon  insects  not  found  in  this  State,  and  much  time 
was  spent  in  testing  them  with  the  different  kinds  of  injurious  insects 
found  here,  in  the  hope  that  they  could  be  induced  to  feed  upon  them. 
Eight  separate  consignments  were  received  at  intervals  of  four  weeks, 
between  October  30,  1891,  and  May  14,  1892.  As  the  majority  of  these 
were  received  during  the  rainy  season,  I had  three  cloth  tents  erected 
over  as  many  infested  orange  trees,  the  better  to  protect  the  insects 
from  the  inclement  weather. 

The  first  consignment  of  these  insects,  collected  in  the  vicinity  of 
Auckland,  New  Zealand,  was  received  on  the  30th  of  October,  1891, 
and  consisted  of  two  living  adult  specimens  of  Leis  antipodum  Muls. 
and  one  adult  and  seventy  larvae  of  Scymnus  flavihirtus  Brown.  The 
body  of  this  larva  is  black,  and  is  rather  sparsely  covered  with  very  short, 
blunt,  white  bristles  ; on  each  side  of  the  body  are  several  prominent 
bristle-bearing  warts,  the  three  low  down  on  each  side  of  the  fourth, 
eighth,  and  ninth  segments,  and  also  the  two  on  the  eleventh  segment, 
being  white,  the  others  blackish;  the  upper  one  on  the  eighth  and 
ninth  segments  is  smaller  than  the  others;  the  head  and  thoracic  legs 
are  dark  brown;  length  3 mm.  The  pupa  is  entirely  greenish-yellow, 
and  the  old  larval  skin  is  worked  backward  until  it  covers  only  the 
extreme  end  of  the  pupa.  In  the  same  box  with  these  larvae  were 
leaves  infested  with  a Ooccid  which  is  apparently  the  Ctenochiton 
depressum  Mask.,  a species  thus  far  known  to  occur  only  in  New  Zea- 


11 


land.  I tested  the  above  larvae  with  specimens  of  Aspidiotus  aurantii 
Mask,  and  with  Lecanium  liesperidum  Linn.,  and  they  fed  sparingly 
upon  them.  The  next  day  I placed  these  larvae  and  the  adult  speci- 
men upon  a tree  thickly  infested  with  the  Lecanium ; this  tree  I have 
examined  at  intervals,  but  at  the  last  examination  did  not  find  any  of 
these  ladybirds  in  any  of  their  stages  either  upon  this  or  any  of  the 
adjacent  trees.  Still,  it  is  possible  that  they  are  established  here,  but 
in  such  small  numbers  that  it  is  difficult  to  find  them,  the  insects  also 
being  small  and  inconspicuous. 

The  two  specimens  of  Leis  antipodum  received  with  the  above  I tested 
with  several  different  kinds  of  scale-insects,  but  they  did  not  appear 
to  attack  any  of  them  and  died  on  the  20th  of  the  following  mouth 
without  having  deposited  eggs.  All  of  the  other  insects  which  came 
in  this  consignment  were  dead  when  I received  them. 

With  the  above  consignment  was  received,  October  30,  1891,  the  fol- 
lowing letter,  dated  Auckland,  New  Zealand,  October  8,  1891 : 

By  this  steamer  I send  a number  of  Scymnids,  several  species,  and  hut  two  single 
Leis  antipodum,  which  I wanted  very  badly. 

I think  it  would  be  a good  idea  to  feed  them  up  at  first  in  large  glass  jars  with 
Lecan ium  liesperidum  and  Red  Scale;  but  do  as  you  think  best,  yet  let  the  insects 
have  light  and  air  besides  food, 

Please  write  to  me  how  they  arrived  and  what  they  feed  upon.  Let  me  particu- 
larly know  about  the  Leis,  should  they  arrive  living.  Give  them  Lecanium  liesperidum 
and  L.  olece.  I think  they  will  feed  on  these,  if  anything. 

As  it  looks,  these  little  beetles  have  not  much  of  life  in  them;  they  are  probably 
hibernated  insects,  and  through  with  life;  yet  the  larvae  may  be  all  right.  I hope 
for  the  best. 

Am  very  well  at  present  and  hope  to  do  much  better  by  next  steamer.  It  is  too 
early  here  as  yet,  and  Sydney  I will  find  warm,  if  not  already  hot. — Albert  Koebele. 

Under  date  of  November  3,  1891,  I wrote  to  Mr.  Koebele,  giving  an 
account  of  the  condition  of  the  insects  when  received  by  me,  and 
advising  him  to  always  pack  the  insects  in  Sphagnum  moss,  as  those 
packed  in  this  manner  had  reached  me  in  much  better  condition  than 
had  those  packed  in  paper  cut  into  fine  strips.  As  there  was  no  address 
given  in  his  letter,  I simply  addressed  my  letter  to  him  at  Auckland, 
New  Zealand,  but  in  the  month  of  May  of  the  following  year  it  was 
returned  to  me  by  the  post-office  officials,  having  for  some  reascffis  failed 
to  reach  him. 

The  next  consignment  of  insects  reached  me  on  the  28th  of  Novem- 
ber, 1891,  and  the  boxes,  with  the  single  exception  of  one  from  Sydney, 
Australia,  were  marked  as  having  been  filled  at  Parramatta,  Aus- 
tralia, between  the  23d  and  30th  of  October,  1891.  With  this  con- 
signment was  received  the  following  letter,  dated  Sydney,  Australia, 
November  1, 1891 : 

You  will  receive  by  Wells,  Fargo  & Co.  a lot  of  insects,  all  Coccinellidae.  Please 
select  an  orchard  badly  infested  with  the  Red  Scale,  and  also  some  Black  Scales,  as 
many  of  the  things  feed  on  this  as  well  as  Lecanium  liesperidum.  Turn  all  the  things 
loose  in  such  an  orchard.  There  are  plenty  of  them  to  start  with. 


12 


The  large  red  and  black  spotted  Coccinellid  is  Lets  conformis,  feeding  upon  Aphids, 
which  I fear  you  will  not  have  now;  but  I send  a lot  of  this  to  San  Francisco  to  be 
placed  in  apple  orchards  infested  with  the  Woolly  Aphis.  You  will  find  two  boxes 
with  eggs  of  the  little  blue  beetle.  Place  them  upon  trees  with  Red  Scale.  This 
is  and  will  prove  to  be  the  best  remedy  for  that  scale  I shall  be  able  to  send.  The 
large  blue  beetle  with  orange  spots  also  feeds  on  this  scale.  And  as  to  the  Scymnid, 
I have  marked  upon  boxes  what  they  feed  on : all  the  smaller  upon  Aspidiotus  auran- 
tii,  and  one  box  contains  about  90  or  100  of  one  species  found,  as  yet,  feeding  only 
upon  a species  of  Chionaspis,  upon  a Banksia. 

Make  preparation,  and  as  soon  as  the  box  arrives  take  them  into  the  field  and  lib- 
erate the  insects.  A short  delay  would  be  death  to  many  of  them. 

I will  run  up  to  Queensland,  but  will  be  here  again  to  make  up  another  sending  of 
these  beetles  for  next  steamer. — Albert  Koebele. 

This  consignment  contained  the  following  living  insects:  Four  spec- 
imens of  Orcus  chalybeus , five  of  Orcus  australasice , and  six  specimens 
of  an  undetermined  Scymnid.  All  of  the  other  insects,  including  the 
eggs  and  larvae,  were  dead  when  received  by  me.  I tested  the  living 
insects  with  specimens  of  Aspidiotus  aurantii , and  they  fed  upon  them. 
Not  being  willing  to  turn  such  a small  number  of  insects  loose,  as  was 
suggested  in  the  letter,  I had  a cloth  tent  erected  over  an  orange  tree 
thickly  infested  with  the  above-mentioned  scale  and  placed  all  of  the 
ladybirds  on  the  tree  under  this  tent.  This  tree  was  kindly  placed  at 
my  disposal  by  Mr.  A.  F.  Kercheval,  of  this  city. 

The  next  consignment  reached  me  December  28,  1891,  accompanied 
by  the  following  letter,  dated  Sydney,  Australia,  November  29,  1891 : 

Be  ready  for  a large  lot  of  specimens  coming  per  Wells,  Fargo  & Co.  Liberate 
them  in  same  place  as  you  did  the  last  so  they  can  find  each  other.  Of  the  two  Orcus 
you  will  receive  large  numbers ; inclosed  some  of  O.  australasice  in  box  with  Lecanium 
olece , where  you  may  find  eggs ; also,  0.  chalybeus  and  a large  black  Scymnid,  which 
has  been,  as  yet,  found  only  on  L.  olece  and  L.  hesperidum. 

* * * Box  “ Vedalia  sp.,  Toowoomba,  Parramatta.”  Try  and  breed  this  little 

beetle  on  Icerya.  It  is  the  insect  destroying  this  scale  here  and  at  Queensland. 
They  will  readily  lay  their  eggs  in  a large  glass  jar  if  supplied  with  scales.  You 
will  also  get  a large  lot  of  Thalpochares  cocciphaga,  both  larvae  and  pupae.  Do  not 
set  them  free,  but  breed  in  confinement  in  large  glass  jars  covered  with  muslin  and 
well  supplied  with  L.  olece.  * * * 

Please  save  all  the  boxes  with  dead  insects  for  me,  as  I shall  want  them  for  future 
notes.  Of  course  you  can  have  specimens  for  collection  if  you  should  want  them.  I 
may  now  Wait  in  sending  future  lots  of  Orcus  until  I hear  from  you  how  this  arrived. 
It  is  not  possible  that  all  should  die. 

It  would  be  a good  arrangement  to  have  three  jars  for  the  Thalpochares — one  to  feed 
the  smaller  larvae,  one  for  pupae,  and  a third  with  plenty  of  fresh  food  to  place  the 
moths  in  as  they  appear.  The  sticks  with  scales  could  be  taken  out  from  time  to 
time  and  fastened  onto  orange  trees  infested  with  the  scales  in  the  field. 

I think  that  these  larvae  attain  their  growth  in  from  three  to  four  weeks.  They 
are  a stupid  lot,  always  spinning  everything  together.  Therefore  it  would  be  well 
to  give  them  plenty  of  room. 

The  larvae  of  Orcus  could  be  got  by  the  thousands,  but  I can  not  send  any  on 
account  of  the  parasites. — Albert  Koebele. 

In  this  consignment  were  the  following  living  insects:  Three  speci- 
mens of  Orcus  chalybeus,  one  Orcus  australasice , eleven  undetermined 


13 


Scymnids,  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  specimens  of  Alesia  fromata , 
twenty-four  specimens  of  a large,  reddish-yellow  Coccinellid  having  six 
irregular  spots  besides  the  elytral  suture  black,  three  specimens  of 
Novius  Iccebelei , twelve  small  black  ones  having  a large  red  spot  on  each 
elytron,  twenty-two  specimens  of  a black  Scymnid  having  only  the 
apex  of  the  abdomen  red. 

I tested  them  with  a great  variety  of  different  kinds  of  insects,  and 
ascertained  that  the  Alesia — the  yellowish  one  with  six  elytral  black 
spots — the  Cryptolaemus,  and  the  black  one  with  two  elytral  red  spots, 
all  fed  upon  the  Cabbage  Aphis  ( Aphis  brassicce).  Accordingly,  I turned 
them  loose  in  a field  of  cabbages  thickly  infested  with  these  Aphides. 
The  Novius  I placed  in  a jar  containing  Iceryas;  the  remaining  speci- 
mens I placed  on  the  orange  tree  under  the  tent  where  I had  placed  the 
previous  consignment. 

On  the  30th  of  December,  1891,  I wrote  Mr.  Koebele  as  follows: 

The  two  packages  of  insects  which  you  sent  me  from  Sydney  reached  me  in  very  poor 
condition.  In  your  first  sending  were  only  four  living  Orcus  chalybeiis,  and  in  the 
last  sending  three.  Of  Orcus  australasicc,  five  were  alive  in  the  first  lot,  but  only  one 
in  the  last.  As  these  are  the  two  species  that  we  look  to  for  ridding  the  infested 
trees  of  the  Red  Scale,  it  would  be  well  to  pay  especial  attention  to  them  in  your  next 
sending.  Try  especially  to  send  the  pupae,  as  these  withstand  the  voyage  better 
than  the  adult  beetles.  The  square  boxes  with  sliding  lids  are  better  for  sending 
them  in  than  are  the  smaller  circular  ones.  I noticed  that  those  packed  in  Sphag- 
num moss  came  through  in  better  condition  than  those  you  packed  in  paper  cut  into 
strips.  A good  plan  would  be,  to  place  in  the  bottom  of  the  box  a thin  layer  of  damp 
Sphagnum,  then  twigs  infested  with  the  scales,  after  this  the  ladybirds,  placing  on 
the  top  another  thin  layer  of  Sphagnum. 

Packages  intended  for  me  should  be  addressed  tome  at  236  Winston  street,  so  that 
the  express  company  will  not  have  any  difficulty  in  delivering  them. — D.  W.  Co- 
QUILLETT. 

The  next  consignment  of  insects  reached  me  January  23, 1892,  and  was 
accompanied  by  the  following  letter,  dated  Sydney,  Australia,  Decem- 
ber 28,  1891 : 

A lot  more  of  Coccinellids,  to  be  let  loose  in  same  place  as  previously.  Also  a num- 
ber of  things  in  one  box,  to  breed  in  confinement.  Do  not  open  boxes  outside  of  room 
or  with  open  windows.  The  parasites  will  not  only  destroy  these  larvae,  but  all  or  any 
Coccinellid.  I hope  you  see  the  point,  and  I trust  to  you  not  to  let  any  escape.  Also, 
more  larvae  and  pupae  of  T.  cocciphaga.  Feed  Coccinellid  larvae  from  Whitton  on 
Lecanium,  as  also  those  of  0.  australasicc. 

Why  did  you  not  write  about  the  New  Zealand  insects? — Albert  Koebele. 

In  this  consignment  were  four  hundred  living  adults  of  Orcus  chaly- 
beuSj  seventy-five  of  which  I placed  on  the  orange  tree  under  the  tent, 
and  liberated  the  remainder  in  the  orange  grove  adjoining  this  tree, 
this  grove  being  very  thickly  infested  with  Aspidiotus  aurantii.  The 
consignment  also  contained  forty- five  adults  and  thirty-six  living  pupae 
of  Orcus  australasicc  ; twenty- two  of  these  I placed  on  the  orange  tree 
under  the  tent,  while  the  balance  were  placed  on  an  ash  tree  thickly 
infested  with  Lecanium  olece . I retained  the  pupae  in  my  office  until 


14 


the  beetles  issued,  then  placed  the  latter  on  the  ash  tree  above  men- 
tioned. Besides  these,  there  was  also  a package  of  twigs  on  which  were 
numerous  specimens  of  Lecanium  olece  infested  with  a fungus;  these  I 
placed  on  an  oleander  bush  thickly  infested  with  the  above-mentioned 
Lecanium.  The  package  also  contained  eight  large  black  Scymnids, 
which  fed  sparingly  upon  Lecanium  olece , and  I therefore  had  a tent 
erected  over  an  orange  tree  thickly  infested  with  these  scales,  and 
placed  the  Scymnids  in  this  tent.  This  tree  was  placed  at  my  disposal 
by  Judge  E.  Silent,  of  this  city. 

I received  the  next  consignment  on  the  20th  day  of  February,  1892. 
It  was  not  accompanied  by  any  letter.  The  entire  package  was  com- 
pletely soaked  with  water  when  it  reached  me,  and  several  of  the  boxes 
were  broken  open.  This  consignment  contained  eight  living  adults  of 
Orcus  ehalybeus , which  I liberated  in  the  same  orange  grove  where  I 
had  placed  those  of  the  previous  sending ; twenty- three  Scymnids,  which 
I placed  on  the  orange  tree  infested  with  Aspidiotus  aurantii , under  the 
tent,  and  thirty  adults  of  Orcus  bilunulatus , which  I placed  on  the 
orange  tree  infested  with  Lecanium  olece  under  the  tent  at  Judge  Silent’s. 

The  next  package  of  insects  reached  me  on  the  21st  of  March,  1892, 
and  was  accompanied  by  the  following  letter,  written  at  Sydney,  New 
South  Wales,  February  22,  1892: 

I have  your  letter  of  December  30.  Sent  a lot  more  of  Orcus  and  a small  Scymnid 
on  Red  Scale;  this  latter  is  as  good  as  Orcus  in  destroying  these  scales. 

In  box  with  Eriococcus  you  will  find  some  Scymnids  feeding  on  Black  Scales,  also 
their  larvae,  larvae  of  Thalpochares  and  of  a Pyralid  ( ?).  This  latter  you  had  before. 
They  may  feed  on  Lecanium.  Breed  all  these  in  confinement,  and  not  get  box  near 
Eucalyptus.  A whole  box  full  of  Lecanium  with  internal  parasites.  You  had  better 
not  place  them  on  trees,  hut  at  a distance  from  them,  as,  if  necessary*  in  case  the 
Scales  should  establish  themselves,  they  could  be  promptly  destroyed.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  the  Eriococcus,  which,  although  only  feeding  on  Eucalyptus,  is  a bad 
thing  on  these  trees. 

Await  Leis  antipodum  and  rear  on  Lecanium  hesperidum. — A.  Koebele. 

This  package  did  not  contain  a single  living  insect  Avhen  I received 
it.  Among  the  dead  insects  was  a ladybird  larva  which  I recognized 
as  belonging  to  Scymnus  lophanthw  Blaisdell,  a species  which  had  evi- 
dently been  imported  into  this  State  from  Australia  several  years  ago, 
and  upon  procuring  specimens  of  the  larvae  of  this  ladybird  from  orange 
trees  in  this  city  I found  that  the  two  forms  were  identical.  The 
package  also  contained  dead  specimens  of  a ladybird  which  agree  in 
every  particular  with  specimens  of  the  above-named  Scymnus  contained 
in  my  collection  and  which  were  captured  in  this  city  several  years 
ago.  Specimens  of  both  were  submitted  to  Dr.  Riley  in  order  to  settle 
this  question  definitely,  and  he  writes  me  that  the  two  forms,  the  one 
received  from  Australia  and  the  other  collected  in  this  city,  are  indis- 
tinguishable, and  that  both  belong  to  the  species  recently  described  by 
Dr.  Blaisdell  as  Scymnus  lophanthce  (see  u Entomological  News,”  vol.  in, 
p.  51).  I gave  a description  of  the  larva  and  pupa  of  this  ladybird  in 


15 


Bulletin  No.  26,  Division  of  Entomology  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  (pp.  16  and  17),  where  it  is  referred  to  as  “an  undetermined 
species  of  Scymnus,  closely  related  to  Scymnus  marginicollis  Mann.,  but 
having  a distinct  metallic,  somewhat  brassy  tinge  upon  the  wing-cases.” 
I have  found  this  larva  feeding  upon  the  Red  Scale  ( Aspidiotus  aurantii) 
as  well  as  upon  the  San  Jos6  Scale  ( Aspidiotus  perniciosus)  and  the 
Woolly  Aphis  ( Schizoneura  lanigera).  This  is  doubtless  the  “small 
Scymnid  on  Red  Scale”  referred  to  by  Mr.  Koebele  in  the  letter  given 
above  and  which  he  says  is  “as  good  as  the  Orcus  in  destroying  these 
scales,”  the  other  Scymnids  referred  to  being  much  larger  species. 

Another  package  of  insects  from  Sydney,  Australia,  was  received  on 
the  15th  of  April,  1892.  No  letter  accompanied  this  package,  which 
contained  the  following  living  insects : Twenty-seven  specimens  of  Ovgus 
chalybeus  and  nine  of  Orcus  australasice , all  of  which  I liberated  in  the 
orange  grove  in  which  the  former  consignments  were  set  free ; four  speci- 
mens of  Leis  conformis , and  five  of  the  large  yellow  Coccinellid  with  six 
elytral  black  spots,  which  was  also  represented  among  those  received 
December  28,  1891,  and  alluded  to  above.  The  specimens  of  the  last 
two  species  I placed  on  an  orange  tree  thickly  infested  with  Aphides. 
There  was  also  a box  containing  a number  of  larvae  and  chrysalides  of 
tfie  moth  Thalpochares  cocciphaga  in  their  cocoons ; these  I placed  in 
breeding  cages  in  my  office  and  kept  them  well  supplied  with  Lecanium 
olece.  During  the  month  of  May  nine  adult  parasites  belonging  to  the 
genus  Bracon  issued  from  these  larvae  or  chrysalides.  The  moths  issued 
in  the  latter  part  of  June  and  during  the  month  of  July,  and  after  the 
last  one  had  finished  depositing  her  eggs  I placed  the  entire  contents  of 
these  cages  in  an  orange  tree  thickly  iufested  with  Lecanium  olece. 

The  eighth  and  last  consignment  of  insects  from  Sydney,  Australia, 
reached  me  on  the  14th  of  May,  1892.  This  package  also  was  not  accom- 
panied by  letter.  For  the  first  time,  all  of  the  insects  had  been  packed 
in  Sphagnum  moss,  as  advised  in  my  letter  to  Mr.-Koebele,  of  December 
30,  1891,  a copy  of  which  is  given  on  a preceding  page,  and  the  insects 
reached  me  in  much  better  condition  than  did  those  of  any  previous 
sending.  This  package  contained  560  living  specimens  of  Orcus  chaly- 
beus, 20  Orcus  australasice , 170  specimens  of  Leis  conformis , and  5 speci- 
mens of  the  yellow  Coccinellid  with  six  elytral  black  spots.  I retained 
20  of  the  Orcus  chalybeus  and  10  Orcus  australasice , for  breeding  in  my 
office ; the  remainder  I turned  loose  in  an  orange  grove,  in  this  city, 
thickly  infested  with  Aspidiotus  aurantii , Lecanum  olece , and  a certain 
kind  of  Aphis.  The  specimens  ot  Leis  conformis  I liberated  in  an  apple 
orchard,  in  this  city,  thickly  infested  with  the  Woolly  Aphis  ( Schizoneura 
lanigera ),  while  the  yellow  ladybirds  with  six  elytral  black  spots  were 
kept  in  my  office,  in  a large  glass  jar  well  supplied  with  Aphides.  On 
the  28th  of  May  a parasitic  larva  issued  from  the  under  part  of  the  body 
of  one  of  the  last-named  ladybirds,  and  spun  its  tough  brownish  cocoon 
beneath  the  latter,  thus  attaching  the  ladybird  to  the  surface  upon 


16 


which  it  rested,  and  the  adult  fly  issued  from  this  cocoon  eight  days 
later.  On  the  30tli  of  May  another  parasitic  larva  issued  from  a second 
of  these  ladybirds,  and  spun  its  cocoon  as  the  previous  one  had  done, 
and  the  winged  parasite  issued  seven  days  later.  I submitted  both 
specimens  of  this  parasite  to  Dr.  Riley  for  identification,  and  he  writes 
me  that  they  agree  in  every  particular  with  specimens  of  JEuphorus 
sculptus  Or.  in  the  collection  of  the  National  Museum.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  on  page  57,  volume  hi,  of  Insect  Life,  Dr.  Riley  records 
having  bred  this  same  species  from  adults  of  the  native  ladybird, 
Megilla  maculata , collected  at  Washington,  D.  0.,  and  also  at  LaFayette, 
Ind.;  while  here  in  California  I have  bred  what  he  pronounces  to  be 
this  same  species  from  two  of  our  common  ladybirds,  Hippodamia  con - 
vergens  and  Coccinella  sanguined , both  of  which  are  also  found  in  the 
eastern  part  of  this  country.  Thus  this  parasite  is  known  to  occur  on 
both  sides  of  this  continent  as  well  as  in  Australia.  With  the  above- 
mentioned  package  was  received  a box  of  Aspidiotus  aurantii  infested 
by  a fungus;  these  I placed  in  an  orange  tree  thickly  infested  with  this 
kind  of  scale-insect. 

As  stated  above,  no  insects  were  received  by  me  from  Mr.  Koebele 
later  than  the  14th  of  May,  1892. 

The  following  are  my  notes  and  descriptions  of  the  early  stages  of 
some  of  the  insects  received  from  Australia.  These  are  not  complete 
in  regard  to  all  of  the  species,  since  a sufficient  number  of  specimens 
of  several  of  the  species  was  not  received  to  permit  of  my  making 
descriptions  of  all  the  stages,  and  I was  unwilling  to  hazard  the  life  of 
any  of  the  larvae  belonging  to  species  not  thoroughly  established  here 
by  submitting  them  to  repeated  and  critical  examinations  such  as  it 
would  be  necessary  to  make  in  order  to  describe  the  various  stages 
through  which  these  insects  pass: 

Okcus  Australasia. — Egg. — Elongate-ellipsoidal,  two  and  half  a times  as  long  as 
broad,  polished,  but  slightly  scabrous,  one  end  bearing  numerous  minute  tubercles ; 
color,  light  lemon  yellow ; length,  l^nim.  Deposited  beneath  dead,  empty  specimens 
of  Lecanium  olece  partially  raised  from  the  surface  upon  which  they  rest;  usually 
deposited  in  pairs,  the  eggs  being  attached  at  one  side  to  the  under  surface  of  the 
scale. 

Time  from  deposition  to  hatching,  eighteen  days. 

Larva. — First  stage. — Body  brownish  black;  first  segment  encircled  in  front  and 
on  the  sides  with  a row  of  fourteen  small  tubercles  each  tipped  with  a single  bristle, 
except  two  of  the  lateral  ones  each  side,  each  of  which  bears  two  bristles.  There  is 
also  a pair  of  smaller  subdorsal  bristles  near  the  posterior  end  of  this  segment;  sec- 
ond segment  bearing  twelve  tubercles,  arranged  on  each  side  of  the  segment,  one 
subdorsal,  three  suprastigmatal  arranged  in  the  form  of  a triangle,  and  two  stigma- 
tal  tubercles  placed  one  in  front  of  the  other,  the  anterior  of  these  being  much 
smaller  than  the  posterior  one,  and  destitute  of  a bristle.  Each  of  the  other  tuber- 
cles bears  a bristle  which  is  more  than  twice  as  long  as  the  tubercle  itself,  except 
the  anterior  of  the  three  arranged  in  the  form  of  a triangle.  This  bears  two  bristles ; 
one,  which  is  shorter  than  the  other,  is  inserted  below  the  apex  on  the  front  side,  at 
which  point  this  tubercle  bears  a minute  branch;  third  segment  like  the  second, 
except  that  the  upper  of  the  three  tubercles  in  the  triangle  is  wholly  wanting,  leav- 


17 


ing  only  ten  tubercles  on  this  segment;  fourth  segment  bearing  a tranverse  row  of 
six  tubercles,  the  subdorsal  ones  each  bearing  two  bristles,  the  second  of  which  is 
inserted  below  the  apex  on  the  front  side;  each  of  the  suprastimatal  tubercles  bears 
three  bristles,  two  of  which  are  inserted  below  the  apex,  one  on  the  front  side  and 
the  other  on  the  outer  side ; the  lowest  tubercle  bears  but  a single  bristle ; fifth  to 
tenth  segments,  like  the  fourth;  eleventh  segment  like  the  fourth,  except  that  the 
lowest  tubercle  on  each  side  is  wanting,  leaving  only  four  tubercles  on  this  segment; 
t welfth  segment  destitute  of  tubercles ; head  wholly  black. 

Duration  of  tliis  stage,  six  days. 

Second  stage. — Body  brownish  black,  a yellow  dot  on  the  posterior  margin  of  the 
first  segment;  a larger  medio- dorsal  yellow  spot  on  the  second,  third,  seventh,  and 
eighth  segments ; tubercles  black,  except  the  posterior  four  or  six  on  the  first  segment, 
all  of  those  on  the  second,  all  except  the  lowest  ones  on  the  third,  all  on  the  seventh 
and  eighth,  and  all  except  the  lowest  on  the  ninth  segment,  which  are  largely  or 
wholly  yellow;  sometimes,  however,  the  lowest  tubercles  on  the  second,  seventh,  and 
eighth  segments  are  black;  first  segment  encircled  in  front  and  on  the  sides  with  a 
row  of  sixteen  long  tubercles,  each  of  which  bears  a long  apical  and  several  shorter 
lateral  bristles ; there  is  also  a small,  yellow  subdorsal  tubercle  each  side  of  the 
middle,  near  the  posterior  end  of  this  segment,  each  tubercle  bearing  a bristle  which 
is  three  times  as  long  as  the  tubercle  itself ; other  tubercles  arranged  as  in  the  first 
stage,  each  bearing  an  apical  and  several  lateral  bristles,  the  apical  one  not  appreci- 
ably longer  than  the  tubercle  itself,  except  in  the  case  of  the  tubercles  situated  low- 
est down  on  each  side  of  the  body;  the  anterior  of  the  two  lowest  tubercles  on  the 
second  segment  is  scarcely  more  than  half  as  long  as  the  posterior  one;  the  anterior 
of  the  two  lowest  tubercles  on  the  third  segment  is  minute  and  scarcely  apparent; 
head  entirely  black. 

Duration  of  this  stage,  seven  days. 

Third  stage. — Marked  as  in  the  second  stage,  except  that  all  of  the  tubercles  on  the 
ninth  segment  and  the  subdorsal  ones  on  the  tenth  are  yellow;  tubercles  arranged 
as  in  the  second  stage ; the  subdorsal  tubercles  near  the  posterior  end  of  the  first 
segment  are  now  much  larger,  being  scarcely  shorter  than  the  bristles  at  their  apices ; 
the  anterior  of  the  two  lowest  tubercles  on  the  third  segment  is  scarcely  one-sixth 
as  long  as  the  posterior  one,  and  is  yellow ; the  four  tubercles  on  the  eleventh  seg- 
ments are  noticeably  longer  than  any  of  the  others. 

Duration  of  this  stage,  eleven  days. 

Fourth  stage. — First  segment  yellow,  the  center  above,  including  the  greater  portion 
of  the  space  inclosed  by  the  tubercles,  black;  second  segment  black,  the  anterior 
and  posterior  margins  and  the  sides  broadly  yellow,  that  on  the  posterior  margin 
being  produced  forward  in  the  middle  above;  third  segment  yellow,  marked  with  a 
pair  of  black  spots  in  front  and  with  a second  pair  behind  the  subdorsal  tubercles; 
there  is  also  a black  spot  in  front  of  the  upper  of  the  two  lateral  pairs  of  tubercles, 
and  another  at  the  base  of  the  posterior  of  the  two  lowest  tubercles ; fourth,  fifth, 
and  sixth  segments  black,  marked  with  an  irregular  silvery- white  stripe  between  the 
tubercles,  the  sutures  of  these  segments  yellow;  seventh  segment  silvery-white, 
marked  with  a small  black  spot  between  the  two  upper  tubercles  and  with  a larger 
one  behind  the  upper  of  the  two  lateral  tubercles ; eighth  segment  black,  the  greater 
portion  of  the  space  between  the  subdorsal  tubercles  silvery  white,  and  there  is  also 
a spot  of  the  same  color  at  the  base  of  the  lowest  tubercle;  ninth  segment  black, 
the  middle  of  the  posterior  margin,  extending  nearly  as  far  as  the  upper  of  the  two 
lateral  tubercles,  silvery  white ; tenth  segment  black,  the  posterior  margin  silvery 
white,  which  color  crosses  the  segment  obliquely  between  the  subdorsal  and  the 
upper  of  the  two  lateral  tubercles;  eleventh  segment  like  the  tenth,  except  that 
there  is  a silvery-white  spot  at  the  base  of  the  lower  tubercle;  twelfth  segment 
wholly  black ; there  is  also  a silvery  white  medio-dorsal  line  extending  from  the 

19866— No.  30 2 


18 


second  to  the  eight  segment;  venter  yellow,  the  abdominal  segments  marked  with 
dusky  black;  tubercles  arranged  as  in  the  preceding  stage,  black,  all  of  those  on 
the  first,  second,  seventh,  eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth  segments  yellow,  as  are  also 
those  on  the  third,  with  the  exception  of  the  posterior  of  the  lowest  two;  the  low- 
est tubercle  on  each  side  of  the  sixth  segment  is  also  yellow ; the  subdorsal  tuber- 
cles near  the  posterior  margin  of  the  first  segment  are  nearly  as  large  as  those  on 
the  sides  of  this  segment ; the  anterior  of  the  two  lowest  tubercles  on  the  second 
segment  is  slightly  longer  than  either  of  the  three  arranged  in  the  form  of  a triangle 
above  it;  the  anterior  of  the  two  lowest  tubercles  on  the  third  segment  is  not  half 
as  long  as  either  of  the  two  above  it;  except  on  the  first  segment,  none  of  the  bristles 
are  as  long  as  the  tubercles  which  bear  them;  head  black,  marked  in  the  middle 
with  a yellow  spot.  Length,  8mm. 

Duration  of  this  stage,  eleven  days. 

Pupa. — Yellow,  marked  with  a medio-dorsal  row  of  oval  black  spots,  one  to  each 
segment,  and  on  each  side  of  these  is  a row  of  larger  black  spots,  one  to  each  seg- 
ment, except  the  first,  those  on  the  second  segment  sometimes  connected  along  the 
front  end  of  this  segment  with  the  median  spot;  wing-cases  entirely,  or  at  least 
their  upper  edges,  black;  entire  surface  thinly  covered  with  a yellowish  white, 
appressed,  scaly  pubescent ; first  an<J  second  segments  bearing  several  short,  erect 
bristles;  remaining  segments  each  bearing  a large  cluster  of  bristles  in  the  subdorsal 
and  also  in  the  stigmatal  region;  length,  7m,n. 

Duration  of  this  stage,  eleven  days. 

In  pupating  the  old  larval  skin  is  rent  along  the  back  from  the  head 
to  the  front  end  of  the  eighth  segment. 

The  time  passed  by  this  ladybird  in  its  preparatory  stages  from  the 
depositing  of  the  egg  to  the  issuing  of  the  adult  insect  is  seen  to  be 
about  sixty-four  days,  divided  as  follows:  Egg,  eighteen  days;  larva, 
thirty-five  days  (first  stage,  six  days;  second  stage,  seven  days;  third 
stage,  eleven  days,  and  fourth  stage,  eleven  days) ; pupa,  eleven  days. 
These  periods  are  for  the  mouths  of  August  and  September,  the  insects 
having  been  bred  in  breeding  cages  kept  in  the  window  of  my  office, 
where  they  received  the  benefit  of  the  afternoon  sun.  It  is  probable 
that  in  the  open  air  they  would  have  passed  through  their  various 
changes  in  a somew  hat  shorter  period  of  time  than  that  indicated  above. 

On  the  14th  of  May  of  the  present  year  I placed  in  one  of  my  breed- 
ing cages,  10  of  these  ladybirds  received  that  day  from  Sydney,  Aus- 
tralia, and  kept  them  well  supplied  with  specimens  of  Aspidiotus  an- 
rantii , Lecanium  olece , and  various  kinds  of  Aphides,  but  more  than  six 
weeks  elapsed  before  any  eggs  were  deposited.  At  certain  intervals 
after  this  I removed  the  larvrn  from  this  cage,  and  placed  them  on  an 
orange  tree  thickly  infested  with  Aspidiotus  aurantii  and. Lecanium  olece; 
on  the  16th  of  August  I thus  removed  about  100  of  them,  on  the  5th 
of  September  13  more,  and  on  the  28th  of  September  I placed  the 
entire  contents  of  this  cage  on  the  same  orange  tree.  At  this  latter 
date  several  of  the  beetles  originally  received  from  Australia  were 
still  alive,  which  would  indicate  that  they  are  comparatively  long  lived, 
since  I had  them  in  my  possession  for  a period  of  over  four  months, 
and  they  may  have  been  several  weeks  old  at  the  time  of  their  capture 
in  Australia, 


19 


Orcus  . chalybeus. — Egg. — Elongate-oval  or  elongate-ellipsoidal,  from  somewhat 
over  twice  to  nearly  three  times  as  long  as  broad,  surface  polished,  the  upper  end 
scabrous  and  on  one  side  of  the  middle  hearing  a white,  flattened,  branched  process, 
having  somewhat  the  appearance  of  an  antler  of  a Moose-deer;  color  of  egg,  light 
lemon  yellow ; length,  l£min.  Haced  on  one  end  in  clusters  of  from  4 to  10  eggs  each. 

Time  from  deposition  to  hatching,  eight  days. 

Larva. — First  stage. — Body  yellow,  the  tubercles  dusty;  first  segment  surrounded 
in  front  and  on  the  sides  by  a row  of  ten  long  tubercles,  and  with  a transverse  pair  of 
much  smaller  tubercles  on  the  dorsum  near  the  posterior  end  of  this  segment, each  of 
these  smaller  tubercles  being  as  broad  as  long;  second  segment  bearing  a transverse 
pair  of  long  tubercles,  each  size  beside  a dorsal  transverse  pair  of  much  smaller  tu- 
bercles, and  a single  small  tubercle  in  front  of  each  of  the  lowest  tubercles  on  this 
segment;  each  of  these  small  tubercles  is  as  broad  as  long;  segments  three  to  eight, 
each  bears  a transverse  row  of  six  long  tubercles;  segments  nine  and  ten  each  bears 
a transverse  row  of  four  long  tubercles ; eleventh  segment  bearing  a single  transverse 
pair  of  long  tubercles;  twelfth  segment  destitute  of  tubercles;  each  of  the  small 
tubercles  above  mentioned  bears  a single  long  bristle  at  its  apex;  each  of  the  long 
tubercles  is  truncated  at  its  apex,  where  it  bears  a stout  bristle  which  is  usually 
longer  than  the  tubercle  itself;  in  addition  to  this,  the  second  tubercle  on  each 
side  of  the  middle  of  the  dorsum  on  the  second  and  third  segments  bears  a sec- 
ond long,  stout  bristle  on  its  outer  side  a short  distance  below  the  apex;  each  of 
the  long  tubercles  also  bears  one  or  two  short  lateral  bristles;  the  surface  of  the  body 
is  thinly  covered  with  minute  tubercles,  each  giving  rise  to  a very  short  yellowish 
hair;  head  light  yellow,  thinly  covered  with  slender  bristles  and  bearing  three 
black  ocelli  each  side  in  the  form  of  a triangle. 

Duration  of  this  stage,  six  days. 

Second  stage — Same  as  in  the  first  stage  with  the  following  exceptions : Each  of  the 
small  tubercles  in  the  transverse  subdorsal  pair  near  the  posterior  end  of  the  first 
segment,  as  well  as  those  in  the  subdorsal  pair  on  the  second  segment  and  the  fore- 
most one  of  the  two  lowest  on  each  side  of  this  segment,  is  nearly  three  times  as  long  as 
broad ; each  of  these  smaller  tubercles  bears  a single  apical  bristle  which  is  slightly 
longer  than  the  tubercle  itself,  and  each  of  the  remaining  one  bears  a pair  of  apical 
besides  several  lateral  bristles  of  various  lengths,  but  none  of  them  are  as  long  as 
the  tubercle  itself. 

Duration  of  this  stage,  six  days. 

Third  stage. — Same  as  in  the  second  stage,  with  these  exceptions:  Dorsum  of  seg- 
ments two  to  nine  black,  most  extended  on  the  second  and  third  segments ; the 
tubercles  in  the  dorsal  pair  near  the  posterior  end  of  the  first  segment  and  also 
those  on  the  second  segment  are  nearly  as  long  as  the  adjacent  ones,  being  some- 
what more  than  four  times  as  long  as  broad,  but  the  anterior  of  the  two  lowest 
tubercles  on  each  side  of  the  second  segment  is  still  much  shorter  than  the  others, 
and  is  scarcely  over  two-thirds  as  long  as  the  posterior  one;  each  of  these  tubercles 
bears  several  short  lateral  bristles. 

Duration  of  tliis  stage,  seven  days. 

Fourth  stage. — The  black  of  the  dorsum  is  extended  so  as  to  include  four  rows  of 
tubercles,  and  on  the  second  and  third  segments  it  is  divided  by  a medio-dorsal 
yellowish  line.  There  is  also  a yellowish  line  on  segments  four  to  nine  between  the 
first  and  second  rows  of  tubercles  each  side.  The  black  coloring  on  the  outside  of 
these  lines  is  not  so  intense  as  it  is  within  them.  The  anterior  of  the  two  lowest 
spines  on  the  second  segment  is  five-sixths  as  long  as  the  posterior  one.  Otherwise 
as  in  the  preceding  stage.  Length,  when  fully  grown,  5mm. 

Duration  of  this  stage,  fourteen  days. 

Pupa. — Light  citron  yellow,  head  almost  surrounded  with  blackish,  first  three  seg- 
ments each  marked  with  a pair  of  oblique  black  dorsal  spots,  those  on  the  second 
segment  the  largest ; fourth  segment  marked  with  a pair  of  small  black  dorsal  dots 


20 


which  are  scarcely  apparent;  segments  five  to  eight  each  marked  with  a pair  of 
black  dorsal  spots,  those  on  the  sixth  and  seventh  segments  larger  than  the  others ; 
wing-cases  bordered  above  with  black;  surface  thinly  covered  with  a light  yellow 
pubescence ; length,  5mm. 

Duration  of  this  stage,  fourteen  days. 

From  these  data  it  will  be  seen  that  this  species  passes  through  its 
various  stages  in  a somewhat  shorter  time  than  is  the  case  with  Orcus 
australasice.  In  all  of  its  stages  it  is  much  more  delicate  than  the  last- 
named  species,  and  the  beetles  appear  to  be  much  shorter  lived.  On 
the  14th  of  May  I placed  twenty  adults  of  Orcus  chalybeus  in  one  of  my 
breeding  cages  and  kept  them  well  supplied  with  specimens  of  Aspi- 
diotus  ciurantii  and  Lecanium  olece , but  no  eggs  were  laid  until  about 
two  months  later,  or  on  the  25th  of  July;  and  the  last  beetle  in  this 
cage  died  on  the  2d  of  August.  Specimens  of  Orcus  australasice , 
obtained  at  the  same  time  as  these  and  treated  in  the  same  manner, 
were  still  living  nearly  two  months  after  the  last  chalybeus  had  died. 

On  the  lOtli  of  August  a larva  of  chalybeus , only  four  days  old,  was 
attacked  by  a whitish,  feathery  fungus  which  spread  out  on  all  sides 
of  its  body,  giving  the  latter  the  appearance  of  resting  upon  a minia- 
ture mat  of  feathers.  I submitted  this  specimen  to  Dr.  Galloway,  the 
mycologist  of  this  Department,  by  whom  it  was  referred  to  Mr.  J.  B. 
Ellis,  a well-known  authority  upon  fungi,  who  reported  that  this  fungus 
was  either  the  Microcera  coccophila , or  else  a species  of  Isaria,  probably 
the  latter.  The  Microcera  here  alluded  to  is  known  to  attack  various 
kinds  of  scale-insects  in  Australia,  and  it  would  be  interesting  to  learn 
if  the  spores  of  this  fungus  were  brought  over  with  the  ladybirds 
recently  imported  from  that  country;  but  a second  letter  to  Dr.  Gallo- 
way upon  this  subject  elicited  the  fact  that  the  specimen  in  question 
had  been  mislaid  and  could  not  be  found. 

Novius  koebelei. — Egg. — Elongate-ovate,  two  and  a half  times  as  broad,  the  sur- 
face very  scabrous ; color,  deep  orange-red;  length,  0.75mm.  Attached  lengthwise  to 
the  body  of  an  Icerya,  or  thrust  into  the  egg-sac  of  the  latter. 

Time  from  disposition  to  hatching,  six  days. 

Larva. — First  stage. — Body,  including  the  head  and  legs,  blood-red,  the  first  three 
segments  each  marked  with  a pair  of  subdorsal  black  spots,  those  on  the  first  seg- 
ment the  largest ; first  segment  bearing  four  long  bristles,  two  on  each  side,  besides 
two  shorter  ones  near  the  front  end ; second  segment  bearing  a transverse  pair  of 
bristles  each  side,  of  which  the  upper  bristle  is  the  shorter;  third  segment  like  the 
second ; segments  four  to  nine,  each  bearing  a single  long  stigmatal  bristle  each 
side,  which  springs  from  a small  black  tubercle ; segments  ten  and  eleven  on  each 
side  bearing  a subdorsal  and  a stigmatal  bristle;  twelfth  segment  destitute  of 
bristles;  the  long  bristles  described  above  are  slightly  longer  than  the  transverse 
diameter  of  the  body,  and  curved  upward;  there  are  also  several  much  shorter 
curved  bristles  thinly  scattered  over  the  body,  and  they  likewise  occur  on  the  head 
and  legs;  on  the  under  side  of  each  femur  are  two  long  bristles;  each  tarsus  bears 
four  rather  long,  knobbed  bristles,  resembling  the  digitules  on  the  tarsi  of  certain 
kinds  of  Coccids.  Towards  the  end  of  this  stage  the  body  becomes  thinly  covered 
over  with  a very  short,  white,  woolly  substance. 

Duration  of  this  stage,  live  days. 


21 


Second  stage. — Same  as  the  first,  with  these  exceptions : First  segment  hearing  twelve 
long  bristles,  of  which  four  are  in  a row  along  each  side  of  this  segment,  one  is  located 
slightly  above  the  second  bristle  in  each  of  these  rows  counting  from  behind,  besides 
a subdorsal  bristle  each  side,  situated  near  the  middle  of  this  segment;  segments 
three  to  seven  each  bear  a transverse  pair  of  bristles  each  side ; the  longest  bristles 
scarcely  exceed  the  transverse  diameter  of  the  body. 

Duration  of  this  stage,  three  clays. 

Third  stage. — Body,  blood-red,  the  subdorsal  region  being  the  darkest,  but  there 
are  no  definite  black  markings;  first  segment  bearing  fourteen  bristles,  six  of  which 
are  in  a row  on  each  side  of  the  segment,  and  one  is  situated  above  the  second 
bristle  in  each  of  these  rows,  counting  from  behind ; segments  two  and  three  each 
bearing  a stigmatal  cluster  of  four  bristles  each  side  and  with  a single  bristle  in  front 
of  each  of  these  clusters;  segments  four  to  nine  each  bearing  a stigmatal  cluster  of 
four  bristles  each  side;  segment  ten  bears  a subdorsal  bristle  besides  the  stigmatal 
cluster  of  four  bristles  each  side;  segment  eleven  bears  a subdorsal  bristle  and  a 
stigmatal  cluster  of  three  bristles  each  side;  segment  twelve  bears  a transverse  row 
of  four  rather  short  bristles;  each  of  the  clusters  of  bristles  above  described  issues 
from  a large  elongated  tubercle  the  apex  of  which  is  rounded  and  blackish;  the  bris- 
tles in  these  clusters  are  arranged  one  in  front,  another  behind,  and  with  a transverse 
pair  between  them,  but  on  the  eleventh  segment  the  anterior  bristle  is  wanting; 
these  bristles  are  of  unequal  lengths,  the  transverse  pair  being  longer  than  the  others, 
these  but  slightly  exceeding  one-half  of  the  transverse  diameter  of  the  body;  head 
slightly  darker  than  the  body  and  marked  with  a black  spot  on  each  side ; legs  red, 
the  tarsi  slightly  blackish ; the  surface  of  the  body  is  thinly  covered  with  a very  short, 
white,  crinkled,  woolly  substance  which  does  not  entirely  conceal  the  ground  color. 

Duration  of  this  stage,  three  days. 

Fourth  stage. — Same  as  the  third  stage,  with  these  exceptions : Body  marked  each 
side  by  a subdorsal  black  stripe  which  passes  between  two  rows  of  low,  transversely 
oval  warts  which  are  blackish  at  their  apices,  two  warts  to  each  segment,  except  on 
the  second  and  third  segments,  Avhere  only  the  lower  wart  is  present,  but  neither 
the  warts  nor  the  black  stripes  extend  upon  the  first  segment ; this  segment  bears 
eighteen  bristles,  of  which  seven  are  arranged  in  a row  along  each  side  of  the  seg- 
ment, and  one  is  situated  above  the  first  and  second  bristles  in  each  of  these  rows, 
counting  from  behind;  the  eleventh  segment  bears  a stigmatal  cluster  of  four 
bristles  each  side;  the  remaining  bristles  are  arranged  as  in  the  preceding  stage. 

Duration  of  this  stage,  ten  days. 

Pupa. — Orange-red,  first  segment  marked  with  a medio-dorsal  black  spot,  second 
and  third  segments  each  with  a large  transverse  black  spot;  segments  six,  seven, 
and  eight  each  with  a transverse  black  spot  on  its  anterior  end,  that  on  the  sixth 
sometimes  divided  medially  into  two  spots;  surface  thinly  covered  with  a short, 
light  yellow,  mostly  recumbent  pubescence,  which  converges  towards  the  middle  of 
the  dorsum,  forming  a small  cluster  near  the  center  of  each  segment;  length,  4mm. 

Duration  of  this  stage,  fourteen  days. 

About  three  days  before  pupation  takes  place,  the  full-grown  larva 
attaches  itself  to  some  object  by  the  posterior  part  of  the  body,  and  in 
pupating  the  old  larval  skin  is  rent  from  the  head  to  the  anterior  end 
of  the  seventh  segment,  and  is  allowed  to  remain,  partially  enveloping 
the  pupa.  About  ten  days  after  pupation  takes  place  the  pupa-skin  is 
rent,  disclosing  the  included  beetle,  but  the  latter  does  not  issue  from 
the  pupa-case  until  four  days  after  this  stage  is  reached. 

This  ladybird  breeds  as  readily  in  confinement  as  does  the  Vedalia  car- 
dinalis  and  closely  resembles  the  latter  in  all  of  its  stages.  The  obser- 


22 


vations  above  recorded  were  made  during  the  months  of  August  and 
September,  and  the  insects  were  kept  in  glass  jars  in  a sunny  window 
of  my  office.  The  eggs  are  darker  and  much  rougher  than  those  of  the 
Icerya,  which  they  otherwise  closely  resemble,  and  are  usually  thrust 
into  the  egg  sac  of  the  latter.  The  young  larvae  prefer  the  eggs  of  the 
Icerya  to  the  insects  themselves  as  food,  and  shortly  after  issuing  from 
the  eggs  they  burrow  into  an  egg  sac  and  frequently  remain  in  it  until 
full  grown.  On  several  different  occasions  I have  reared  a Novius 
larva  from  the  egg  to  the  adult  state  upon  the  eggs  in  a single  egg  mass 
of  the  Icerya.  They  spend  a somewhat  longer  time  in  their  preparatory 
stages  than  the  Vedalia  does,  this  being  especially  noticeable  in  the 
pupa  stage;  and  being  much  smaller  insects  they  do  not  destroy  the 
leery  as  as  rapidly  as  the  Yedalia  does.  The  latter  appears  to  x>refer 
the  Novius  larvce  to  the  Iceryas  for  food,  and  whenever  the  larvm  of 
these  two  ladybirds  inhabit  the  same  plant  the  Novius  larva  falls  a 
prey  to  its  more  powerful  rival.  I learn  from  Mr.  John  Scott,  the 
Horticultural  Commissioner  of  Los  Angeles  county,  that  he  introduced 
a few  Vedalia  larvae  into  a glass  jar  containing  a colony  of  the  Novius, 
and,  although  he  kept  them  well  supplied  with  Iceryas  for  food,  still  in 
a short  time  the  Vedalias  had  completely  annihilated  the  Novius 
larvae. 

Leis  conformis. — Egg. — Elongate-ovate,  twice  as  long  as  broad,  the  outline  quite 
regular,  tapering  gradually  toward  each  end,  the  upper  end  convex,  the  lower  one 
flattened  at  its  attachment;  surface  highly  polished,  hut  under  a highly  magnifying 
power  appearing  somewhat  scabrous,  owing  to  minute,  blisterlike,  raised  spots 
which  are  thinly  scattered  over  its  surface ; color,  light  lemon-yellow ; length,  l£ram. 

The  eggs  are  attached  by  one  end  to  a leaf  or  other  object  and  are 
deposited  in  clusters  of  from  three  to  forty-one  eggs  each.  Time  from 
deposition  to  hatching,  seven  days. 

Larva:  First  stage. — Body  of  the  usual  Coccinellid  form,  being  widest  in  front  and 
tapering  quite  rapidly  posteriorly;  olive-brown,  varied  with  black,  and  bearing 
many  black,  somewhat  conical  tubercles,  each  tipped  with  a black  style  which  at  its 
apex  is  compressed  laterally  and  is  truncate  or  sometimes  slightly  emarginate;  first 
segment  somewhat  flattened  above  and  bearing  a circle  of  twenty-six  tubercles;  of 
these,  the  anterior  fourteen  (seven  on  each  side)  are  arranged  in  a single  row,  and 
the  style  at  the  apex  of  each  is  longer  than  the  tubercle  itself;  next  to  these  are 
four  transverse  pairs  of  tubercles,  two  pairs  on  each  side  of  the  segment,  the  two 
tubercles  composing  the  second  pair  being  united  at  their  bases;  following  these 
are  four  tubercles  two  on  each  side,  in  which,  as  also  in  the  tubercles,  comprising 
the  four  pairs  above  mentioned,  the  style  is  shorter  than  the  tubercle  itself:  besides 
this  circle  of  tubercles,  there  is  also  a transverse  pair  near  the  center  of  this  segment  ; 
second  segment,  on  each  side,  bearing  a subdorsal  oblique  pair  of  tubercles  which 
are  united  at  their  bases,  a suprastigmatal  cluster  of  five  tubercles,  three  of  which 
are  united  at  their  bases,  the  other  two  being  slightly  above  and  on  either  side  of 
them;  below  this  cluster  is  a single  tubercle  in  front  of  which  is  a stout  bristle; 
third  segment  the  same  as  the  second  except  that  the  suprastigmatal  cluster  con- 
tains only  four  tubercles,  the  anterior  of  the  two  single  ones  being  absent;  fourth 
segment,  on  each  side,  bearing  a subdorsal  cluster  of  three  tubercles  united  at  their 
bases,  a suprastigmatal  pair  of  tubercles  which  are  also  united  at  their  bases,  and 
below  them  is  a single  tubercle;  segments  five  to  eleven  are  the  same  as  the  fourth 'r 


23 


each  of  the  tubercles  on  segments  two  to  eleven  is  longer  than  the  style  at  its  apex; 
twelfth  segment  on  each  side  bearing  two  subdorsal  and  two  small  stigmatal,  widely 
separated  tubercles,  each  of  which  is  shorter  than  the  style  at  its  apex;  head  polished 
black  and  bearing  a few  stout  bristles;  legs  black  and  also  bearing  a few  stout 
bristles. 

Duration  of  this  stage,  three  days. 

Second  stage. — Same  as  the  first,  except  that  the  color  of  the  body  is  black  and  the 
tubercles  on  the  seventh  segment  are  yellow;  the  styles  of  the  tubercles  are  not  com- 
pressed at  their  tips;  the  united  bases  of  the  tubercles  which  are  arranged  in  pairs 
or  in  threes  are  longer  than  the  tubercles  proper  and  each  bears  a few  slender 
lateral  bristles ; the  posterior  tubercle  in  each  cluster  of  three  is  longer  than  either 
of  the  others  in  the  same  cluster. 

Duration  of  this  stage,  three  days. 

Third  stage. — Same  as  the  second,  except  that  sometimes,  but  not  always,  some  or 
all  of  the  tubercles  on  the  fourth  segment  are  yellow. 

Duration  of  this  stage,  three  days. 

Fourth  stage. — There  is  no  appreciable  difference  between  this  and  the  preceding 
stage. 

This  is  as  far  as  I was  able  to  carry  these  larvae,  a host  of  mites 
belonging  to  the  species  Heteropus  rentricosus  of  Newport  having 
invaded  my  breeding  cages  and  in  a very  short  time  destroyed  not  only 
these  larvae,  but  also  many  others  which  I was  rearing  at  the  same 
time,  the  soft,  recently  transformed  chrysalides  and  pupae  being 
attacked  as  well  as  the  smaller  larvae  of  all  descriptions.  No  specimens 
of  the  Leis  were  received  by  me  after  the  above  date,  so  I was  unable 
to  procure  a fresh  colony  of  larvae  and  thus  complete  the  life  history. 

On  the  14th  of  May  I placed  in  one  of  my  breeding  cages  about  a 
dozen  adult  specimens  of  Leis  conformis  and  supplied  them  with  orange 
twigs  infested  with  an  undetermined  species  of  Aphis.  Three  days 
later  some  of  the  beetles  were  paired,  and  on  the  19th  of  May  I exam- 
ined the  twigs  in  this  cage,  but  found  no  eggs;  I then  replenished  it 
with  fresh  twigs  infested  with  the  Aphides,  and  in  the  afternoon  of  the 
same  day  this  cage  contained  two  clusters  of  eggs,  containing  seven 
and  ten  eggs,  respectively.  The  beetles  were  very  lively  and  fed 
greedily  upon  the  Aphides.  The  females  laid  eggs  readily  in  confine- 
ment, even  when  inclosed  in  a small- sized  box.  The  larvae  were  com- 
paratively easy  to  rear  and  fed  readily  upon  the  Aphides,  large  numbers 
of  which  were  destroyed  in  a day  by  a single  larva. 

Undetermined  Coccinellid,  (elytra  yellow,  marked  with  six  black  spots). — 
Egg. — Elongate-ellipsoidal,  two  and  a half  times  as  long  as  broad,  light  lemon-yellow, 
the  upper  end  marked  with  a rather  large  white  spot,  surface  highly  polished,  but 
under  a high  magnifying  power  appearing  slightly  scabrous,  owing  to  minute  blister- 
like spots,  which  are  scattered  over  its  surface ; length,  ljm,n. 

Placed  on  end  in  clusters  of  about  ten  eggs  each.  Time  from  depo- 
sition to  hatching,  five  days. 

Larva:  First  stage. — Body  of  the  usual  Coccinellid  form,  olive-brown  varied  with 
black*  sides  of  the  fourth  segment  lighter,  almost  white;  first  segment  bearing  a 
circle  of  twenty-six  elongated  tubercles,  besides  a transverse  pair  near  the  center 


24 


of  the  dorsum;  second  segment,  on  each  side,  hearing  a subdorsal  cluster  of  three 
tubercles,  a suprastigmatal  cluster  of  five,  below  which  is  a pair  of  tubercles,  and 
there  is  also  a single  tubercle  situated  between  the  subdorsal  and  suprastigmatal 
clusters;  third  segment  on  each  side  bearing  a subdorsal  and  a suprastigmatal 
cluster  of  three  tubercles,  while  between  these  two  clusters,  and  also  below  the  low- 
est one,  is  a pair  of  tubercles ; fourth  segment,  on  each  side,  bearing  a subdorsal 
and  a suprastigmatal  cluster  of  three  tubercles,  and  below  the  latter  is  a pair  of 
tubercles,  the  anterior  of  which  is  smaller  than  the  posterior  one ; segments  five  to 
eleven  are  the  same  as  the  fourth ; all  of  the  tubercles  above  described  are  black ; 
twelfth  segment,  on  each  side,  bearing  a pair  of  subdorsal  and  a widely  separated 
pair  of  stigmata!  bristles;  head  polished  black. 

I was  unable  to  carry  these  larvae  any  further,  owing  to  the  invasion 
of  the  mites  above  referred  to.  Two  of  the  beetles  were  destroyed  by 
internal  parasites,  as  already  stated  on  a previous  page  of  this  report  ; 
the  remaining  beetles  died  without  depositing  eggs,  and  as  no  more 
specimens  of  this  insect  were  received  from  Australia  subsequently,  I 
was  unable  to  obtain  any  more  eggs  of  this  species  and  thus  complete 
its  life  history. 

The  beetles  were  received  at  the  same  time  as  the  Leis  conformis  above 
described,  and  were  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  latter.  They 
were  not  as  lively  as  these  and  did  not  deposit  eggs  so  readily  in  con- 
finement. Both  the  adults  as  well  as  the  larvae  fed  greedily  upon  the 
Aphides  which  I introduced  into  their  breeding  cages. 

Thalpochares  cocciphaga. — Egg. — Turnip-shaped,  being  twice  as  broad  as  high, 
attached  at  one  end,  the  upper  end  rather  deeply  concave  and  furnished  with  a small 
rounded  tubercle  in  the  center;  surface  covered  with  irregular  raised  lines  which 
encircle  the  egg,  besides  others  which  extend  vertically,  these  lines  forming  shallow 
cells  of  various  shapes  and  sizes;  diameter,  nearly  -pnni.  Deposited  singly. 

Larva. — First  stage. — Body  whitish;  head  grayish-black;  cervical  shield  dark 
gray;  provided  with  six  thoracic,  four  abdominal,  and  two  anal  legs,  the  abdominal 
legs  located  on  the  eighth  and  ninth  segments;  these  as  well  as  the  anal  prolegs  are 
extremely  short,  but  are  encircled  with  minute  hooks  at  their  tips. 

Full-grown  larva. — Body  very  robust,  dull  white,  usually  with  a tinge  of  yellow  or 
pink;  piliferous  spots  indistinct,  pale  brown;  spiracles  yellowish;  head  and  cervical 
shield  blackish-brown;  no  anal  plate;  legs  as  in  the  first  stage;  length,  8mm. 

Chrysalis. — Of  the  usual  form,  light  yellowisli-brown;  destitute  of  transverse  rows 
of  teeth-like  processes;  posterior  end  rounded  and  bearing  a transverse,  slightly 
curved  row  of  six  rather  short,  recurved  spines. 

Shortly  after  issuiug  from  the  egg  the  larva  spins  around  its  body  an 
oval  case  of  light  gray  silk,  which  it  drags  around  after  it  when  crawl- 
ing about  in  search  of  food.  This  consists  of  the  younger  specimens  of 
Lecanium  olece , and  perhaps  also  the  young  of  other  kinds  of  Coccids. 
As  the  larva  increases  in  size  it  enlarges  its  case  by  the  addition  of  new 
material,  and  it  frequently  attaches  to  the  outside  of  its  case  fragments 
of  the  scales,  besides  various  other  small  objects,  these  being  so  small 
in  size  as  to  be  scarcely  noticeable  except  upon  a close  inspection.  The 
case  is  closed  at  one  end,  while  at  the  opposite  end  is  a somewhat 
square  opening,  out  of  which  the  larva  protrudes  its  head  and  the  fore 
part  of  the  body  when  feeding  or  when  moving  about  upon  the  tree. 
Each  of  the  four  sides  of  this  opening  is  furnished  with  a rounded  silken 


25 


lobe,  or  prolongation  of  the  case,  and  these  lobes  converge  toward  the 
center  of  the  opening,  thus  closing  the  latter  when  the  larva  retreats 
into  its  case.  After  each  meal  the  larva  fastens  its  case  to  the  bark 
by  a few  silken  threads,  then  retreats  into  its  case  and  remains  hidden 
from  view  until  the  pangs  of  hunger  again  force  it  to  come  out  in 
search  of  food.  The  chrysalis  stage  is  passed  within  the  silken  case, 
and  frequently  ten  or  a dozen  of  the  cases  are  fastened  together  in  a 
mass  by  their  occupants  a short  time  before  the  latter  assume  the 
chrysalis  form. 

It  is  quite  impossible  to  extract  one  of  these  larvae  from  its  silken 
case  without  fatally  injuring  the  larva,  so  firmly  does  it  retain  its  hold 
upon  the  inside  of  the  case  by  means  of  the  small  hooks  with  which  the 
prolegs  are  provided,  and  nothing  short  of  cutting  open  the  case  will 
accomplish  the  removal  of  the  larva.  When  removed  from  its  case  and 
placed  upon  a flat  surface  the  larva  is  able  to  move  about,  but  only  very 
slowly,  and  in  walking  the  posterior  end  of  the  body  is  elevated,  no  use 
being  made  of  the  last  pair  of  prolegs.  Whenever  two  of  the  larvae  thus 
removed  from  their  cases  meet  each  other  a fight  is  almost  certain  to 
occur,  each  larva  seeking  to  grasp  with  its  mandibles  the  mouth  parts 
of  the  other,  and,  if  successful,  it  will  frequently  shake  from  side  to  side 
the  head  and  fore  part  of  the  body  of  its  opponent,  somewhat  as  a terrier 
shakes  a rat.  In  these  encounters  the  softer  parts  of  the  body  are  never 
attacked,  and  the  encounters  are  apparently  in  the  nature  of  sport. 
The  moths,  as  might  be  expected,  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  remain- 
ing x>erfectly  quiet  during  the  daytime  and  coming  forth  rather  early 
in  the  evening. 

My  notes  on  this  species  are  necessarily  imperfect,  as  but  few  of  the 
larvae  were  obtained  from  eggs  laid  in  confinement,  and  in  order  to 
work  up  their  complete  life  history  it  would  be  necessary  to  frequently 
remove  the  larvae  from  their  cases,  and  this  I was  unwilling  to  do  until 
the  species  becomes  firmly  established  in  this  State. 

At  the  present  writing  two  of  the  most  important  of  the  imported 
species,  the  Orcus  australasiw  and  Orcus  chalybeus , are  breeding  in  two 
localities  in  this  city,  as  well  as  in  an  olive  grove  in  Santa  Barbara 
County,  and  the  former  species  is  also  breeding  in  Alameda  County. 
While  they  do  not  increase  with  sufficient  rapidity  to  give  us  the  as- 
surance that  they  will  be  able  to  practically  free  all  of  the  trees  in 
this  State  of  the  different  kinds  of  scale  insects  that  infest  them,  still 
they  will  undoubtedly  prove  valuable  allies  in  keeping  these  scale 
insects  in  check. 

Novius  Icceuelei  is  also  firmly  established  here.  I have  it  breeding 
in  my  office  at  the  present  writing,  and  have  sent  a few  colonies  to  dif- 
ferent localities  in  the  State.  The  horticultural  commissioner  of  this 
county,  Mr.  John  Scott,  also  has  colonies  of  this  insect  breeding  in  his 
office,  and  has  sent  out  colonies  in  place  of  the  Vedalia  cardinalis. 
While  this  last-named  insect  has  effectually  kept  in  check  the  destruc- 


26 


tive  Fluted  or  Cottony-cushion  Seale  ( lcerya  purchasi ),  still  of  course 
there  is  abundant  room  for  this  second  species  to  aid  in  this  commend- 
able work.  Being  much  smaller  than  the  Vedalia  and  not  passing 
through  its  changes  anymore  rapidly,  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  the 
Novius  could  have  accomplished  the  same  work  in  the  same  time  that 
the  Yedalia  did  in  California. 

It  is  very  probable  that  four  other  kinds  of  beneficial  insects,  the 
Leis  conformis , Alesia  fromata , the  reddish-yellow  ladybird  with  six 
elytral  black  spots,  and  the  small  black  one  with  two  large  elytral  red 
spots,  are  also  established  here,  but  these  were  received  in  such  small 
numbers  that  some  little  time  must  elapse  before  they  will  have  multi- 
plied sufficiently  to  be  met  with  except  after  a long  and  careful  search 
for  them.  It  is  also  possible  that  the  Cryptolsemus  and  two  or  three 
species  of  Scymnids,  as  well  as  the  Thalpochares,  may  yet  be  found  to 
have  gained  a foothold  here,  but  this  can  be  determined  only  after  the 
lapse  of  several  months,  or  perhaps  even  longer  than  this.  I have 
already  alluded  to  the  fact  that  the  Scymnus  loplianthce  was  also  among 
the  specimens  introduced,  but  this  can  hardly  be  considered  an  intro- 
duction in  the  same  light  as  the  other  species,  since  it  was  already 
established  here  before  these  later  specimens  were  received. 

I have  not  observed  that  either  of  the  two  species  of  fungi  received 
from  Australia,  the  one  attacking  Lecanium  olece , the  other  on  Aspidi- 
otus  aurantii , has  spread  to  the  healthy  scale  insects,  but  of  course  it 
is  possible  that  the  spores  of  these  fungi  may  remain  dormant  until  the 
wet  season  sets  in. 


THE  WALNUT  SPAN-WORM. 

The  English  Walnut  is  quite  extensively  grown  in  certain  localities 
in  this  State,  and,  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  care  bestowed  upon 
it,  yields  a larger  revenue  than  almost  any  other  tree  grown  upon  this 
coast.  It  is  remarkably  free  from  the  attacks  of  insects,  those  here- 
tofore known  to  attack  it  never  occurring  in  sufficient  numbers  to  cause 
any  widespread  destruction  of  the  trees  or  nuts.  Two  years  ago, 
however,  a span-worm  appeared  in  such  large  numbers  in  a certain 
locality  that  many  trees  were  almost  completely  defoliated  by  it. 

The  first  intimation  I received  in  regard  to  the  appearance  of  this 
new  pest  was  a letter  from  Hon.  Ell  wood  Cooper,  of  Santa  Barbara, 
under  date  of  April  29,  1890,  and  which  reads  as  follows: 

I send  you  by  this  mail  a box  of  worms.  Please  write  me  by  return  mail  what 
they  are,  whether  from  a moth,  miller,  butterfly,  or  beetle.  What  kind  of  eggs,  and 
the  time  required  for  them  to  hatch?  When  do  the  worms  go  into  the  pupa  state, 
and  where?  Nothing  of  this  kind  has  ever  been  seen  on  the  ranch  before.  My  fore- 
man said  he  saw  the  very  small  worms  about  ten  days  ago.  I had  never  seen  any- 
thing on  the  walnut  trees,  and  hence  did  not  at  once  go  to  look  after  them.  A few 
days  later  I made  an  examination,  but  could  find  no  eggs,  yet  very  minute  worms. 
I sent  the  foreman,  but  none  could  be  found.  The  eggs  must  have  been  laid  on  the 
twigs,  because  the  leaves  have  only  been  out  about  fourteen  days.  About  one  week 


27 


ago  there  were  but  few  signs,  now  the  whole  thing  is  being  eaten  up.  I never  saw 
anything  so  ravenous.  Please  write  me  at  once  what  to  do  and  what  it  is.  I fear 
the  crop  is  gone.— Ellwood  Cooper. 

Thinking  the  matter  of  sufficient  importance  to  require  investigating, 
I paid  a visit  to  Mr.  Cooper  soon  after  the  middle  of  May.  Prior  to 
this,  however,  the  trees  had  been  sprayed  with  Paris  green  and  water 
at  the  rate  of  1 pound  of  Paris  green  to  130  gallons  of  water,  and  now 
it  was  no  easy  matter  to  find  any  living,  healthy  worms.  The  trees  at- 
tacked were  very  large  ones,  being  about  30  feet  high,  and  the  branches 
extending  a distance  of  nearly  20  feet,  making  for  the  tops  of  the  trees 
a diameter  approximating  40  feet.  The  span-worms  appeared  upon 
nearly  every  tree  in  a grove  containing  20  acres,  but  they  were  most 
abundant  near  the  center  of  the  grove,  where  they  had  almost  com- 
pletely defoliated  the  trees.  They  also  appeared  upon  the  walnut  trees 
in  an  adjacent  grove,  but  not  in  such  large  numbers  as  in  the  one  above 
mentioned.  Mr.  Cooper  informed  me  that  he  has  lived  on  this  ranch 
continuously  for  nineteen  years,  but  never  before  had  these  or  any 
other  kind  of  span-worms  appeared  upon  his  trees  in  sufficient  num- 
bers to  attract  attention,  and  he  is  unable  to  account  for  the  present  in- 
vasion. 

The  following  year  these  span-worms  were  also  present  upon  some 
of  the  trees,  but  were  far  less  numerous  than  during  the  preceding 
year.  The  infested  trees  were  again  sprayed  with  Paris  green  and 
water  at  the  rate  of  1 pound  to  180  gallons,  and  this  effectually  de- 
stroyed the  span-worms.  In  the  month  of  March  of  the  present  year, 
however,  Mr.  Cooper  wrote  me  that  the  span-worms  were  again  appear- 
ing in  large  pumbers  and  requested  me  to  come  to  his  ranch  and  inves- 
tigate them.  Having  received  instructions  from  Hr.  Eiley  to  this  ef- 
fect, I again,  on  the  6tli  of  April,  visited  Mr.  Cooper,  and  found  that, 
while  the  span-worms  were  quite  abundant  upon  some  of  the  trees,  still 
they  were  in  much  smaller  numbers  than  during  the  season  of  1890.  I 
also  made  a careful  examination  of  the  trees  growing  near  the  walnut 
trees;  these  consisted  of  Olive,  Persimmon,  Eucalyptus,  Sycamore,  Al- 
der, Oak,  Elder,  Willow,  and  a few  other  kinds  of  trees,  besides  various 
kinds  of  shrubs  and  plants,  but  failed  to  find  specimens  of  this  span- 
worm  upon  any  of  them,  with  the  single  exception  of  the  Oak  (Quercus 
agrifolia).  The  new,  spring  growth  was  just  starting  out  upon  this 
tree,  and  I found  several  of  these  span-worms  feeding  upon  the  newly 
expanded  oak  leaves;  a careful  comparison  of  these  oak-feeding  speci- 
mens with  those  from  the  walnut  trees  failed  to  disclose  the  slightest 
difference,  and  when  I tested  them  with  walnut  leaves  they  also  fed 
readily  upon  them.  Several  trees  of  black  walnuts  are  also  growing  on 
Mr.  Cooper’s  ranch,  but  these  were  not  yet  in  leaf  at  the  time  of  my 
visit. 

During  a visit  which  I made,  in  the  latter  part  of  April,  to  portions 
of  Alameda  and  Santa  Clara  counties  I found  specimens  of  this  same 


28 


kind  of  span-worm  on  some  apple  and  prune  trees  as  well  as  on  Eng- 
lish walnuts  in  some  of  the  orchards  of  the  above-mentioned  counties. 
Under  date  of  April  27,  1892,  Mr.  Cooper  writes  me  that  lie  recently 
found  this  pest  in  three  other  groves  of  English  walnut  in  Santa  Bar- 
bara County,  where  it  was  very  destructive  to  the  leaves  of  these  trees- 
Thus  it  appears  that  already  this  span-worm  is  quite  widely  distributed 
over  the  State,  and  unless  active  measures  are  adopted  to  suppress  it 
there  is  every  probability  that  it  will  in  time  very  seriously  interfere 
with  the  profitable  growing  of  English  walnuts  upon  this  coast. 
Unfortunately,  the  moths  have  not  yet  issued,  so  it  is  impossible  at  the 
present  writing  to  identify  the  species  or  to  ascertain  if  it  has  proved 
destructive  in  other  States  than  our  own. 

The  eggs  from  which  these  span -worms  hatch  are  flattened  oval,  as 
if  compressed  between  the  thumb  and  finger;  the  surface  is  quite  scab- 
rous, and  bears  numerous  minute  transverse  ridges;  at  each  end  of 
the  egg  are  numerous  quite  large,  shallow  punctures;  the  color  is  a 
dark  greyish  drab,  with  a strong  brassy  tinge;  length,  about  g-min. 

These  eggs  are  fastened  to  the  small  twigs  of  trees,  in  loose,  irregu- 
lar patches,  each  egg  lying  on  one  of  its  flattened  sides;  there  is  no 
regularity  in  their  arrangement  upon  the  bark  of  the  twig.  One  piece 
of  a twig  an  inch  and  a half  long  by  a quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter 
contains  upwards  of  two  hundred  of  these  eggs.  The  young  span-worm 
issues  through  a nearly  circular  hole  in  the  larger  end  of  the  egg,  and 
the  empty  eggshell  is  of  an  iridescent,  pearly  white  color. 

The  full-grown  span-worm  closely  resembles  the  larva  of  the  Eastern 
Angerona  crocataria  as  figured  on  PI.  viii,  Eig.  6,  of  Packard’s  “Guide 
to  the  Study  of  Insects,”  but  the  piliferous  spots  are  larger,  giving  to 
the  body  a much  rougher  appearance,  and  when  viewed  from  the  side 
there  is  seen  to  be  a large  prominence  on  the  dorsum  of  the  fourth  and 
sixth  segments  as  well  as  on  the  fifth  and  eleventh.  I give  herewith  a 
detailed  description  of  this  span-worm,  in  order  that  it  may  be  recog- 
nized in  the  future : 

Body  of  nearly  an  equal  thickness  throughout  its  length,  the  head  and  first  tho- 
racic segment  slightly  wider  than  the  rest  of  the  body;  head  as  seen  from  front  a 
trifle  wider  than  high,  the  lobes  rouuded  and  destitute  of  a tubercle  or  other  proc- 
ess; color  of  head  dark  brown,  variegated  with  yellowish;  body  light  pinkish 
gray  varied  with  darker  gray  or  purplish,  or  sometimes  with  black  aud  yellow,  never 
marked  with  distinct  lines ; piliferous  spots  tuberculiform,  black,  or  dark  brown,  and 
back  of  each  of  the  spiracles  situated  on  the  fifth  and  sixth  segments  is  a large,  coni- 
cal, fleshy  prominence  surmounted  by  a piliferous  spot,  and  on  the  dorsum  of  each  of 
the  segments  four,  five,  six,  and  eleven,  is  a pair  of  similar  but  smaller  prominences; 
in  front  of  the  pair  of  prominences  on  the  dorsum  of  the  eleventh  segment  is  a pair 
of  spots  which  are  of  a clearer  yellow  or  gray  than  the  ground  color,  each  spot 
usually  bordered  each  side  by  a short  black  line;  spiracles  orange-yellow,  ringed 
with  black  and  usually  situated  on  a yellow  spot;  venter  concolorous  with  the  upper 
side,  marked  in  the  middle  with  a faint  whitish  stripe,  and  with  a less  distinct  one 
near  each  outer  edge;  ten  legs;  length,  20ma‘. 


29 


These  span-worms  reach  their  full  growth  in  May  and  then  enter  the 
earth  to  a depth  of  from  two  to  four  inches ; here  each  one  forms  a smooth 
cell,  but  does  not  spin  a cocoon.  The  chrysalis  state  is  assumed  a few 
days  after  the  cell  is  completed,  but  the  moth  does  not  issue  until  the 
following  winter  or  early  spring.  The  chrysalis  is  of  the  usual  form, 
of  a dark  reddish  brown  color,  and  the  posterior  extremity  bears  two 
diverging  spines;  the  tips  of  the  wing-cases  almost  reach  the  posterior 
end  of  the  fifth  abdominal  segment;  length,  14mm. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  enemies  of  these  span-worms  are  cer- 
tain kinds  of  insectivorous  birds,  particularly  the  blackbirds,  which 
1 repeatedly  observed  in  the  infested  trees,  and  Mr.  Cooper  informs 
me  that  he  has  seen  one  of  these  birds  carrying  four  of  the  span- 
worms  in  its  beak.  Of  internal  parasites,  only  one  species  is  at  pres- 
ent known  to  me  to  attack  these  span-worms ; this  is  a small  black, 
four- winged  fly  belonging  to  the  genus  Apanteles.  The  sides  of  its 
abdomen  are  largely  yellow,  the  front  and  middle  legs,  including  their 
coxm,  are  also  yellow,  while  the  hind  legs,  with  the  exception  of  the 
tips  of  the  femora  and  tibiae,  and  the  whole  of  the  tarsi,  are  of  the 
same  color.  I found  several  of  the  white  cocoons  of  this  parasite 
attached  to  the  trunks  of  the  infested  trees  on  the  21st  of  May,  and 
near  each  was  the  shrunken  remains  of  one  of  the  span-worms  in  which 
the  parasite  had  lived.  One  of  the  parasitic  flies  issued  one  week 
later.  It  is  probable  that  a Tachina-fly  of  some  kind  also  attacks  these 
span-worms;  on  the  day  above  mentioned  I found  one  of  them  to  whose 
body  was  attached  a white  egg,  evidently  of  one  of  these  flies,  but  as 
no  parasite  issued  from  this  span-worm  I am  unable  to  settle  this  point 
at  the  present  time. 

Mr.  Cooper  informs  me  that  he  sprayed  some  of  the  infested  trees 
with  Buhach  and  water  at  the  rate  of  1 pound  to  50  gallons,  but  this 
did  not  destroy  the  span-worms.  He  also  tried  the  kerosene  emulsion, 
such  as  he  uses  for  the  destruction  of  the  Black  Scale  ( Lecanium  olece) 
on  olive  trees,  but  this  was  not  effectual.  Paris  green  was  also  used 
in  varying  strengths,  from  1 pound  in  50  gallons  to  1 pound  in  200  gal- 
lons of  water,  and  this  latter  strength  he  found  effectually  destroyed 
the  span-worms  without  injuring  the  trees.  With  each  100  gallons  of 
this  mixture  he  used  20  pounds  of  a soap  made  principally  of  mutton 
tallow  and  caustic  soda;  this  caused  the  solution  to  spread  more 
readily  over  the  leaves,  and  also  had  a tendency  to  cause  the  poison  to 
adhere  more  firmly.  The  soap  was  first  dissolved  in  hot  water,  after 
which  the  Paris  green  was  added,  then  the  balance  of  the  water,  and 
the  solution  was  kept  constantly  stirred  while  being  applied  to  the  trees. 
Mr.  Cooper  informs  me  that  five  men — one  to  drive  the  team,  one  to 
stir  the  solution  in  the  spraying  tank,  another  to  pump,  and  two  to 
handle  the  spraying  nozzles — sprayed  on  an  average  27  of  his  largest 
walnut  trees  in  a day;  this  is  equivalent  to  one  acre  of  trees  per  day. 


30 


THE  CODLING  MOTH. 

(Carpocapsa pomoneUa  Linn.) 

It  is  not  my  purpose  to  give  a complete  account  of  this  insect  at  the 
present  time;  its  habits  and  life  history  are  pretty  well  known  to  those 
of  our  fruit  growers  who  suffer  by  reason  of  the  inroads  it  makes  in 
their  deciduous  fruit  crops.  A very  full  account  of  this  pest,  written 
by  Mr.  L.  O.  Howard,  will  be  found  in  the  Annual  Deport  of  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture  for  the  year  1887  (pp.  88-115).  I will  there- 
fore simply  record  a few  additional  notes  which  have  come  under  my 
observation  during  the  last  eight  or  nine  years. 

In  the  above-mentioned  account  it  is  stated  that  in  the  northern 
part  of  this  country  the  Codling  Moth  is  two-brooded,  while  in  the 
south  it  is  three-brooded.  My  notes  indicate  that  in  California,  as 
might  be  expected,  it  is  also  three-brooded,  the  moths  from  the  hiber- 
nating worms  issuing  in  the  latter  part  of  March  and  during  the  first 
half  of  April,  those  of  the  next  brood  appearing  in  June  and  during 
the  first  half  of  July,  while  the  third  brood  of  moths  appear  in  August 
and  the  early  part  of  September. 

Of  the  two  kinds  of  internal  parasites  reported  as  preying  upon  the 
larvae  and  pupae  of  the  Codling  Moth  in  this  country,  the  Pimpla  annu - 
lipes  is  not  represented  in  my  collection  from  California.  The  second 
species,  Macrocentrus  delicatus , not  heretofore  known  to  occur  upon 
this  coast,  I have  never  bred  from  the  larvae  of  the  Codling  moth;  but 
my  notes  indicate  that  on  the  3d  of  September,  1891,  I bred  three 
specimens  of  this  parasite  from  larvae  of  a Tortricid,  Pcedisca  strenuana 
Walker,  which  lives  in  the  dry  stems  of  a wild  sunflower,  Helianthus 
annuus . I notice  that  in  volume  iii  of  Insect  Life  (p.  59),  the  editors 
record  having  bred  this  parasite  from  another  Tortricid,  the  Caccecia 
fervidana , as  well  as  from  one  of  the  Dagger-moths,  Acronycta  oblinita , 
making  in  all  four  different  insects  upon  which  it  is  known  to  prey. 

In  the  above-mentioned  account  it  is  stated  that  the  Dermestid 
beetles,  Trogoderma  tar  sale  and  Perimegatoma  variegatum , are  reported 
as  preying  upon  the  pupae  of  the  Codling  Moth  in  California.  My 
observations  on  the  larvae  of  these  two  beetles  lead  to  the  belief  that 
the  Trogoderma  larva  feeds  upon  dead  insects,  but  will  not  attack  the 
living  ones;  on  the  other  hand,  while  the  Perimegatoma  larva  doubt- 
less prefers  dead  insects  upon  which  to  feed,  yet  it  will  also  feed  upon 
the  smaller  living  pupae,  or  chrysalides,  of  moths;  and  perhaps  also 
those  of  other  insects. 

This  latter  larva  bears  quite  a close  resemblance  to  the  one  figured 
at  396,  on  page  448,  of  Packard’s  u Guide  to  the  Study  of  Insects.” 
It  is  of  a dark-browta  color,  with  the  sutures  of  the  segments  whitish  ; 
the  body  is  quite  hard,  somewhat  flattened,  of  nearly  an  eqffal  width 
throughout,  except  that  the  last  fourth  tapers  slightly  posteriorly, 
and  the  body  is  a trifle  widest  at  the  fourth  segment j there  are  appa 


31 


rently  only  eleven  segments,  the  first  of  which  is  the  longest,  and  is 
nearly  as  long  as  wide;  the  last  segment  is  rounded  behind,  and  is  des- 
titute of  a projection  of  any  kind;  the  body  is  thinly  clothed,  with 
rather  long  yellowish  and  dark-brown  hairs,  and  in  the  older  individu- 
als each  of  the  last  three  or  four  segments  bears  a transverse  pair  of 
short,  brush-like  tufts  of  black  hair,  which  are  wanting  in  the  younger 
individuals;  the  head  is  nearly  as  wide  as  the  first  segment  of  the 
body,  is  of  a reddish  brown  color,  and  is  thinly  covered  with  rather 
long  reddish  hairs.  This  larva  attains  a length  of  about  6mm,  and 
the  pupa  is  formed  within  the  old  larval  skin,  the  latter  simply  split- 
ting open  along  the  back.  The  larvae  are  found  during  the  greater 
portion  of  the  year,  and  are  quite  frequently  met  with  among  the  dead 
leaves  and  other  debris  lying  in  the  crotches  of  orange  trees.  I have 
bred  the  beetles  in  June  and  also  in  December. 

On  the  17th  of  July,  1890,  I found  a larva  of  this  kind  engaged  in 
feeding  upon  a dead  and  dry  moth.  I also  inclosed  three  of  them  in  a 
box  containing  a dead  and  dry  chrysalis  of  the  moth  Twniocampa  rufula , 
and  in  a few  days  they  had  devoured  it.  I then  placed  in  their  box  a 
living  chrysalis  of  this  moth,  but  they  did  not  harm  it,  and  in  due  time 
it  was  changed  to  a moth.  A fresh,  living  chrysalis  of  a Tineid  moth 
which  I placed  in  their  box,  however,  did  not  fare  so  well;  I saw  one  of 
the  larvae  feeding  upon  it,  and  it  was  finally  entirely  consumed.  I also 
placed  in  their  box  a living  chrysalis  of  a Codling  Moth  still  in  its 
cocoon,  and  they  finally  gnawed  a hole  through  the  cocoon,  entered, 
and  devoured  the  chrysalis. 

The  fact  above  recorded,  that  one  of  these  larvae  was  found  feeding 
upon  a dead,  dry  moth,  and  the  further  fact  that  the  larvae  devoured  a 
dead  dry  chrysalis  of  a moth,  but  would  not  attack  the  living  chrysalis 
of  the  same  kind  of  moth,  is  sufficient  evidence  to  prove  that  these 
larvae  prefer  dead  and  dry  insects  to  living  ones.  Still,  the  other  cases 
here  recorded  indicate  that  under  certain  conditions  they  also  attack 
the  healthy  living  chrysalides. 

The  larva  of  the  Trogoderma  quite  closely  resembles  that  of  the 
Perimegatoma  above  described,  but  is  a much  more  robust  form;  the 
body  is  widest  at  the  last  third  of  its  length,  and  is  of  a lighter,  more 
yellowish  color;  the  short  brushes  of  hairs  on  the  posterior  portion 
of  the  body  of  the  older  individuals  are  also  yellow  instead  of  black. 
I have  repeatedly  found  these  larvae  within  the  empty  cocoons  of  the 
Codling  Moth,  but  there  was  nothing  to  indicate  that  they  had  entered 
the  cocoons  prior  to  the  escape  of  the  moths,  and  it  is  probable  that  they 
fed  only  upon  the  empty  shell  of  the  chrysalis  and  the  cast-off  skin  of 
the  larva.  I placed  a dead  and  dry  Horse-fly  in  a box  containing  several 
of  these  larvae,  and  they  soon  attacked  it  and  in  a comparatively  short 
time  reduced  it  to  a powder.  I then  placed  in  their  box  a living  larva 
and  two  living  chrysalides  of  a Tineid  moth,  but  they  had  not  attacked 
either  of  them  after  a lapse  of  six  weeks.  This  would  seem  to  indicate 


32 

that  these  larvje  feed  only  upon  dead  insects,  and  that  they  never  attack 
those  still  alive. 

For  the  destruction  of  the  Codling  Moth  our  growers  of  deciduous 
fruits  depend  almost  altogether  upon  spraying  the  young  fruit  with 
Paris  green  and  water.  The  proportions  vary  from  1 pound  of  the 
Paris  green  in  160  gallons  of  water  to  1 pound  in  200  gallons.  My  own 
observations  and  experiments  indicate  that  the  former  strength  is  lia- 
ble to  injure  the  leaves  somewhat,  so  it  will  be  advisable  to  use  it  not 
stronger  than  at  the  rate  of  1 pound  to  200  gallons  of  water. 

On  the  12th  of  May,  1890,  I had  twenty-two  pear  trees  sprayed  with 
Paris  green  and  water  at  the  rate  of  1 pound  in  160  gallons,  and  to 
this  was  added  4 gallons  of  the  resin  wash,  composed  of:  resin,  20 
pounds;  caustic  soda,  6 pounds;  fish  oil,  3 pints,  and  water  sufficient  to 
make  100  gallons.  This  was  added  for  the  purpose  of  causing  the  solu- 
tion to  spread  more  readily  over  the  trees  and  fruit.  These  pear  trees 
were  kindly  placed  at  my  disposal  by  Mr.  O.  II.  Richardson,  of  Pasadena. 
They  averaged  about  10  feet  in  height,  and  the  tops  measured  about  4 
feet  in  diameter.  Twenty  eight  gallons  of  this  solution  were  used  on 
these  twenty-two  trees.  I examined  them  at  intervals  throughout  the 
summer;  the  fruit  had  not  been  in  the  least  injured  by  the  solution, 
but  a very  few  of  the  leaves  had  small  brown  spots  burned  in  them,  not 
sufficient,  however,  to  produce  any  material  injury.  When  ripe,  fully 
five-sixths  of  the  pears  on  these  trees  were  free  from  the  attacks  of  the 
larvae  of  the  Codling  Moth,  whereas  on  adjacent  trees  not  treated 
nearly  all  of  the  fruit  had  been  attacked  by  these  larvae. 

Throughout  the  entire  summer  season  these  sprayed  trees  remained 
free  from  the  attacks  of  the  Pear-slug  (Erioccimpq  cerasi  Peck),  although 
I found  leaves  on  some  of  these  trees  in  which  the  eggs  of  this  insect 
had  been  deposited;  and  upon  adjacent  pear,  apple,  and  quince  trees 
that  had  not  been  sprayed  these  slugs  were  quite  numerous.  It  would 
well  repay  our  growers  to  spray  their  trees  with  the  above-mentioned 
solution  as  a protection  against  the  attacks  of  these  slugs  and  other 
leaf  eating  insects. 

It  is  the  custom  of  some  of  the  growers  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
State  to  first  dissolve  the  Paris  green  in  ammonia  before  adding  it  to 
the  water,  but  it  is  very  doubtful  that  this  is  any  improvement. 
Ammonia  is  known  to  be  very  injurious  to  vegetation  whenever  brought 
in  contact  with  it.  I am  informed  by  Dr.  H.  W.  Wiley,  the  chemist  of 
this  Department,  that  Paris  green,  which  ordinarily  consists  of  a mix- 
ture composed  of  one  molecule  of  the  acetate  of  copper  and  three  mole- 
cules of  the  arsenite  of  copper,  is  changed  to  an  entirely  different 
chemical  compound  when  treated  with  ammonia,  this  compound  then 
consisting  of  the  acetate  and  the  arsenite  of  ammonia  combined  with 
an  ammoniate  of  copper — a mixture  much  more  soluble  in  water  than 
Paris  green  is.  It  is  evident  that  the  more  insoluble  the  Paris  green 
is  rendered  the  less  liability  there  will  be  of  its  injuring  the  foliage  of 


33 


trees  sprayed  with  it,  and  there  will  be  less  danger  of  its  being  washed 
off'  of  the  trees  by  the  rains.  Instead,  therefore,  of  seeking  to  render  it 
more  soluble,  the  opposite  course  should  be  pursued,  and,  if  possible, 
the  Paris  green  should  be  treated  in  such  a manner  as  to  render  it 
wholly  insoluble  in  water.  To  accomplish  this  result  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  mix  a pound  of  freshly  slaked  lime  with  each  pound  of  the 
Paris  green,  add  a gallon  or  two  of  water,  and  let  stand  over  night. 
Treated  in  this  way,  the  portion  of  the  Paris  green  that  is  soluble  in 
water,  and  that  produces  the  injury  to  the  trees  sprayed  with  it,  unites 
with  the  lime  to  form  a compound  wholly  insoluble  in  water;  by  this 
simple  and  inexpensive  treatment  the  Paris  green  is  rendered  harmless 
to  the  tree,  while  at  the  same  time  its  poisonous  nature  is  not  lessened 
to  any  appreciable  extent.  This  process  was  first  used  by  Prof.  0.  P. 
Gillette,  now  entomologist  of  the  Colorado  Experiment  Station,  and 
his  observations  have  been  confirmed  by  a number  of  other  experi- 
menters. 

The  great  benefits  resulting  from  treating  fruit  trees  with  Paris  green 
for  the  destruction  of  the  Codling  Moth  are  well  understood  by  the 
majority  of  our  growers  of  deciduous  fruits,  a few  of  whom  have  learned 
this  by  bitter  experience.  At  a recent  meeting  of  the  horticultural 
commissioners  of  southern  California,  Mr.  John  Scott,  the  commissioner 
for  Los  Angeles  County,  stated  that  early  in  the  present  season  he  in- 
structed his  inspector  in  a certain  locality  to  serve  a notice  on  all  of 
the  fruit  growers  in  his  district  to  spray  their  pear  and  apple  trees  with 
Paris  green  arid  water  for  the  destruction  of  the  Codling  Moth.  The 
majority  of  the  growers  complied  with  the  request,  but  one  of  them,  for 
some  reason,  asked  to  be  allowed  to  defer  the  spraying  for  a short  time, 
and  his  request  was  granted.  The  spraying,  however,  was  deferred 
longer  than  was  originally  intended,  aud  it  was  now  considered  too  late 
in  the  season  to  obtain  good  results,  so  his  trees  were  not  sprayed. 
Long  before  his  pears  were  ripe  this  grower  made  a contract  with  the 
manager  of  one  of  the  canneries  in  this  city  whereby  he  was  to  deliver 
his  crop  of  pears  to  the  cannery,  for  which  he  was  to  receive  the  sum  of 
$2,000.  When,  however,  he  delivered  his  first  load  of  pears,  so  badly 
were  they  infested  with  the  larvae  of  the  Codling  Moth  that  the  manager 
Of  the  cannery  refused  to  accept  them.  The  grower  then  offered  them 
at  three-quarters  of  the  original  price,  but  his  offer  was  refused;  he  next 
offered  them  for  one-half  of  the  price  originally  agreed  upon,  but  the 
manager  informed  him  that  he  would  not  accept  the  pears  even  if  they 
were  given  to  him  free  of  all  expense.  By  the  outlay  of  a very  small 
sum  of  money  necessary  for  spraying  the  trees  all  of  this  loss  to  the 
grower  might  have  been  averted. 

19866— No.  30 3 


REPORT  UPON  INSECT  INJURIES  IN  NEBRASKA  DURING 
THE  SUMMER  OF  1892. 


By  Lawrence  Bruner,  Special  Agent. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 

Lincoln,  Nebr.,  Nov.  12,  1892. 

Sir:  As  special  field  agent  for  Nebraska,  I submit  herewith  a report  upon  insect 
injuries  in  this  State  during  the  summer  of  1892.  The  report  touches  upon  the  out- 
look for  destructive  locusts,  but  is  mainly  devoted  to  a consideration  of  certain  sugar- 
beet  insects,  with  a brief  notice  of  the  miscellaneous  injurious  insects  of  the  season. 
Very  respectfully  yours, 

Lawrence  Bruner. 

C.  V.  Riley, 

U.  S.  Entomologist . 


DESTRUCTIVE  LOCUSTS. 

On  account  of  the  great  amount  of  injury  done  by  destructive  locusts 
during  the  past  few  years  and  because  of  their  threatened  increase 
again  early  the  present  season  in  many  localities  over  the  country  at 
large,  a careful  watch  has  been  maintained  during  the  season  that  has 
just  passed  for  reported  injury  to  crops  by  these  much-dreaded  insects. 
It  is  with  pleasure,  therefore,  that  I am  enabled  to  state  that  com- 
paratively little  damage  has  been  done  by  them  the  country  over. 
True,  in  a few  localities,  there  was  some  local  injury  ; but,  when  we 
take  into  consideration  the  fact  that  last  year  a number  of  different 
species  were  unusually  numerous  in  various  portions  of  the  country, 
west,  north,  south,  and  east,’  it  is  certainly  encouraging,  to  say  the 
least,  that  so  little  injury  has  resulted  the  present  year. 

Here  in  Nebraska  several  species  hatched  in  rather  large  numbers 
and  began  to  do  some  injury  to  gardens;  but  during  the  summer  these 
became  more  or  less  infested  with  parasites  of  different  kinds.  These 
parasites  thinned  their  ranks  materially.  In  a number  of  localities  the 
fungous  disease  known  as  Umpusa  grylli  killed  off  myriads  of  the 
34 


35 


remaining  individuals,  while  at  the  same  time  others  became  literally 
covered  with  the  Locust  Mite  ( Trombidium  locustarum).  In  fact,  so 
extensively  were  these  iusects  beset  with  afflictions  of  one  or  another 
kind  that  but  few  eggs  were  deposited.  Even  where  they  were,  the 
large  number  of  the  egg  parasites  present  will  likely  insure  compar- 
ative immunity  from  locust  attack  next  year. 

From  the  northward  we  have  heard  but  little  of  the  pest  that  at  one 
time  last  year  appeared  to  be  becoming  so  formidable.  In  central 
Idaho  and  portions  of  Utah  and  Nevada,  where  several  species  did 
considerable  damage  to  both  crops  and  grasses  on  the  range,  compara- 
tively little  injury  has  been  reported,  while  from  Colorado,  western 
Kansas,  and  south  westward,  the  iiest  seems  to  have  dwindled  to  nearly 
the  normal  condition  for  the  region.  Even  in  portions  of  Indiana, 
Ohio,  and  other  sections  of  the  East,  where  last  year  these  insects  did 
some  injury,  the  conditions  have  somewhat  improved. 

CAUSES  FOR  THIS  DECREASE  IN  THEIR  NUMBERS. 

It  is  not  at  all  surprising  that  these  insects  have  so  suddenly  become 
less  numerous  in  the  mauy  localities  where  they  were  so  recently 
threatening  devastation.  The  large  number  of  parasites  and  preda- 
ceous insects  which  attack  them  have  had  an  opportunity  to  increase 
also.  These  latter,  together  with  the  Entomophtliora,  which  lias  been 
unusually  abundant  and  severe  during  the  past  few  years,  have  com- 
bined in  reducing  the  pest.  Here  in  the  city  of  Lincoln  and  envi- 
ronments this  year  the  dead  bodies  of  Melanoplus  differentiaUs  were 
to  be  seen  by  the  thousands  clinging  to  weeds,  stems  of  grasses,  and 
other  vegetation,  where  they  were  overtaken  by  death  from  the  effects 
of  the  disease.  On  some  single  weeds  more  than  a dozen  of  the  hop- 
pers were  frequently  to  be  seen.  The  dead  bodies  of  other  species  like 
the  femur -rubrum , bivittatus  and  atlanis  were  also  occasionally  to  be 
met  with  upon  the  same  weeds.  These  latter  were,  however,  much  less 
common. 

One  feature  observed  in  connection  with  the  distribution  of  locusts 
of  this  region  was  the  presence  in  many  parts  of  middle  and  eastern 
Nebraska  of  such  species  as  Dissosteira  longipennis  and  Melanoplus  spre- 
tus , which  must  have  come  from  abroad.  Here  at  Lincoln  both  of  these 
species  were  of  quite  common  occurrence.  On  the  university  campus 
a female  of  the  former  was  taken  in  coitu  with  a male  of  Dissosteira 
Carolina . Other  specimens  of  the  same  species  were  taken  at  Norfolk, 
Grand  Island,  West  Point,  and  Columbus,  and  even  in  the  vicinity  of 
Hot  Springs,  S.  Dak. 

Such  species  as  Camnula pellucida  and  the  glaucous-legged  form  of  M. 
atlanis , that  have  been  mentioned  on  former  occasions  as  gradually 
moving  eastward  and  southward,  were  this  year  met  with  in  rather 
large  numbers  in  different  parts  of  the  Black  Hills  and  even  in  the 
northwestern  counties  of  Nebraska. 


36 


BEET  INSECTS. 

Possibly  more  attention  was  paid  during  the  summer  to  sugar-beet 
enemies  than  to  any  other  class  of  insect  j)ests  in  the  region  watched 
by  me.  This  was  due  to  the  interest  which  is  centered  in  that  partic- 
ular crop  at  the  present  time  and  also  because  of  my  having  already  paid 
considerable  attention  to  this  subject.  It  is  needless,  therefore,  forme 
to  state  that  during  the  season  several  additional  species  have  been 
found  attacking  that  plant  here  in  Nebraska.  Among  these  a small 
Hemipteron  (Hadronema  militaris  Uhl.),  that  has  heretofore  been  fre- 
quently seen  and  taken  on  different  species  of  Amarantus  in  the 
western  part  of  the  state  and  in  Colorado,  was  very  common,  in  fact 
quite  numerous,  upon  a small  patch  of  beets  in  Sioux  county  during 
the  latter  part  of  July.  Like  others  of  these  Hemiptera  it  attacks 
the  leaves  and  leaf  stems  by  inserting  its  beak  and  sucking  the  sap. 
Usually,  but  not  always,  the  points  attacked  show  as  stained  or  par- 
tially deadened  spots.  Two  or  three  additional  leaf-hoppers  were  also 
taken  upon  beets  here  and  at  Norfolk,  West  Point,  Grand  Island  and 
other  locaties  where  beet  fields  were  visited.  These,  however,  were  not 
present  in  sufficient  numbers  to  do  any  noticeable  injury  to  the  parts 
attacked.  The  uarnes  of  these  were  not  ascertained,  but  will  be  re- 
ported later  if  deemed  advisable. 

Blister-beetles  of  several  species,  though  none  that  were  new  to  the 
plant,  were  unusually  common  and  troublesome  at  a number  of  locali- 
ties within  this  State  and  parts  of  Kansas  during  the  season.  Here  at 
Lincoln,  as  well  as  at  other  localities,  the  common  black  one,  Epicauta 
pennsylvanica , was  exceedingly  annoying  to  the  owners  of  patches  of 
beets.  This  beetle  always  comes  and  goes  in  comparatively  large  num- 
bers, and  one  never  knows  where  it  will  settle  in  the  field.  Choosing 
certain  plants  the  insects  congregate  upon  them  and  either  eat  the 
leaves  full  of  holes  or  completely  strip  off  all  the  foliage  before  going 
to  the  adjoining  plants.  Or,  possibly,  as  soon  as  one  plant  has  been 
stripped,  they  will  go  to  another  part  of  the  patch  or  else  leave  alto- 
gether. In  Sioux  county  the  small  Spotted  Blister-beetle,  Epicanta 
maculata , appeared  to  be  the  most  common  of  these  insects,  and 
was  always  met  with  in  large  numbers  on  upland  wherever  beets  were 
growing  or  a clump  of  the  Chenopodium  album  occurred.  Others  of  the 
blister-beetles  were  taken  in  the  beet  fields  during  the  season,  but 
these  were  present  in  much  smaller  numbers,  and  did  but  little  dam- 
age as  compared  with  what  was  done  by  the  two  species  named  above. 
Hand  picking  was  more  successfully  used  in  combating  these  insects 
than  any  other  remedy  tried.  Poisons  in  the  case  of  Epicauta  pennsyl- 
vanica proved  to  be  of  little  or  no  value,  since  the  insects  often  left 
immediately  after  the  application  was  made,  and  at  all  times  before 
they  had  eaten  sufficient  of  the  poisoned  leaves  to  have  any  visible 
effect  upon  them.  In  the  case  of  the  Spotted  Blister-beetle,  poison  was 
not  tried  that  I am  aware  of;  but  I believe  it  would  be  more  effective 


37 


against  it  than  against  pennsylvaniea,  for  the  former  is  less  easily  dis- 
turbed when  feeding,  besides  being  more  regular  in  its  habits  than  the 
latter.  Like  that  species  it  is  exceedingly  gregarious  in  its  nature, 
and  always  occurs  in  immense  numbers  when  found  at  all. 

Some  indications  were  found  at  West  Point  of  the  possible  injury 
that  can  be  inflicted  upon  the  beet  crop  by  White  Grubs.  Here  on 
one  small  field  it  was  found  that  fully  15  per  cent  of  the  beets  had  been 
killed  or  injured  by  some  insect  working  under  ground.  An  investiga- 
tion soon  showed  the  criminal  to  be  the  grubs  of  some  one  or  more  spe- 
cies of  Lachnosterna.  These  grubs  had  eaten  away  the  tap-root  and 
all  the  fine  fibrous  roots  at  a distance  varying  from  G to  8 or  9 inches 
below  the  surface,  but  averaging  about  7 inches.  A dry  spell  coming 
on  the  tops  began  wilting,  and  finally  died,  after  which  the  roots  rotted 
in  the  ground.  In  this  case  the  ground  had  been  idle  a year  or  more. 
This  would  suggest  to  us  the  advisability  of  not  using  grass  land  for 
beets;  but  to  plant  in  ground  that  has  been  thoroughly  cultivated  for 
two  or  more  years  prior  to  its  use  for  beets. 

The  Beet  Web-ivorm. — Preeminent  among  the  insects  that  attacked  the 
beet  crop  here  in  Nebraska  during  the  season  which  is  just  coming  to  a 
close,  were  two  or  more  species  of  web -worms  belonging  to  the  genus  Loxo- 
stege  as  at  present  restricted.  Of  these  the  one  known  as  Loxostege  stic- 
ticalis  has  been  the  chief  depredator.  Its  history  as  an  injurious  species 
can  be  given  briefly,  as  follows : By  investigations  instituted  here  at  the 
experiment  station  only  after  the  injuryhad  mostly  occurred  it  was  ascer- 
tained that  last  year  it  was  noticed  that  beets  growing  in  the  vicinity 
of  Grand  Island,  Norfolk,  and  some  of  the  adjoining  towns,  which  sup- 
plied the  beets  for  the  two  factories  in  the  state,  were  infested  by  a 
few  of  the  worms.  These,  however,  did  not  appear  in  sufficient  num- 
bers to  cause  alarm  at  the  time,  or  even  to  suggest  to  the  interested 
parties  the  advisability  of  learning  something  of  their  nature,  life  his- 
tory, and  possible  remedies.  This  year  the  caterpillars  again  made 
their  appearance  in  these  same  localities  and  also  at  the  Government 
station  located  at  Schuyler.  Considerable  injury  was  done  at  this  last- 
named  locality  on  the  experimental  plats  of  sugar  beets  by  a brood  of 
the  worms  that  matured  late  in  July.  Whether  or  not  this  was  the 
first  brood  that  appeared  during  the  season  is  not  positively  known; 
but  that  it  was  the  first  brood  that  did  visible  injury  is  quite  evident. 
Had  this  been  otherwise  the  notice  of  Mr.  Maxwell  would  have  been 
called  to  them  earlier  in  the  season.  As  soon  as  the  insect  was  ob- 
served by  him  to  threaten  the  beets  in  his  charge,  as  I am  informed, 
specimens  were  at  once  sent  to  you  in  Washington.  He  also  told  me 
that  experiments  were  at  once  started  with  a view  to  controlling  the 
pest.  Just  what  was  accomplished  in  that  direction  I was  unable  to 
learn  at  the  time  of  my  visit  to  Schuyler  on  the  last  of  August  when  the 
next  brood  was  at  its  worst,  but  I presume  he  has  reported  to  the 
Department  just  what  was  accomplished  in  this  direction. 


38 


We  did  not  have  the  insect  here  at  Lincoln  in  sufficient  numbers  to 
attract  attention.  Although  several  larvseof  theordinary  Garden  Web- 
worm  ( Loxostege  similalis ) had  been  taken  early  in  July,  nothing  was 
thought  of  the  matter  and  no  further  considerations  taken  concerning 
them  until  after  the  destructive  brood  had  done  its  work  at  Grand 
Island  and  Schuyler,  and  a report  of  its  presence  and  injuries  was  seen 
in  the  state  papers.  A special  inspection  of  our  beet  plats  at  this  time 
resulted  in  the  finding  of  a number  of  specimens  of  another  web-worm 
that  we  had  noticed  on  several  former  occasions  working  on  Amarantus 
and  Chenopodium,  but  not  on  the  beet.  Upon  visiting  the  station  at 
Schuyler  it  was  found  that  this  second  web-worm  was  identical  with 
the  one  which  occurred  there;  and,  as  Ur.  Maxwell  assured  me,  the 
same  as  was  then  present  at  Grand  Island  and  several  others  of  the 
surrounding  towns  where  beets  were  being  grown.  A couple  days 
later  the  same  insect  was  found  to  be  quite  plentiful  at  Norfolk,  Platte 
Center,  and  Genoa,  where  many  of  the  beet  fields  either  had  been 
stripped  or  were  at  the  time  being  stripped  of  their  leaves.  At  Norfolk 
the  greater  part  of  half  a day  was  spent  in  company  with  Mr.  Huxman, 
the  agriculturist  in  charge  of  the  fields  which  supply  that  factory. 
Here  a careful  examination  of  the  grounds  was  made  and  some  facts 
gathered  in  relation  to  the  in  sect  as  it  appeared  in  this  locality  at  least. 
Several  new  insects  were  here  added  to  the  list  of  “beet  insects”  as 
heretofore  recorded.  Afterward  Norfolk,  Stanton,  Wisner,  Beemer, 
and  West  Point  were  visited.  At  each  of  these  localities  sugar  beets 
had  been  planted  for  the  Norfolk  factory,  and  at  each  some  signs  of 
the  insect  in  question  were  found,  though  in  much  smaller  numbers 
than  where  beets  had  been  grown  the  year  before. 

From  observations  made  at  these  different  localities,  and  from  infor- 
mation gathered  through  conversations  held  with  various  persons  who 
were  interested  in  the  culture  of  beets,  the  following  facts  were  gath- 
ered: These  web-worms  are  more  numerous  away  from  sheltered  locali- 
ties than  near  bordering  groves;  and  on  high  grounds,  as  hill  tops  and 
slopes,  than  on  low  flat  grounds;  they  are  never  plentiful  on  a piece  of 
ground  planted  to  beets  for  the  first  time  unless  it  adjoins  one  that  was. 
in  this  crop  the  year  before;  they  are  more  plentiful  in  the  middle  of 
large  fields  than  in  small  ones,  and  those  that  were  allowed  to  run  to 
“pig  weeds”  the  preceding  year,  than  in  those  where  these  weeds  were 
kept  down.  The  insects  are  also  apparently  more  numerous  where  the 
soil  is  sandy  than  where  it  is  heavier;  at  least  this  latter  appeared 
to  be  the  case  in  the  localities  where  I made  my  observations.  It  was 
also  learned  that  these  web-worms  are  very  subject  to  the  attack  of  a 
number  of  parasitic  insects,  as  well  as  falling  prey  to  several  species  of 
predaceous  beetles,  bugs,  and  wasps,  while  birds  and  toads  seem  to  rel- 
ish them.  Chief  among  the  parasites  reared  from  the  specimens  se- 
cured at  Schuyler,  Norfolk,  and  Grand  Island  is  a small  yellowish 
Hymenopterous  fly.  Next  in  point  of  numbers  is  a species  of  flesh-tty. 


39 


This  latter  was  observed  to  be  rather  common  in  the  fields  both  at 
Schuyler  and  Norfolk,  while  it  has  been  bred  in  fairly  large  numbers 
from  Grand  Island  worms.  In  addition  to  these,  several  other  para- 
sites have  thus  far  been  bred  from  the  web  worms  contained  in  my 
breeding  cages. 

As  to  the  life  history  of  these  web-worms  we  are  posted  only  in  a 
general  way,  and  not  specifically.  Our  observations  on  the  present  spe- 
cies, Loxostege  sticticalis , have  not  extended  over  a period  of  more  than 
three  months,  hence  we  can  not  positively  assert  how  it  carries  itself 
throughout  the  year.  That  it  varies  somewhat  in  its  transformations 
and  developments  at  different  periods  of  the  year  is  quite  evident  from 
what  little  we  have  seen  of  it  so  Sir.  But  two  weeks  is  required  be- 
tween the  maturity  of  the  late  July  caterpillars  and  the  appearance  of 
the  moths  for  the  next  brood.  These  immediately  mate  and  deposit 
their  eggs  for  another  brood.  The  worms  must  therefore  transform  to 
chrysalids  immediately  after  entering  the  ground.  Such  is  not  the  case 
with  the  caterpillers  of  the  last  brood.  With  these  the  chrysalis  stage 
is  not  entered  for  some  time — possibly  not  until  ^erylate  in  the  fall  or 
even  during  the  following  spring.  When  I visited  the  Grand  Island 
fields,  fully  three  weeks  after  the  last  worms  had  entered  the  ground, 
they  were  found  still  in  the  caterpillar  stage.  Even  at  the  present 
writing  most  of  those  in  my  breeding  cages  are  unchanged.  In  this 
respect  the  insect  imitates  the  slugs  of  some  of  our  saw-flies.  Its  bur- 
row is  made  and  lined  with  silk,  and  the  inner  cocoon  constructed 
immediately  on  entering  the  ground,  but  the  worm  instead  of  at  once 
changing  to  the  pupa  stage  lies  in  a semi-torpid  condition  until  the 
proper  time  arrives  for  the  change  to  take  place,  whether  the  insect 
enters  the  ground  during  the  summer  brood  or  broods  when  transform- 
ing, was  qot  learned;  but,  if  its  life  history  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
common  Garden  Web worm,  Loxostege  similalis , it  does  not,  but  merely 
spin  among  the  debris  on  top  of  the  ground.  Some  of  the  larvm  of  the 
August  brood  transformed  and  issued  during  September  and  October. 
It  is  barely  possible  that  there  is  another  set  of  caterpillars  produced 
by  these  stragglers  during  the  fall  if  the  weather  permits;  but,  as 
indicated  above,  the  majority  of  the  August  brood  remain  unchanged 
until  sometime  during  the  following  spring. 

At  least  three  distinct  forms  of  these  web-worms  were  taken  from 
beet  fields  in  different  parts  of  the  State,  and  a fourth  one  was  found 
upon  Chenopodium  album  growing  in  waste  places  here  at  Lincoln. 
Possibly  still  others  might  have  been  recognized  if  a close  observation 
had  been  kept  for  that  purpose.  The  similar  food  habits  among  the 
species  of  a genus  of  insects  will  very  likely  give  us  several  more  of 
these  web  worms  to  add  to  our  already  large  list  of  beet  insects. 

The  web- worm  found  feeding  on  the  Chenopodium  album  here  at  Lin- 
coln can  be  recognized  by  the  following  description  which  was  drawn 
up  at  the  time  of  capture,  and  before  it  spun  up : Length,  20lum ; slender, 


40 


tapering  gently  towards  both  ends.  Of  a light  transparent  green,  the 
head  and  cervical  shield  inclining  to  amber  yellow,  but  with  a greenish 
tinge.  Four  small,  whitish  piliferous  spots  upon  dorsum  of  segments — 
the  anterior  pair  somewhat  nearest  together.  Very  fine  hairs  arising 
from  these  piliferous  spots,  as  well  as  from  sides.  Larva  very  active — 
jumping  aside  and  squirming  vigorously  when  touched,  as  in  tlie  larvae 
of  Garden  and  Beet  Web-worms.  Also  spins  a slight  web  when  feeding, 
to  which  it  retreats  when  at  rest. 

Mamestra  sp. — While  walking  through  the  beet  fields  at  Norfolk 
a number  of  specimens  of  a Noctuid  larva,  apparently  a Mamestra, 
were  taken,  in  company  with  the  web-worms  mentioned  above.  This 
larva  is  about  the  size  and  has  something  of  the  same  general  appear- 
ance of  the  dark  form  of  M.  chenopodii , but  differs  from  that  insect  in 
habits  and  markings.  It  was  apparently  quite  plentiful,  as  specimens 
were  taken  at  several  different  points  in  the  fields,  and  three  of  them 
were  found  on  a single  row  within  6 feet  of  one  another.  None  of  them 
were  reared,  as  my  breeding  jar  was  overturned  and  the  caterpillars 
destroyed  by  some  one  who  meddled  with  affairs  not  belonging  to  his 
duties. 

Antliomyia  sp. — In  connection  with  beet  insects  it  might  be  well  here 
to  refer  to  a Dipterous  larva  that  was  taken  herein  Lincoln  mining  the 
leaves  of  Chenopodium  album . Whether  or  not  this  is  one  of  the  spe- 
cies of  Anthomyia  which  Lintner  found  mining  the  leaves  of  beet  in 
New  York,  I can  not  say;  but,  from  what  I have  observed  heretofore 
in  connection  with  these  weed -feeding  insects,  there  is  danger  of  all  of 
the  enemies  of  the  Clienopodaceous  plants  attacking  the  beet.  Hence, 
whether  this  is  a recorded  enemy  of  the  beet  or  not,  it  is  very  liable  to 
become  such  sometime  in  the  future.  In  its  mode  of  attack  this  larva 
is  somewhat  peculiar,  entering  the  leaf  and  feeding  upon  the  pulp  it  soon 
separates  the  cuticles,  making  the  leaves  appear  blistered.  The  mag- 
got, in  case  of  the  Chenopodium,  requires  the  substance  of  severalleaves 
before  coming  to  maturity,  hence  is  obliged  to  pass  from  one  leaf  to 
another.  These  maggots  are  from  7 to  8ram  in  length  and  nearly  2mm 
in  their  greatest  diameter.  When  ready  to  transform  they  enter  tbe 
ground  and  there  undergo  their  change  to  the  pupa.  One  of  the  im- 
agos  issued  within  ten  days  of  the  time  of  entering  the  ground.  The 
others,  of  which  there  were  five,  are  still  in  the  ground. 

Silpha  opaca. — During  my  visit  at  Norfolk  and  while  talking  with 
Mr.  Huxman  relative  to  Beet  Insects  in  general,  he  mentioned  the  fact 
of  the  injury  done  by  Silpha  opaca  in  Germany.  He  said  that  the  larva 
of  this  beetle  was  by  all  odds  the  most  troublesome  insect  pest  with 
which  beet  growers  in  that  country  had  to  deal.  Hand  picking  was 
the  remedy  usually  resorted  to.  He  also  stated  that  he  had  seen  sev- 
eral specimens  of  the  insect  during  the  past  summer  at  West  Point, 
this  State,  upon  sugar  beets,  and  that  he  had  killed  them.  He  said 
that  he  could  not  be  mistaken  about  the  insect,  as  he  had  seen  too 


41 


many  of  them  in  Europe  not  to  know  them  at  sight.  With  this  second 
reported  presence  of  this  insect  in  beet  fields  at  this  one  locality  it 
begins  to  appear  that  perhaps,  after  all,  it  is  present  in  America. 

CHINCH-BUG  NOTES. 

While  this  insect  has  not  been  general  over  the  State,  it  has  begun 
to  increase  in  such  numbers  in  some  of  the  counties  along  our  southern 
boundary  as  to  cause  an  uneasy  feeling  among  the  farmers  of  the  sec- 
tion in  question.  Several  letters  have  been  received  from  different 
individuals  in  the  counties  of  Nuckolls,  Franklin,  and  Fillmore,  asking 
for  aid  in  the  suppressing  of  this  insect,  which,  as  their  letters  stated, 
was  becoming  quite  numerous  and  was  threatening  the  fall  wheat. 
They  all  asked  for  diseased  bugs  with  which  “to  innoculate  the  healthy 
ones”  in  their  respective  neighborhoods.  These  letters  were  received 
during  the  latter  part  of  September.  Heavy  rains  have  fallen  in  the 
region  since,  and  nothing  further  concerning  the  bugs  has  been  heard. 

MISCELLANEOUS  INSECTS. 

Aside  from  the  damage  to  beets  by  web-worms,  the  most  marked 
injury  done  by  insect  pests  in  Nebraska  during  the  season  which  has 
just  come  to  a close  was  due  to  the  presence  of  several  species  of  cater- 
pillars and  saw-fly  larvae.  Some  of  these  have  been  excessively  numer- 
ous in  portions  of  the  State,  where  they  did  great  injury  to  the  trees 
attacked.  Some  of  these  were  the  tent  caterpillars,  Fall  Web- worm, 
the  Walnut  Datana,  Cecropia  larva,  Green-striped  Maple-worm,  Tus- 
sock Moth,  the  Ash-tree  Sphinx,  Coelodasys  unicornis , and  a species  of 
Lyda  ( ?)  that  worked  upon  the  wild  and  tame  plums.  The  Pear-tree 
Saw-fly  also  made  its  appearance  within  the  State  and  did  some  injury 
to  trees  growing  near  Norfolk,  in  Madison  County. 

In  towns  and  cities  the  caterpillar  pest  appears  to  be  greatly  on  the 
increase,  and  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  impress  upon  the  authorities 
the  necessity  for  taking  decisive  steps  toward  their  destruction,  The 
comparative  absence  of  insectivorous  birds  and  of  predaceous  and  para- 
sitic insects  is  the  cause  for  their  increase.  These  latter  are  kept  down 
by  the  burning  of  rubbish  and  other  refuse  under  which  they  hide  and 
spend  their  winters. 


REPORT  OK  INSECTS  OF  THE  SEASON  IN  IOWA. 


By  Herbert  Osborn. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 

Ames,  Iowa,  November  5,  1892. 

Dear  Sir  : I inclose  herewith  a report  on  some  of  the  observations  for  the  year 
1892,  and  beg  to  acknowledge  at  this  time  the  many  favors  received  which  have  been 
a material  assistance  in  the  prosecution  of  the  year’s  work. 

Very  respectfully  yours, 

Herbert  Osborn. 

Dr.  C.  V.  Riley, 

U.  S.  Entomologist,  Washington,  D.  C . 


Perhaps  the  most  striking  features  of  the  insect  conditions  the 
present  year  have  been  the  almost  total  absence  of  many  of  the  com- 
mon pests  during  the  early  part  of  the  season,  a consequent  slight 
amount  of  damage  from  insect  attack,  and  the  rapid  multiplication  of 
insects  during  the  later  months  of  the  year  and  some  quite  conspicuous 
injuries.  One  of  the  iriost  striking  instances  of  this  is  to  be  noted  in 
the  plant-lice  which  were  exceptionally  rare  during  the  spring  and  sum- 
mer, but  in  late  summer  and  autumn  multiplied  prodigiously  and  caused 
serious  injuries  to  many  kinds  of  plants. 

The  season  was  unusually  backward  and  the  spring  months  marked 
by  much  rain  and  cold  weather-,  which  retarded  insect  life  in  general. 

Such  reports  as  were  received  during  the  early  part  of  the  season 
indicated  little  if  any  damage  even  from  such  common  pests  as  cut- 
worms, squash  beetles,  etc. 

The  species  of  u bill-bugs  v (Sphenophorus),  which  have  been  scarcely 
noticed  in  the  State  heretofore,  have  become  plentiful,  and  one  species, 
Sphenophorus  parvulus , quite  threatening  in  its  attacks  upon  corn.  This 
indicates  naturally  a considerable  damage  to  grasses  and  probably 
wheat  and  other  cereals,  which  passes  without  notice.  It  is  quite  prob- 
able that  this  species  will  demand  serious  attention  from  Iowa  farmers 
during  the  next  few  years.  Splienophorous  oclireus  has  attracted  some 
42 


43 


attention,  but  no  serious  damage  bas  resulted  from  its  presence  so  far 
as  I know,  and  I do  not  anticipate  from  it  any  serious  difficulties  for 
this  State.  Attention  has  been  called  to  these  in  a paper  read  before 
the  Association  of  Economic  Entomologists  at  Rochester  and  pub- 
lished in  Insect  Life  (vol.  v,  p.  Ill),  and  no  further  notice  of  them 
need  be  given  here.  Several  cases  of  insects  affecting  grain  in  storage 
have  come  to  my  notice,  and  especially  in  the  case  of  mill  owners  there 
seems  to  be  a decided  interest  in  the  subject  and  a desire  to  adopt 
remedies  for  the  insect  pests  that  infest  their  mills.  It  is  needless  to 
add  that  the  recommendation  of  bisulphide  of  carbon  has  given  very 
satisfactory  results. 

The  Potato  Stalk  Weevil  (Trichobaris  trinotata  Say)  has  been  quite 
plentiful  and  destructive,  causing  a loss  of  a large  percentage  of  the 
crop  on  the  college  farm  and  probably  over  a considerable  part  of  the 
State,  though  from  the  nature  of  its  attack  it  seems  to  escape  the 
notice  of  most  growers. 

A quite  notable  outbreak  which  came  directly  under  observation  was 
that  of  the  Diamond-back  Moth  ( Plutella  crucifer  arum)  upon  Rape, 
Cabbage,  Cauliflower,  and  related  plants.  This  insect  has  seldom 
caused  any  noticeable  injury,  though  often  observed  as  occurring  in 
limited  numbers,  but  this  year  it  became  so  abundant  as  to  seriously 
damage  all  the  patches  of  Rape  on  the  college  grounds.  The  worms 
are  so  well  protected  in  folds  of  the  plant  leaf  and  many  of  them  on 
the  under  side  that  they  are  difficult  tb  kill,  and  sprays  of  London 
purple  were  only  partially  successful,  and  it  seemed  that  this  poison 
applied  in  the  form  of  powder  diluted  with  flour  and  blown  among  the 
leaves  was  more  effective. 

The  Cabbage  Plusia  ( Plusia  brassicce)  was  also  plentiful  and  accom- 
panied the  preceding  species  in  their  attacks  on  Rape,  Cabbage,  etc. 
For  a time  they  caused  more  injury  than  that  species.  They  were, 
however,  attacked  by  a disease  that  swept  many  of  them  off,  so  that 
their  damage  was  perhaps  not  so  important  in  the  aggregate  as  that 
of  the  preceding  species. 

The  Imported  Cabbage  Butterfly  ( Pieris  rupee)  was  not  seen  at  all 
in  the  early  part  of  the  season  and  it  was  thought  that  the  Apanteles 
glomeratus  mentioned  in  last  season’s  report  had  accomplished  a thor- 
ough work;  but  late  in  August  and  early  in  September  butterflies  ap- 
peared in  large  numbers  and  larvae  were  fairly  xdentiful  in  some  cab- 
bage patches  during  October.  Of  course  the  scarcity  during  the  fore 
part  of  the  season  may  have  been  due  to  the  previous  abundance  of 
parasites,  but  it  shows  that  such  parasitism  does  not  furnish  a perm  a 
nent  check.  Specimens  received  from  Des  Moines  were  abundantly 
parasitized  with  Pteromalus  puparum,  and  this  species,  with  the  Apan- 
teles glomeratus  and  the  epidemic  disease  that  occasionally  sweeps  them 
away,  certainly  conspire  to  assist  greatly  in  the  reduction  of  damage 
from  this  widespread  pest. 


44 


Specimens  of  the  larvae  of  the  Army  Worm  ( Leucania  unipuncta) 
were  received  from  Muscatine  County  with  the  information  that  they 
were  injuring  crops  in  a considerable  area  in  that  county,  but  as  they 
were  evidently  full  grown  probably  their  injuries  ceased  almost  im- 
mediately afterward,  so  that  I have  no  further  information  as  to  in- 
juries from  them  or  of  their  being  present  in  any  other  localities  in  that 
part  of  the  State. 

The  Clover-seed  Caterpillar  ( Grapliolitha  inter stinctana)  was  again 
plentiful  and  caused  a considerable  loss  in  the  clover  crop.  This 
species  feeds  readily  on  the  leaves  or  in  the  crown  of  the  plant  and  so 
does  much  injury  aside  from  its  destruction  of  the  clover  seed. 

A common  Pyralid  moth  related  to  the  species  of  Crambus,  the 
Nomophila  noctuella , was  extremely  plentiful  in  grass  land  during  early 
October,  swarms  of  them  being  seen  in  all  pastures  and  meadows.  In 
a previous  report  I have  called  attention  to  this  species  as  a probable 
serious  pest  m grasses,  with  habits  similar  to  those  of  Crambus,  and 
the  observations  this  season  on  the  numbers  of  the  adults  and  their 
habits  confirm  my  opinion  that  they  have  larval  habits  similar  to 
Crambus  and  that  they  must  cause  a serious  loss  in  pastures  and 
meadows.  Work  upon  other  species  has  precluded  any  effort  to  trace 
the  larval  history  the  past  season,  and  so  far  as  I am  aware  nothing 
has  been  recorded  with  regard  to  it.  It  seems  to  me  well  deserving  of 
investigation.  The  imagos  of  Crambus  exsiccatus , a species  which  has 
heretofore  been  reported  upon,  with  details  of  its  life  history,  were 
plentiful  this  season,  but  not  in  such  numbers  as  in  some  former  years. 
Still  they  may  be  counted  as  among  the  very  constant  destructive 
species. 

Edema  albifrons  was  quite  plentiful  on  Oak,  and  has  been  received 
from  other  localities,  and  would  seejn  to  be  more  than  ordinarily 
destructive  this  season. 

The  larvm  of  quite  a number  of  Lepidoptera  that  are  usually  rather 
scarce  or  inconspicuous  were  during  autumn  quite  abundant.  Among 
these  I may  mention  Papilio  cresphontes , which,  though  usually  very 
rare  here,  was  taken  in  considerable  numbers  upon  Prickly  Ash. 
Mamestra  picta , generally  rare  here  (which  may  sound  strange  to  ento- 
mologists in  some  other  localities),  was  fairly  common,  though  not  to  be 
counted  a destructive  species.  Actias  luna  was  quite  common  and 
many  specimens  were  brought  in  by  students.  Also  Hyperchiria  io , 
very  seldom  seen  in  any  great  numbers,  was  found  in  considerable 
numbers.  Datana  angusiL  as  usual,  was  abundant,  and  Grapta  inter- 
rogationis  and  Vanessa  antiopa  were  conspicuous  in  their  attacks.  The 
common  species,  Papilio  turnus  and  Papilio  asterias , were  more  abun- 
dant than  usual,  and  in  some  cases  did  damage  to  their  respective  food- 
plants. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Association  of  Economic  Entomologists  held 
in  August  I reported  some  notes  on  the  life  histories  of  certain  Jassi- 


45 


dae  whicli  have  been  noted  as  specially  destructive  in  this  State,  and 
which  have  a general  distribution  over  the  country.  Since  these  have 
a general  importance  and  some  further  details  have  been  worked  out 
since  the  presentation  of  that  paper,  I will  venture  to  repeat  briefly  the 
facts  as  at  present  available. 

A quite  important  step  has  been  gained  in  the  determination  of  the 
winter  conditions  of  the  strictly  grass-feeding  sjiecies,  notably  Delto- 
cephalus  inimicus , D.  debilis , and  IHcdrocephala  mollipes.  These  all 
deposit  eggs  in  autumn  in  the  leaves  or  stems  of  grass  and  the  eggs 
remain  in  such  situations  over  winter,  hatching  in  spring. 

The  suggestion  made  in  my  report  for  1889  (Bulletin  22,  Div.  Ent.,  U. 
S.  Dept.  Agriculture)  is  therefore  well  founded,  and  the  burning  over 
of  grass  land  in  late  fall  or  early  spring,  when  the  grass  is  dry  enough  to 
burn  down  to  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  should  prove  a most  eft’ec- 
tive  and  inexpensive  method  of  treatment  for  pastures  and  meadows  to 
reduce  the  numbers  of  these  pests. 

The  life  histories  of  the  most  common  and  abundant  species  may 
now  be  summarized  as  follows: 

Deltocephalus  inimicus . — Larvae  hatch  from  eggs  deposited  in  fall,  the 
larvae  appearing  when  fairly  warm  weather  begins — ordinarily  in  April. 
The  larvae  is  at  first  light  colored,  but  after  the  first  molt  has  a black 
lateral  border,  a character  by  means  of  which  it  can  be  readily  sepa- 
rated from  debilis.  These  larvae  mature  by  the  latter  part  of  June, 
and  images  are  plentiful  during  the  last  of  June  and  fore  part  of  July, 
becoming  scarce  again  the  latter  part  of  that  month,  but  depositing  eggs 
which  hatch  in  July  and  early  August,  and  larvae  are  very  plentiful 
during  early  August  and  mature  during  the  latter  part  of  that  month 
and  early  in  September.  This  brood  deposits  eggs  which  remain  over 
winter,  though  some  of  the  earlier  deposited  eggs  probably  hatch  in 
the  fall  and  produce  a late  brood  of  larvae,  some  of  which  seem  to  mature, 
and  this  probably  accounts  for  the  numerous  individuals  sometimes  to 
be  seen  on  warm  days  in  late  autumn  and  early  winter.  These  seem  to 
all  perish  before  spring  and  probably  without  depositing  any  eggs. 
There  is  naturally  a considerable  amount  of  irregularity  in  the  first 
appearance  of  adults  and  the  time  of  egg  deposition,  but  as  these 
broods  observed  in  the  field  have  been  paralleled  with  laboratory  breed- 
ings there  can  remain  little  doubt  as  to  the  normal  number  and  the 
time  at  which  the  bulk  of  the  broods  appear. 

Deltocephalus  debilis  has  practically  the  same  life  history,  except  that 
the  broods  appear  about  two  weeks  earlier,  so  that  some  adults  will  be 
found  at  the  time  the  majority  of  inimicus  are  nearly  grown  larvae. 
This  makes  it  possible  to  use  the  tar  pan  at  the  time  when  the  greatest 
numbers  may  be  secured,  which  for  most  seasons  will  be  at  the  time 
of  the  appearance  of  larvae  of  both  species,  in  late  May  and  early  June, 
again  in  early  July,  and  a third  time,  if  necessary,  late  in  July  or  early 
in  August.  Of  course  applications  will  be  made  with  reference  to  times 


46 


when  larv?e  or  adults  are  noticed  as  hopping  abundantly,  and  it  seems 
from  results  of  this  season’s  work  that  the  greatest  numbers  of  hop- 
pers are  captured  in  the  afternoons  of  warm  days,  with  little  or  no  wind, 
the  hoppers  seeming  to  jump  best  between  3 and  6 p.  m. 

Further  tests  of  the  tar  pan  have  confirmed  its  value  in  destroying 
these  pests,  and  a field  test  made  with  the  cooperation  of  the  farm 
department  of  the  Experiment  Station,  and  reported  in  full  in  Bulletin 
10,  Iowa  Experiment  Station,  has  shown  that  its  use  will  practically 
enable  the  farmer  to  keep  a larger  number  of  cattle,  sheep,  or  other 
animals  upon  grass  land.  In  the  experiment  referred  to,  the  result 
showed  a gain  of  68  per  cent,  but  inasmuch  as  the  experimental  plat 
lay  alongside  other  grass  land  and  was  subject  to  invasion  from  this, 
it  seems  to  me  that  by  a continued  use  of  the  treatment  and  over  whole 
pastures,  so  as  to  preclude  migration  of  insects  from  adjacent  areas,  we 
would  get  a still  better  result,  and  while  it  is  perhaps  too  much  to 
hope  to  get  an  increase  sufficient  to  double  the  number  of  animals  pas- 
tured on  an  ordinary  field,  I should  hope  to  secure  some  such  propor- 
tion, at  least,  if  other  destructive  insects  were  also  kept  within  bounds. 

Another  very  widespread  and  destructive  species  is  the  Diedrocepliala 
mollipes , and  this  has  been  the  subject  of  a thesis  study  by  Mr.  J.  A. 
Bolfs,  a senior  student  in  entomology  here  this  year.  The  main  facts 
in  its  life  history  may  be  stated  in  brief  in  this  connection.  The  eggs 
in  fall  are  mostly  deposited  in  the  rank  grass  of  low  ground,  the  insects 
preferring  low  ground  during  dry  weather,  which  usually  prevails  for 
a few  weeks  in  autumn.  The  larvse  hatching  in  spring,  during  Mayor 
early  June,  become  adult  by  the  latter  part  of  June  or  early  July,  and 
in  ordinary  seasons  will  largely  migrate  to  higher  ground  and  deposit 
eggs,  so  that  the  second  brood  of  larvae,  which  appears  in  September, 
for  the  most  part  will  be  found  widely  distributed  on  both  high  and 
low  ground,  and  may  cause  great  damage.  These  larvae  mature  by 
early  October,  and  the  imagos  will,  many  of  them,  move  to  low  ground 
to  deposit  eggs.  It  is  evident  that  the  burning  over  of  sloughs  and 
swampy  or  low  ground  is  very  desirable  in  the  treatment  of  this 
species. 

Plant-lice  have  been  very  plentiful  during  the  autumn  months,  a 
strong  contrast  to  their  scarcity  during  the  early  part  of  the  season. 
I had  hardly  returned  from  the  Bochester  meeting,  where  I reported  a 
scarcity  of  these  insects,  when  they  became  very  conspicuous  in  their 
abundance. 

Myzus  persicce  on  wild  plum  trees  was  among  the  species  most  notice- 
able, but  the  injuries  it  caused  were  by  no  means  so  severe  as  occurs 
when  it  is  abundant  in  the  early  part  of  the  season  and  attacks  the 
growing  twigs  and  the  fruit. 

Aphis  brassicce  was  specially  noticeable  on  Bape,  where  it  caused  a 
considerable  amount  of  damage,  rendering  the  crop  unfit  for  feeding. 
It  was  quite  numerously  infested  with  parasites  in  late  autumn. 


47 


Many  other  species  were  abundant,  and  especially  during  October 
hosts  of  individuals  were  seen  migrating  from  their  summer  locations 
to  the  plants  which  support  their  winter  eggs.  On  some  of  these 
observations  were  made,  but  they  can  best  be  included  in  a discussion 
of  the  species  in  detail  when  their  full  life  histories  are  worked  out. 

Last  year  I made  a trip  for  the  Division  to  western  Kansas  to  inves- 
tigate a local  outbreak  of  grasshoppers,  a report  of  which,  with  the 
recommendations  suggested,  was  published  in  Insect  Life,  vol.  iv,  p.  49. 

Naturally,  I was  interested  to  know  the  outcome  for  the  present  sea- 
son and  wrote  to  parties  in  Garden  City  and  Lakin,  asking  for  a state- 
ment as  to  the  abundance  and  injuries  and  what  steps,  if  any,  were 
taken  in  destroying  them.  I received  two  letters,  from  which  I extract 
the  following: 

Garden  City,  Kans.,  August  20,  1892. 

Dear  Sir:  The  grasshopper  has  been  quite  bad  in  localities.  I think,  from 
reports,  that  it  will  do  almost  as  much  damage  as  last  year  in  the  aggregate.  On  a 
few  farms  the  wheat  was  injured  and  oats  entirely  destroyed — probably  not  more 
than  one-half  crop  at  the  best.  Farmers  report  that  the  fly  is  not  killing  many  of 
them.  Machines  were  made  for  capturing  them.  Some  report  large  numbers  taken. 

Andrew  Sabine. 

Later. — Since  writing  th^  within  I have  been  making  inquiries  and  find  that  the 
hopper  has  been  destructive  only  in  spots.  Wheat  has  not  been  injured.  Some 
fields  of  oats  destroyed.  In  other  places  only  a few  acres  would  be  destroyed.  They 
are  commencing  to  disappear.  Some  say  that  they  are  dying  rapidly.  I met  no  one 
who  had  looked  for  the  cause  of  death.  Toads  were  innumerable  this  year — so  much 
so  that  11  everybody^  was  talking  about  it.  I think  the  damage  this  year  will  fall 
much  below  that  of  1891. 

A.  S. 

Lakin,  Kans.,  August  7,  1892. 

* * * As  to  the  number  of  hoppers  I see  very  little  difference  from  last  year. 

By  far  the  most  damage  has  been  done  by  Melanoplus  differ entialis.  I send  you  some 
hoppers  caught  this  morning;  also  some  dead  ones  found  oh  asparagus.  You  can 
judge  from  the  stalks  the  effect  that  they  have  had  on  that.  There  is  a little  green 
growth  on  the  bottom  yet.  Parasitic  Tachinids  have  destroyed  more  than  last  year. 
As  to  fighting  them  very  little  has  been  done,  and  that  in  a half-hearted  way.  I 
cleaned  them  out  of  the  orchard  wherever  I cultivated  the  ground  early  enough  and 
solidly.  Am  satisfied  that  they  can  be  caught  on  the  alfalfa  by  hopper-dozers.  We 
have  had  some  trouble  in  getting  pans  made,  but  they  are  bound  to  work  if  taken 
in  time. 

These  hoppers  will  be  likely  to  stay  and  grow  fat  just  so  long  as  we  give  them  a 
good  breeding  ground  and  plenty  to  eat.  We  had  some  cold  wet  weather  lastspring 
just  as  they  were  hatching,  which  checked  them  some,  but  they  seem  to  have  out- 
grown it.  I find  a good  many  young  ones  now. 

J.  W.  Longstretii. 

Prof.  H.  Osborn, 

Ames,  Iowa. 

TESTS  OF  THE  BOTRYTIS  TENELLA  ON  LACHNOSTERNA. 

During  the  spring  we  received  from  your  office  a tube  of  Botrytis 
tenella  from  France,  with  instructions  to  test  it  on  Lachnosterna  larvae 
in  this  locality. 


48 


Four  tests  were  made  of  tlie  material,  following  the  directions  for 
preparing  and  applying  that  accompanied  the  tube.  Two  of  these  tests 
were  made  in  the  laboratory  in  small  glass  root  cages  and  two  of  the 
tests  were  in  outdoor  plats. 

In  the  first  laboratory  experiment,  May  26,  about  twenty  larvae  were 
treated,  ten  of  which  were  inclosed  in  a root  cage  two  and  one-half  by 
four  feet  deep,  and  ten  in  an  outdoor  plat.  Examinations  later  showed 
no  result. 

At  the  same  time  a few  treated  larvae  were  placed  in  a glass  root  cage, 
the  earth  in  which  had  been  sterilized  by  continued  baking,  and  kept 
in  the  laboratory  for  the  purpose  of  closer  observation.  One  specimen 
included  in  this  cage  was  found  to  be  covered  with  a small  cyst  of  earth 
filled  with  a mycelial  growth  and  the  larvae  itself  was  covered  with  a 
dense  white  growth  of  mycelia.  Another  grub  in  this  same  cage  went 
on  and  pupated  and  showed  no  signs  of  being  affected  by  its  treatment 
nor  from  being  in  contact  with  the  diseased  larva. 

On  June  23d  another  test  was  made,  both  in  laboratory  and  field. 
Twenty-three  treated  larvae  were  inclosed  in  a glass  root  cage  24  by  36 
by  3J  inches  inside.  This  was  filled  with  sterilized  earth  to  within  6 
inches  of  the  top.  The  earth  had  been  sterilised  by  heating  in  a hot 
air  oven  from  six  to  eight  hours  at  70°  to  90°  C.  These  were  examined 
August  28.  Three  live  grubs  were  found  and  five  beetles.  A num- 
ber of  larvae,  with  no  signs  of  growth,  were  observed  dead  on  the  sur- 
face a few  days  after  treatment,  and  it  is  probable  that  they  had  been 
slightly  injured  before  or  during  collecting,  as  they  were  picked  up  in 
furrow  after  the  plow.  The  outdoor  experiment,  as  in  the  first  case, 
gave  no  result. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  only  successful  inoculation  was  of  a single 
larva  in  a laboratory  cage,  and  this  diseased  larva  did  not  communicate 
the  disease  to  another  in  close  proximity  to  it.  The  field  experiments 
showed  no  result  whatever,  though  it  can  not  be  said  but  that  larvae 
became  affected  and  escaped  our  notice  in  later  examinations  and  that 
the  disease  may  appear  hereafter. 

The  tubes  evidently  contain  a small  proportion  of  spores  and  a large 
proportion  of  starch,  so  that  it  is  possible  the  larvae  did  not  all  get  an 
inoculation  with  spores. 


ENTOMOLOGICAL  NOTES  FOE  THE  SEASON  OF  1802. 


By  Mary  E.  Murtfeldt. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 

Kirkwood,  Mo.,  November  2,  1892. 

Sir  : I herewith  submit  such  of  my  entomological  notes  for  the  past  season  as 
relate  to  species  of  economic  importance,  including  accounts  of  a few  species  that 
have  not  hitherto  been  included  in  that  category.  I have  been  much  interested  in 
the  study  of  several  other  species,  also  pernicious  or  beneficial,  but  as  these  have  not 
yet  reached  full  development,  I beg  to  reserve  my  notes  upon  them  until  I shall  be 
able  to  complete  the  record. 

Respectfully, 

Mary  E.  Murtfjsldt. 

Dr.  C.  V.  Riley. 

U.  S.  Entomologist. 


MISCELLANEOUS  MEMORANDA. 

The  climatic  peculiarity  of  the  past  season  throughout  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  was  fouucl  in  the  excessive  rainfall  and  the  low  temperature 
of  the  spring  and  early  summer.  That  these  conditions  would  produce 
a noticeable  effect  upon  insect  life  can  not  be  doubted.  Wheat  fields 
and  corn  lands  that  were  inundated  during  April  and  a part  of  May, 
so  far  as  I have  been  able  to  ascertain,  entirely  escaped  attack  from 
Chinch  Bugs  and  Bill  Bugs.  I am  also  inclined  to  ascribe  to  the  same 
cause  the  somewhat  remarkable  non  appearance  of  the  Colorado  Potato- 
beetle  over  a wide  area  of  the  country.  So  absolute  was  this  disap- 
pearance that  repeated  and  careful  search  in  this  locality  for  specimens 
upon  which  to  test  insecticides  failed  to  reveal  a single  beetle  or  larva. 
I can  not  say,  however,  that  the  potato  crop  was  the  better  for  this 
immunity.  The  plants  seemed  sufficiently  vigorous,  but  the  tubers 
were  few  and  small  and  the  crop  in  Missouri  almost  a failure. 

Another  insect  that  seems  to  have  mostly  deserted  this  section  of  the 
country  is  the  Grape  Phylloxera.  For  two  or  three  seasons  I have  not 
noticed  any  galls  on  the  leaves  of  even  the  most  susceptible  varie- 
ties, and  examinations  of  the  roots  of  Delaware,  Taylor,  Catawba,  and 
19866— No.  30 i 49 


50 


Herbemont  have  shown  them  to  be  free,  or  almost  free  from  the  sub- 
terranean form  of  the  pest.  Such  old  vines  of  the  above  and  other 
delicate  varieties  of  the  fruit  as  had  been  suffered  to  remain  in  some  of 
the  vineyards  around  Kirkwood,  have,  for  the  last  two  years,  renewed 
their  vigor  and  borne  good  crops. 

Flea-beetles  gave  very  little  trouble  where  gardeners  had  been  care- 
ful, during  previous  seasons,  to  eradicate  such  weeds  as  Lepidium  and 
Arabis  from  the  neighborhood  of  their  vegetable  beds,  since  it  is  in  the 
leaves  of  these  that  Phyllotreta  sinuata  Steph.,  with  us  by  far  the  most 
abundant  and  destructive  species,  chiefly  breeds. 

The  Cabbage  Curculio  ( Ceutorhynchus  rapw  Gyll.)  occasions  much 
loss  and  annoyance  to  market  gardeners  in  some  parts  of  the  State,  by 
boring  into  the  crown  and  roots  of  young  cabbage  and  cauliflower 
plants,  in  many  cases  destroying  25  per  cent  of  the  plants  in  the  hot- 
beds and  just  after  they  are  set  out.  As  this  insect  does  not  trouble 
the  plants  after  the  heads  begin  toform,  I was  at  a loss  to  conjecture 
what  became  of  it  during  the  summer  and  autumn.  From  experiments 
conducted  this  year  I am  convinced  that  it  returns  to  its  original  food 
plant,  the  wild  Pepper-grass  ( Lepidium  virginicum),  I succeeded  in 
obtaining  young  larvae  in  stems  of  the  latter  plant  in  July,  but  as  the 
plants  did  not  thrive  indoors  I was  unable  to  bring  the  insect  through 
its  transformations. 

Disonycha  collaris  is  establishing  its  title  as  a spinach  pest,  its  perfo- 
rations being  seen  during  April  and  May  in  almost  every  leaf  of  that 
highly  esteemed  potherb.  As  both  beetles  and  larvae  drop  to  the 
ground  upon  the  slightest  disturbance  of  their  food-plant  they  are  sel- 
dom associated  with  their  destructive  work. 

The  foliage  of  roses  in  Kirkwood  and  vicinity  suffered  this  summer 
from  the  attacks  of  all  three  of  the  species  of  sawfly  larvae  described  in 
vol.  V,  Insect  Life  (p.  6),  Cladius  pectinicornis  being  very  numerous  and 
reducing  the  leaflets  on  some  bushes  to  mere  shreds.  An  infusion  of 
white  hellebore  proved  an  effective  remedy,  but  the  necessity  of  apply- 
ing it  at  intervals  throughout  the  season  adds  materially  to  the  labors 
of  the  rose-grower. 

The  Twelve-spotted  Diabrotica  appeared  in  countless  numbers  in 
flower  gardens  during  September  and  October,  and  wrought  ruin  on 
the  blossoms  of  dahlias,  zinias,  cosmos,  and  early  chrysanthemums. 
To  kill  it  on  the  flowers,  or  render  them  distasteful  to  it,  involves 
the  sacrifice  of  all  the  beauty  of  the  latter,  by  spraying  with  the 
arsenites  or  kerosene  emulsions.  Where  the  insect  breeds  in  such 
swarms  I have  not  been  able  to  discover.  Certainly  it  was  not  in  any 
of  the  corn  fields  around  Kirkwood,  for  I uprooted  a large  number  of 
plants  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  our  flower  garden  without 
finding  any  trace  of  larva)  or  pup?e.  I think  its  native  and  favorite 
food-plant  remains  to  be  discovered.  Another  unmanageable  pest,  of 
which  there  is  complaint  is  the  the  Corn  Ear- worm  ( Heliothis  armiger). 


51 


It  shows  a marked  partiality  for  the  sweet  table  varieties,  of  which  it 
destroyed  in  the  gardens  around  8t.  Louis  between  25  and  30  per  cent 
of  the  ears. 

The  Tineidre  as  well  as  the  larger  Lepidoptera  contribute  their  full 
quota  of  species  injurious  to  growing  vegetation,  in  addition  to  those  that 
prey  upon  stored  grain  and  household  property.  Amoug  the  former  the 
Box-elder  Gracilaria  ( Gracilaria  negundella)  was  exceedingly  abundant 
during  the  past  season  in  this  locality,  the  leaves  of  the  favorite  shade 
tree  upon  which  it  feeds  being  thickly  spotted  with  its  preliminary  mines 
and  having  almost  every  lobe  turned  down  to  form  the  three-cornered 
tent,  within  which  the  larva  feeds  after  its  first  molt.  Many  of  the 
cocoonets  of  the  latest  brood  were  parasitized,  however,  and  it  may  not 
another  season  prove  so  disfiguring  to  the  trees. 

ADDITIONAL  INJURIOUS  INSECTS. 

The  Osage  Orange  Pyralid  - 
( Loxostege  maclurce  Riley.) 

Among  the  insects  that  are  to  be  recorded  for  the  first  time  with 
u noxious  species  n the  one  named  above  has,  in  this  section  of  the 
country,  acquired  especial  prominence. 

Its  work  was  first  observed  upon  the  hedges  of  Kirkwood  and  vicin- 
ity in  the  autumn  of  1890,  where  for  a few  yards  in  a place  the  twigs 
and  branches  appeared  nearly  denuded  of  foliage.  Examination  failed 
to  reveal  the  author  of  the  mischief,  and  it  was  attributed  to  some 
Orthopteron,  especially  to  those  of  the  Tree  Cricket  family.  The  fol- 
lowing year  its  ravages  were  seen  on  all  the  hedges  of  the  county, 
greatly  impairing  their  beauty.  Late  in  summer  the  pest  was  dis- 
covered, and  the  habits  by  which  it  had  so  long  eluded  my  search 
brought  to  light.  During  the  present  year  its  work  has  been  increas- 
ingly destructive,  and  unless  concerted  action  is  taken  for  its  extermina- 
tion the  hedges  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  will  no  longer  be  either  orna- 
mental or  useful. 

The  depredator  is  a small,  glassy,  pale  green  caterpillar,  more  or  less 
gregarious,  especially  during  the  first  larval  stages.  It  is  the  young 
of  a rather  inconspicuous  Pyralid  moth,  new  to  this  region,  if  not  to 
science,  which  may  be  popularly  described  as  follows : 

Expanse  of  wings  nearly  seven-eighths  inch,  or  24mm.  Fore-wings  satiny  in  tex- 
ture, of  a pale  brownish-gray  color,  sometimes,  when  the  insect  is  perfectly  fresh, 
faintly  tinged  with  green  or  roseate,  and  always  crossed  by  three  curving,  wavy, 
interrupted,  dusky  lines;  the  outer  margin  back  of  the  very  short  white  fringes 
being  also  dark.  Hind-wings  similar  in  color  to  the  fore-wings,  but  thinner,  without 
the  dark  cross  lines,  but  with  dusky  shadings  on  the  lower  edges.  Body,  brownish- 
gray  above,  satiny  white  beneath.  Head  narrow,  with  projecting,  beak-like  palpi, 
margined  with  white,  very  long  tongue,  large  hemispherical  eyes  of  a mottled,  dark- 
brown  color,  and  slender,  tapering,  threadlike  antenna)  three-fourths  the  length  of 
the  wings.  The  abdomen  is  very  slender,  and  somewhat  constricted  or  laterally 
compressed,  with  long  terminal  joint  upturned.  Legs  long,  of  a glistening  white 
color. 


52 


These  moths  emerge  in  spring  from  the  first  to  the  middle  of  May, 
and  may  be  seen  on  warm  evenings  fluttering  in  great  numbers  about 
the  hedges.  They  are  not  much  attracted  by  lamplight,  but  occasion- 
ally one  enters  a lighted  room.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the  under  sides  of 
the  Osage  Orange  leaves  in  irregularly  shaped  masses  of  from  twenty- 
five  to  fifty.  They  are  circular,  very  flat,  pale  yellow,  and  each  has 
a delicate  semitransparent  membranous  border.  Like  those  of  certain 
other  Pyralids,  they  overlap,  fish-scale  fashion,  and  as  the  embryo  de- 
velops each  egg  displays  two  minute  black  marks  or  lines.  The  larvae 
hatch  in  five  or  six  days,  and,  unless  disturbed,  remain  in  a close  cluster, 
feeding  upon  the  parenchyma  of  the  under  side  of  the  leaf,  which  sur- 
face they  closely  resemble  in  color.  At  the  slightest  jar  they  curl  up 
and  drop  to  the  ground.  In  six  days  the  first  molt  takes  place,  and,  if 
they  have  not  sooner  exhausted  their  food  supply  and  been  forced  to 
scatter,  they  now  migrate  in  small  companies  to  fresh  leaves,  which,  in 
feeding,  they  begin  to  perforate.  When  not  feeding  they  stretch  them- 
selves alongside  the  midrib  and  principal  veins,  where  their  translu- 
cent, pale  green  color  and  very  slender  form  enable  them  to  escape 
observation.  As  they  approach  maturity  they  become  still  more  elu- 
sive, retiring  from  the  leaves  during  the  day  and  resting  upon  the  inner 
twigs  and  stems,  which  their  coloring  at  this  period  usually  imitates. 
They  spin  considerable  web  upon  the  under  sides  of  the  leaves,  and 
draw  out  the  threads  as  they  crawl  back  and  forth  from  the  stems  to  the 
leaves.  In  these  webs  and  threads  more  or  less  of  the  castings  are 
caught,  and  add  to  the  disfigurement  of  the  plant. 

Larva. — The  full-grown  larva  is  from  eight  to  nine-tenths  of  an  inch  long  (20 
to  24mm)  by  about  three-twentieths  (4ram)  inch  in  diameter  in  the  middle  when 
crawling.  It  is  somewhat  contracted  and  broadened  in  repose.  The  form  is  sub- 
cylindrical,  tapering  slightly  toward  either  end.  The  color  at  this  stage  is  variable, 
in  some  specimens  translucent  pinkish,  in  others  dull  green,  and  again  of  the  gray- 
brown  shade  of  the  twigs,  always  obscurely  striped  on  the  dorsum  and  sides  with  a 
darker  shade  of  the  ground  color,  and  having  a narrow,  but  distinct,  ivory-white 
stigmatal  band.  Piliferous  dots  black,  surrounded  with  a paler  ring,  largest  just 
above  stigmatal  band;  four  in  subdorsal  spaces  on  eleventh  segment  being  in  the 
hollow  of  conspicuous  crescents,  convex  toward  the  sides.  Head  narrower  than 
thoracic  joints;  cordate,  with  rounded  lobes  of  a pale  brown  color,  with  irregular 
stripes  in  a slightly  darker  shade,  trophi  fuscous.  Legs  and  prolegs  concolorous 
with  general  surface. 

The  cocoon  in  which  the  worm  incloses  itself  for  transformation  is  of 
irregular  shape  and  fits  the  chrysalis  very  loosely.  It  is  of  a fine  tex- 
ture and  pale  pinkish  or  dingy  white  color.  The  summer  broods  change 
to  chrysalis  soon  after  inclosure,  but  the  hibernating  one  remains  in 
the  larva  form  until  late  in  winter.  The  chrysalis  is  from  12  to  14mm 
long,  very  slender,  with  slight  corrugations  on  the  posterior  edge  of 
the  segments,  and  of  a bright  brown  color.  The  cocoons  are  formed, 
sometimes  several  together,  among  the  webbed  and  fallen  leaves  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  At  this  date  (December  1)  the  hibernating  larvae 
are  somewhat  shrunken  and  all  of  an  opaque  yellowish-wliite  color,  on 


53 


wliicli  the  fuscous  clots,  rings,  and  crescents  are  very  prominent.  I 
have  learned  of  the  presence  of  the  insect  in  one  or  two  counties 
besides  St.  Louis,  and  have  reason  to  think  it  quite  widely  disseminated, 
although  not  so  destructive  to  hedges  in  more  sparsely  settled  localities 
as  it  is  in  the  various  suburbs  of  St.  Louis.  Thorough  spraying  with 
any  of  the  arsenites  will  kill  it,  but  the  process  needs  frequent  repeti- 
tion during  the  season,  and  much  pains  must  be  taken  to  wet  the  inner 
as  well  as  the  outer  leaves. 

The  principal  enemy  of  this  insect,  in  its  own  class,  is  the  Spined 
Soldier-bug  ( Podisus  spinosus ),  of  whose  larvae  and  pupae  I found  a large 
number  at  different  times  with  their  beaks  inserted  in  the  bodies  of 
the  wriggling  larvae.  A few  larvae  were  also  destroyed  by  the  small 
Ichneumonid,  which  was  kindly  determined  for  me  at  the  Department 
as  Bracon  juglandis  Ashm. 

The  Blue-grass  Worm. 

( Crambus  teterrellus  Zinck.) 

For  two  or  three  years  the  moths  of  this  species  have  in  this  locality 
outnumbered  all  the  other  species  of  Crambicls  combined.  In  the  day- 
time they  would  flutter  up  from  the  grass  before  us  at  every  step  and  at 
night  our  lighted  windows  would  be  covered  with  them.  About  the  first 
of  August,  when  these  moths  were  most  abundant,  I had  occasion  to  dig 
up  a bit  of  sod  from  the  lawn,  and  upon  examining  it  closely  I found  sev- 
eral galleries  of  fine  white  web,  with  sparse  minglings  of  castings 
formed  against  and  between  the  stems  and  blades  of  the  grass.  In 
each  of  these  tubes  was  a minute,  dingy  white  larva,  then  4 or  5mm  in 
length.  This  piece  of  sod  was  carefully  planted  in  a large  rearing  jar 
and  watered,  so  that  it  might  continue  to  grow.  A day  or  two  after 
this  a considerable  number — eighteen  or  twenty — of  minute,  salmon-col- 
ored eggs  were  found  on  a window-sill  near  a dead  specimen  of  the  moth 
above  named.  By  means  of  a fine  camel’s  hair  brush  these  eggs  were 
transferred  to  a glass  tube  containing  several  blades  of  grass,  and  in  the 
course  of  two  or  three  days  about  a dozen  tiny  larvae,  of  a cream- white 
color,  with  brown  heads,  had  hatched.  Placing  them  upon  growing 
grass,  they  soon  began  the  formation  of  tubes  or  galleries  similar  to  those 
taken  out  of  doors,  and  as  they  continued  to  develop,  it  was  plain  that 
they  were  identical  with  the  latter. 

During  the  dry  weather  of  August  and  September  others  were  found 
on  the  lawn,  where  the  grass  had  withered  in  small  patches,  and  it  was 
evident  that  to  this  species  is  due  to  a considerable  degree  the  faded 
appearance  and  scanty  growth  of  the  tylue  grass  during  the  latter  part 
of  summer. 

The  growth  of  the  larvae  was  very  slow  and  seemingly  out  of  all  pro- 
portion to  the  amount  of  web  tubing  constructed.  A single  larva,  not 
more  than  one-third  of  an  inch  long,  seemed  to  require  for  its  domicile 


54 


a gallery  2 or  2J  inches  in  length,  and  with  a diameter  two  or  three 
times  in  excess  of  its  own.  The  upper  part  of  this  tube  would  be 
exceedingly  diaphanous,  but  as  it  descended  more  and  more  of  the  brass 
was  intermingled  until  at  the  base  it  became  quite  compact.  During 
the  day  the  larva  rested  quietly  in  this  retreat,  but  at  night  it  emerged 
and  fed  upon  the  freshest  of  the  contiguous  blades.  So  far  as  I could 
ascertain  it  seldom  or  never  cut  through  the  stalk  or  bored  up  or  down 
through  the  heart  of  the  plant. 

The  larvae  seemed  to  attain  maturity  from  the  middle  to  the  last  of 
September,  after  which  they  rested  quietly  for  some  time  in  their  gal- 
leries, without  inclosing  themselves  in  more  protective  cocoons. 

Being  absent  from  home  for  four  or  five  weeks,  from  early  in  October 
until  the  middle  of  November,  my  jars  were  overlooked  in  the  water- 
ing process,  and  upon  my  return  I found  all  the  larvae  dead  and  dry. 
As  the  species  was  known  to  me,  however,  this  was  not  so  unfortunate 
as  it  might  have  been. 

In  the  jar  containing  specimens  collected  at  various  ages  from  the 
lawn  were  the  remains  of  two  or  three  hymenopterous  parasites  and  four 
cocoons  of  the  characteristic  form,  color,  and  structure  of  Meteor  us, 
closely  resembling  those  of  M.  hyphantrice. 

I append  more  particular  description  of  egg  and  larva. 

Egg. — Obconical  0.5m  long,  beautifully  sculptured  under  tbe  lens,  with  longitu- 
dinal ridges  and  liner  cross  lines,  giving  it  a checkered  appearance.  Color,  bright 
salmon  pink. 

Larva. — At  first  of  a dingy  cream  white,  minutely  speckled  with  brown,  with 
brown  head. 

At  maturity  15mm  in  length,  by  2mm  in  diameter,  subcylindrical,  slightly  larger 
across  thoracic  segments. 

Color  dingy  yellowish  or  greenish  white,  with  dull  green  medio-dorsal 
stripe.  The  surface  is  much  roughened  with  impressed  lines,  with 
conspicuous,  raised  corneous,  fuscous  plates,  from  each  of  which  arises 
a long,  coarse,  tapering,  golden-yellow  hair.  Head  with  protruding 
lobes  and  rugose  surface,  and  of  a dull  whity  brown  color.  Cervical 
shield  inconspicuous,  darker  than  the  head. 

Pupa  not  yet  observed. 

The  moth  is  well  known  as  one  of  the  least  conspicuous  of  the  group 
of  beautiful  species  to  which  it  belongs.  It  expands  about  three-fourths 
inch,  with  a brownish-whitebody  and  hind- wings.  Pore-wings  grayish- 
white,  streaked  with  pale  brown,  with  two  silvery  gray  shaded  wavy 
lines  crossing  the  outer  third;  just  back  of  the  fringes,  which  have  a 
golden,  metallic  luster,  is  a row  of  seven  small  but  distinct  black  dots. 

Lasioptera  sp?  in  Twigs  of  Honey  Locust. 

The  work  of  the  above  Cecidomyiid  was  first  noticed  in  the  summer  of 
1891  on  the  shoots  and  new  growth  of  the  Honey  Locust,  a shade  tree 
of  considerable  value  with  us,  and  during  the  past  season  it  became 
more  and  more  injurious  and  conspicuous.  The  irritation  of  the  plant 


55 


tissue  produced  by  this  insect  causes  remarkable  tumefaction  and  dis- 
tortion of  the  twigs  and  scantiness  and  yellowing  of  the  foliage,  result- 
ing iii  a complete  checking  of  growth. 

The  perfect  insect  is  a minute  fly  or  gnat,  expanding  about  ^ inch, 
having  a glossy  black  body  and  broad  transparent  fore-wings,  with  a 
rather  strong  marginal  vein,  and  a faint,  forked  vein  on  the  lower 
edge.  These  gnats  emerge  from  their  cells  early  in  May  and  lay  their 
eggs  (which  I have  not  so  far  been  able  to  detect)  oil  the  succulent 
new  growth  of  the  tree  into  which  the  microscopic  larvae  easily  burrow 
and  begin  the  formation  of  their  cells,  very  shortly  producing  gall-like 
swellings  and  twisting  of  the  stems.  These  cells,  each  about  J inch 
long,  and  oblong  in  shape,  become,  as  the  season  advances,  exceed- 
ingly compact,  almost  stony,  and  in  some  cases  almost  fill  the  shoots 
for  a space  of  from  5 to  7 inches  in  length.  They  are  placed  longi- 
tudinally, and  a cross-section  of  a twig  one- fifth  inch  in  diameter  will 
often  cut  four  or  five,  although  they  are  seldom  regularly  arranged 
side  by  side.  The  larvae  attain  their  growth  in  July  or  August,  and 
remain  unchanged  in  their  cells  until  the  following  spring.  They  are 
at  this  time  from  three  to  four  millimeters  in  length  by  one  in  diameter, 
cylindrical,  with  segments  well  defined,  of  a bright  salmon-pink  color, 
with  conspicuous  “ breast  bone  v in  dark  brown. 

The  outlet  to  the  surface  is  probably  by  the  passage  through  which 
the  larva  worked  its  way  within  the  stem,  though  in  what  way  extended, 
to  admit  of  the  egress  of  the  much  larger  pupa,  I can  not  tell.  At  all 
events  when  ready  to  emerge  the  pupae  are  protruded,  sometimes 
singly*,  in  other  cases  in  clusters  of  three  or  four  Avhere  the  larval 
cells  have  coalesced,  from  minute  orifices  all  along  the  stem,  giving  it 
quite  a fringy  appearance  with  the  erect  translucent  white  empty  pupa 
cases. 

Two  species  of  parasites  have  been  bred  from  these  Lasioptera  galls, 
and  examinations  of  infested  twigs  within  a few  weeks  discloses  more 
larvae  of  parasites  than  of  the  original  gall-makers. 

Dirfcosis  sp?  on  Soft  Maple. 

This  is  a probably  undescribed  species,  also  a Cecidomyiid,  which 
destroyed  a considerable  proportion  of  the  very  young  leaves  of  Soft 
Maple  in  Kirkwood  and  vicinity  early  in  the  spring.  The  punctures  of 
the  insect  caused  a peculiar  curling  and  shriveling  of  the  leaves,  and 
in  every  depression  would  be  found  a minute  white  larva  not  more  than 
2,nm  in  length  and  0.5  in  diameter  across  the  anterior  end,  from  whence 
it  tapered  slightly  posteriorly. 

The  first  brood  of  flies  emerged  in  June  from  little  flattened  oval 
cocoon ets  spun  against  the  surface  of  the  leaves.  A second  brood 
appeared  late  in  July  rolling  the  edges  and  crinkling  the  centers  of  the 
more  tender  leaves,  but  was  far  less  injurious  to  the  appearance  of  the 
trees  than  the  earlier  one. 


56 


Still  another  Cecidomviid,  of  which  I did  not  obtain  the  fly,  attacked 
the  foliage  of  the  sugar  maples  in  Kirkwood,  curling  and  producing  a 
gall-like  thickening  of  the  edges  of  the  leaves.  The  affected  portions 
turned  crimson  and  gave  the  foliage  the  appearance  of  being  covered 
with  long,  slender,  red  worms. 

My  attention  was  not  called  to  this  insect  until  it  was  too  late  to  learn 
its  natural  history  or  to  attempt  the  use  of  any  remedy. 

SCARCITY  OF  PARASITES  OF  CODLING  MOTH  AND  PLUM  CURCULIO. 

Having  always  had  some  misgivings  that  in  the  practice  of  spraying 
fruit  trees  with  the  arsenites,  we  were  destroying  our  most  valuable 
allies  in  our  warfare  with  the  above-named  pests,  I made  it  a point  dur- 
ing the  past  season  to  ascertain  what  proportion  of  them  were  really 
parasited. 

Infested  fruit  was  collected  from  an  unsprayed  orchard  at  intervals 
throughout  the  season,  and  both  Codling  Moth  and  Curculio  bred  in 
considerable  numbers  with  a result  that  4 per  cent  of  Curculios  were 
parasited,  and  from  about  one  hundred  Codling  Moth  larvae  not  a single 
fly  appeared.  As  the  deluge-like  rains  of  the  spring  and  early  summer 
may  have  had  something  to  do  with  this  unexpected  result,  I propose 
to  rexieat  it  another  year,  and  hope  to  make  a more  satisfactory  report. 


EXPERIMENTS  IN  APICULTURE,  1892. 


By  J.  H.  Larrabee. 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 

Agricultural  College,  Mich.,  November  17, 1892. 

Sir  : I beg  leave  to  submit  herewith  a report  upon  the  experimental  work  in  api- 
culture conducted  at  this  place  during  the  season  of  1892.  While  the  results 
obtained  may  vary  with  varying  conditions,  either  more  or  less  favorable  than  those 
under  which  these  experiments  have  been  conducted,  yet  it  is  hoped  that  some  of  the 
conclusions  reached  may  prove  of  definite  value  to  the  important  interest  of  apicul- 
ture. 

Very  respectfully, 

J.  H.  Larrabee. 

C.  V.  Riley, 

U.  S.  Entomologist. 


During  the  season  of  1892  the  branch  station  for  experimenting  in  bee 
culture  at  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College  was  continued  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Division  of  Entomology, 
and  of  the  Michigan  State  Experiment  Station. 

An  effort  was  made  to  undertake  a line  of  experiments  closely  con- 
nected with  the  practical  work  of  the  apiary.  While  all  of  the  experi- 
ments undertaken  have  not  given  results  of  practical  value,  some  have. 
Especially  gratifying  are  the  results  obtained  in  the  experiments  upon 
the  subject  of  wax  secretion  and  the  evaporation  of  honey,  for  the 
reason  that  they  were  nearly  free  from  those  elements  of  uncertainty 
that  must  necessarily  enter  into  nearly  all  experimental  work  in  the 
apiary,  such  as  season  and  condition  of  bees. 

When  the  bees  were  taken  from  the  cellar,  on  April  18,  they  were  in 
rather  poor  condition,  due  doubtless  to  the  dampness  of  the  cellar  and 
the  character  and  amount  of  the  stores.  The  loss  during  the  winter  and 
spring  was  about  one-third  of  the  number  placed  in  the  cellar. 

In  May  and  June  the  bees  of  the  whole  apiary  were  transferred  from 
the  old  hives  into  modern  dovetailed  hives,  and  from  the  old  reversible 
frames,  of  three  distinct  sizes,  to  the  new,  wide,  thick,  top-bar  frames  of 
the  Langstroth  size.  In  this  operation  all  drone  comb  or  other  imper- 

57 


58 


feet  combs  were  rejected  and  rendered  into  wax.  By  tliis  change  the 
apiary  was  placed  upon  a modern  footing,  the  hives  made  uniform,  the 
operations  and  manipulations  of  the  apiary  rendered  more  rapid,  and  its 
beauty  and  value  increased. 

The  spring  was  very  backward  and  rainy.  During  fruit  bloom  the 
bees  flew  but  little,  and  their  influence  upon  the  fertilization  of  the 
flowers  of  our  fruits  is  seen  in  the  almost  complete  failure  in  this  vicin- 
ity of  all  tree  fruits  and  others  largely  dependent  upon  the  bees  for  the 
dissemination  of  pollen.  As  the  rainy,  cloudy  weather  did  not  cease 
until  about  the  first  of  July,  the  early  part  of  the  clover  bloom  was  lost 
to  the  bees.  No  supers  were  put  on  until  July  8,  and  at  that  time 
strong  colonies  were  swarming,  with  almost  no  honey  in  the  hives.  All 
of  the  white  surplus  was  taken  from  Basswood,  which  yielded  well, 
duly  25  the  season  for  white  honey  closed.  A little  surplus  of  late 
honey  was  gathered  during  August,  and  the  bees  filled  up  the  hives 
well  for  winter.  A yield  of  about  25  pounds  of  surplus  per  colony  was 
obtained,  and  there  are  now  in  the  apiary  fifty-five  colonies  in  excellent 
condition  for  winter. 


BREEDING. 

During  the  year  1891  the  apiary  was  entirely  requeened,  only  a few 
old  queens  being  reserved  for  breeding.  This  season  the  opportunity 
was  taken  to  replace  all  those  of  the  former  year’s  rearing  that  had 
proven  themselves  inferior.  A number  of  Carniolan  queens  were  intro- 
duced, and  queens  bred  from  them.  Added  familiarity  with  the  cross 
of  the  Carniolan  bee  with  the  yellow  race  increases  my  satisfaction 
with  their  valuable  traits.  They  have  proven  themselves  equally  as 
desirable  as  either  race  in  its  purity,  and  they  have  some  points  of 
superiority. 

A test  was  made  of  the  claims  advanced  for  the  Tunisian  or  so-called 
u Punic”  bees.  During  the  early  part  of  the  season  they  exhibited  no 
traits  that  would  distinguish  them  from  the  native  black  bee,  showing 
the  same  nervousness  under  manipulation.  They  build  large  numbers 
of  queen  cells,  and  do  not  cap  their  honey  with  that  peculiar  whiteness 
characteristic  of  the  common  black  bee.  After  the  close  of  the  honey 
season  they  best  showed  their  origin  and  distinctive  peculiarities. 
Whenever  attempts  were  made  to  handle  them  they  became  exceedingly 
angry.  This  trait  of  excessive  irritability  seems  to  be  their  most 
distinctive  mark.  As  no  point  of  superiority  was  discovered,  their  sev- 
eral manifest  defects  make  them  a race  not  to  be  recommended  as  de- 
sirable for  introduction  among  our  American  bee-keepers. 

REMOVING  THE  QUEEN  TO  PREVENT  SWARMING. 

As  the  bee-keeping  industry  develops  and  new  methods  and  devices 
come  into  use,  each  tending  to  lower  the  price  of  the  product,  an  increased 
tension  is  placed  upon  the  apiarist  in  an  effort  to  manage  large  nuin- 


59 


bers  of  colonies  to  increase  his  annual  yield.  The  natural  tendency  of 
bees  to  increase  by  swarming  aud  the  care  and  attention  occasioned 
thereby  have  given  rise  to  various  plans  for  its  prevention  or  control. 
One  of  the  best  of  these  plans,  yet  one  little  used,  is  outlined  in  the 
following,  the  value  of  which,  at  the  suggestion  of  Mr.  Aikin,  of  Love- 
land, Colo.,  I undertook  to  test:  Early  in  spring  two  colonies  were 
selected,  as  nearly  alike  in  strength  as  it  was  possible  to  get  them. 
These  were  kept  at  the  same  strength,  the  amount  of  brood  in  the  hives 
having  been  equalized  several  times.  The  harvest  did  not  open  until 
about  July  6,  and  upou  the  8th  supers  were  given  them.  July  12, 
queen  cells  were  found  partly  constructed  in  colony  No.  1.  The  queen 
was  removed,  and  four  days  and  also  eight  days  afterward  all  queen 
cells  were  destroyed.  On  July  25  (thirteen  days  after  her  removal)  the 
queen  was  returned.  This  colony  did  not  swarm  at  all.  The  other 
colony  (No.  2)  was  allowed  to  work  without  interference,  and  it  was  not 
until  July  21  that  they  swarmed.  As  the  harvest  from  Linden  was 
about  closing,  the  swarm  was  returned  and  all  queen  cells  destroyed  in 
the  hope  that  they  would  not  attempt  to  swarm  again  before  the  close 
of  the  season.  They  did  not  swarm,  yet  it  maybe  supposed  that  this 
interference  with  their  instincts  tended  slightly  to  decrease  their 
energy.  The  results  in  total  amount  of  honey  gathered  are  as  follows : 
No.  1 gained  in  weight  37  pounds  between  July  6 and  25,  and  No.  2 
gained  46  pounds  during  the  same  time. 

If  from  the  total  gain  of  No.  2 we  substract  5 pounds  as  the  weight 
of  brood  it  contained  in  excess  of  the  brood  in  No.  1 on  July  25,  we  still 
have  4 pounds  as  the  amount  of  honey  gathered  by  No.  2 greater  than 
the  amount  gathered  by  No.  1.  These  colonies  were  both  worked  for 
comb  honey  with  like  treatment  of  sup'ers. 

This  experiment  is  valuable  testimony  to  prove  that  the  removal  of 
the  queen  to  prevent  swarming  does  somewhat  affect  the  amount  of 
honey  gathered  by  the  bees.  The  supers  showed  even  a larger  differ- 
ence in  the  amount  of  honey  stored  in  the  sections  for  the  reason  that 
where  the  queen  is  absent  the  bees  fill  the  brood  chamber  with  honey. 
When  the  queen  is  returned  this  will  to  a greater  or  less  extent  be 
removed  to  the  sections.  Although  the  interference  in  this  manner 
with  the  economy  of  the  hive  probably  always  reduces  the  amount  of 
honey  stored,  yet  because  of  the  lessening  in  the  labor  and  watching 
necessary  during  the  swarming  season,  I deem  it  advisable  to  follow 
this  method  when  any  similar  plan  seems  necessary. 

WAX  SECRETION. 

To  determine  the  amount  of  honey  consumed  by  the  bees  in  secreting 
one  pound  of  wax,  this  experiment,  first  undertaken  in  1891,  was  repea  ted 
this  year.  As  the  conditions  were  much  more  favorable,  the  results 
were  very  gratifying.  There  was  entire  absence  of  a natural  honey 
flow,  the  weather  was  favorable,  the  colonies  were  of  the  same  strength. 


60 


and  in  prosperous  condition,  tliey  took  the  food  rapidly  and  built  comb 
readily.  The  result  gives  a less  amount  of  honey  as  necessary  to  be 
fed  the  bees  in  order  to  have  1 pound  of  wax  secreted  than  was  obtained 
in  this  experiment  last  year.  This  was  to  be  expected  because  of  the 
more  favorable  and  exact  conditions.  Two  colonies  were  taken  which 
I have  designated  as  Nos.  1 and  2.  No.  1 was  given  a virgin  queen 
and  no  comb  or  honey.  No.  2 was  given  a virgin  queen  and  empty 
combs.  It  was  noticed  that  the  bees  did  not  fly  from  either  of  these 
hives  as  vigorously  as  from  the  others  of  the  apiary,  and  that  No.  1 
was  the  more  quiet  of  the  two.  Twenty-four  and  a half  pounds  of  food 
were  given,  and  almost  exactly  1 pound  of  wax  was  secreted  by  No.  1. 
By  weighing  the  combs  both  before  and  after  being  melted  and  taking 
the  difference,  the  amount  of  pollen  was  ascertained.  In  both  colonies 
the  young  queens  had  begun  to  lay,  having  been  fertilized  during  the 
ten  days  the  experiment  was  in  progress.  I now  feel  confident  that 
more  careful  work  on  the  part  of  others  who  have  undertaken,  to  solve 
this  question  will  give  practically  the  same  results  as  are  summarized 
below : 


Wax  Secretion. 


Colony  No.  1. 

Colony  No.  2. 

Weight  of  bees 

Lbs  Oz. 
7 5 

Lbs.  Oz. 

Lbs.  Oz. 

7 3 

Lbs.  Oz. 

Gross  weight,  Aug.  2,  with  bees 

27  8 

42  10 
15  2 

34  4 
56  8 
22  4 

Gross  weight,  Aug.  12,  with  bees 

Gross  gain  in  weight  10  davs 

Peed  given 

24  8 

12  8 

12 

24  8 
20  8 

4 

Minus  honey  extracted 

Leaves  honey  consumed 

Honey  consumed  by  No.  1 in  excess  of  No.  2 : 12 — 4 — 8 pounds. 

Wax  secreted  by  No.  1 

15£ 

1 8 

14  15i 

Pollen  in  combs  at  close 

2 .. 

Honey,  wax,  and  pollen  removed  (8  pounds  honey  consumed 
in  secreting  154  ounces  of  wax _ 

22  8 

PLANTING  FOR  HONEY. 

There  were  in  bloom  at  the  station  this  season  three  acres  of  Sweet 
Clover  (Melilotus  alba)  sown  in  June,  1891.  It  was  sown  upon  rather 
poor  clay  soil,  yet  it  made  a fair  growth  last  fall  and  came  through  the 
winter  in  good  condition.  It  began  to  bloom  July  8,  and  continued  in 
bloom  until  the  20th  of  September.  The  period  of  greatest  bloom  and 
honey  secretion  was  from  July  20  to  September  1.  It  grew  rapidly  and 
was  very  rank,  reaching  a height  of  about  six  feet.  The’  amount  of 
bloom  was  great  and  the  bees  were  continually  busy  upon  it,  yet  during 
the  period  from  July  24  to  August  10,  while  it  was  in  full  bloom  and 
while  all  other  natural  sources  were  absent,  no  honey  of  any  apprecia- 
ble extent  was  gathered  and  the  hive  upon  scale  lost  in  weight.  Prob- 
ably some  honey  was  obtained  during  the  season  from  this  sweet  clover, 
but  in  such  limited  quantities  as  to  make  any  estimate  of  the  value  of 
the  plant  as  a honey  producer  impossible.  At  the  present  time  the 


61 

ground  is  covered  with  brush,  so  that  labor  will  be  necessary  in 
clearing  the  land  before  plowing  can  be  done. 

With  the  idea  of  obtaining  an  opinion  of  the  value  of  Sweet  Clover  as 
a silage  plant  an  alcohol  barrel  was  filled  with  the  cut  stalks,  solidly 
packed,  and  sealed  air-tight.  This  was  done  on  July  14,  just  as  the 
clover  was  getting  fairly  into  bloom  and  while  the  stalks  were  yet 
tender  and  nutritious.  On  September  23  the  barrel  was  opened  and 
the  ensilage  was  fed.  A horse  that  had  previously  eaten  corn  silage 
ate  it  very  readily,  but  another  horse  and  a cow  that  had  never  eaten 
silage  would  not  touch  it.  Several  experts  upon  the  subject  pro- 
nounced it  excellent.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  it  would  be  a very 
desirable  plant  for  the  purpose  if  the  feeding  value  per  acre  could  be 
made  equal  to  that  of  corn.  An  estimate  made  from  the  amount  cut 
for  silage  gave  between  6 and  7 tons  per  acre.  Although  its  feeding 
value  may  be  much  higher  than  that  of  corn,  it  is  still  doubtful  if  it  will 
pay  to  use  it  for  this  purpose  alone,  from  the  above  estimate. 

In  concluding  these  experiments  in  planting  for  honey  carried  on  by 
Prof.  Cook  and  now  concluded  for  the  present,  I desire  to  say  that  no 
results  have  been  obtained  with  any  plant  sown  or  planted  for  honey 
alone  that  will  warrant  the  bee-keeper  in  expending  money  and  labor 
in  this  direction.  Bee-keepers  have  in  the  past  spent  much  time  and 
money  in  the  effort  to  cultivate  some  plant  for  the  honey  the  bees  may 
obtain  from  its  flowers.  In  no  case  coming  under  my  observation  have 
these  efforts  been  a success  and  the  practice  has  never  been  continued 
at  a profit.  Therefore  let  me  caution  all  apiarists  against  spending 
money  in  the  attempt  to  cultivate  at  a profit  any  flower  for  honey 
alone.  Bee-keepers  should  cease  these  useless  efforts  and  turn  their 
attention  more  persistently  to  extending  the  area  of  all  wild  honey- 
producing  plants  and  urging  upon  all  the  superiority  of  Alsike  Clover 
and  Japanese  Buckwheat  as  farm  crops  and  the  Linden  as  a shade  tree. 

EVAPORATION  OF  HONEY. 

Nectar  of  flowers  taken  into  the  stomach  of  the  bee  undergoes  certain 
chemical  changes  before  it  is  finally  deposited  as  honey  in  the  cells  of 
the  honeycomb.  The  recent  analyses,  by  direction  of  the  United  States 
Government  chemist  and  those  instituted  at  the  Michigan  State  Exper- 
iment Station,  prove  that  there  is  no  chemical  change  made  in  the 
honey  by  the  bee  after  it  is  deposited  in  the  comb.  There,  however, 
remains  much  water  in  this  honey  that  must  be  evaporated  by  the  heat 
of  the  hive  and  the  current  of  air  through  the  hive  caused  by  the  fan- 
ning of  the  bees.  It  is  well  known  that  this  labor  of  evaporation  and 
the  room  occupied  by  this  thin  honey  interferes  greatly  with  the  rapid 
gathering  of  nectar.  In  this  opinion  I am  confirmed  by  a study  of  many 
records  of  colonies  placed  upon  scales  during  the  honey  flow.  It  is 
often  desirable  to  extract  all  of  the  honey  gathered  from  one  species  of 
honey  jdant  before  the  flow  from  other  sources  begins  and  before  the 


62 


former  has  ripened  to  the  usual  consistency  of  good  honey.  The  prop- 
erty of  granulation  in  honey  is  so  troublesome  that  its  prevention  would 
be  very  desirable.  The  experiments  in  this  line  have  plainly  indicated 
that  the  “ water  of  crystallization”  can  be  easily  expelled  by  a proper 
artificial  heat  and  the  product  sealed,  so  as  to  preserve  it  in  a liquid 
state  for  an  indefinite  time.  For  these  reasons  it  was  thought  best  to 
experiment  in  this  direction  with  various  forms  of  artificial  heat  in  the 
effort  to  devise  some  cheap  and  sure  method  to  assist  the  bees  in  this 
work.  For  this  purpose  there  were  constructed  a series  of  six  shallow 
pans  19  by  28  inches  in  size,  with  partitions  2 inches  in  height,  open  on 
alternate  ends,  similar  to  the  partitions  in  a maple-sirup  evaporator. 
These  were  arranged  in  a cabinet,  one  above  the  other,  so  that  honey 
entering  at  the  top  was  obliged  to  flow  some  75  feet  before  passing  out 
at  the  bottom.  An  oil  stove  was  placed  beneath  the  whole,  and  a pipe 
at  the  top  caused  a current  of  heated  air  to  pass  upward  over  the 
honey.  The  fumes  of  the  stove  were  carried  otf  by  means  of  a second 
pipe,  in  order  to  avoid  all  danger  of  their  injuring  the  flavor  of  the 
honey.  Honey  of  average  body  with  10  per  cent  by  weight  of  water 
added  was  reduced  again  to  the  normal  condition  by  passing  twice 
through  the  pans  at  a temperature  of  120°,  and  about  100  pounds  per 
day  was  evaporated  at  that  temperature.  Thin  nectar,  extracted  from 
the  hives  very  soon  after  being  gathered,  was  evaporated  to  the  thick- 
ness of  good  honey  at  about  the  same  rate.  This  apparatus  was  kept 
in  operation  about  ten  days  upon  honey  of  various  thickness  and  upon 
clear  water  with  the  above  definite  results.  The  flavor  of  the  first 
honey  was  injured — probably  by  the  first  acid  action  of  the  honey  upon 
the  outer  coating  of  the  tin.  Afterwards  this  was  not  as  apparent. 
The  color  was  also  somewhat  affected. 

The  heat  of  the  sun  was  also  tried  for  purposes  of  evaporation.  A 
shallow  pan  28  by  54  inches  in  size  was  filled  3 inches  deep  with 
thin  honey.  This  was  covered  with  glass  6 inches  above  the  honey  and 
left  in  the  sun  for  four  days,  when  about  5 per  cent  of  moisture  was 
evaporated.  As  the  honey  lies  at  rest  the  water  rises  to  the  top,  some- 
what aiding  evaporation.  The  flavor  and  color  are  not  affected  as  much 
as  by  the  method  of  running  through  pans.  In  this  way  honey  with 
30  per  cent,  and  even  40  per  cent,  of  water  added  was  evaporated  to  the 
consistency  of  very  thick  honey  in  three  weeks’  time,  so  thick  that  it 
has  not  at  this  date  showed  any  signs  of  granulation.  During  favor- 
able periods  of  sunshine  a temperature  of  165°  was  reached.  By  this 
method  a tank  4 by  6 feet,  with  6 inches  of  honey  and  weighing  1,300 
pounds,  should  be  evaporated  10  per  cent,  or  from  the  consistency  of 
freshly  gathered  honey  to  that  of  average  body,  during  about  two  weeks 
in  J uly  or  August. 

The  common  method  of  exposing  to  the  air  in  open  vessels  in  the 
warm  upper  story  of  a building  was  also  tested  with  honey  to  which 
10,  20,  30,  and  40  per  cent  of  water  had  been  added.  That  having  40 


63 


percent  added  became  strongly  fermented  in  a week’s  time,  while  only 
a slight  change  had  taken  place  in  the  30  per  cent  dilution,  and  at  the 
end  of  a month  it  tasted  like  a very  poor  quality  of  commercial  ex- 
tracted honey  or  like  honey  dew.  The  20  per  cent  dilution  was  not 
nearly  as  bad,  and  the  honey,  with  only  10  per  cent  of  water  added, 
was  during  the  month  returned  to  the  consistency  of  very  fair  honey. 

Nectar  extracted  two  or  three  days  after  the  combs  were  placed  in 
the  hives  contained,  during  the  dry  weather  of  July  and  August,  from 
10  to  15  per  cent  of  water  above  the  amount  always  found  in  honey  that 
has  been  sealed  in  the  comb  by  the  bees.  This  was  determined  by 
evaporating  in  test  tubes  in  hot  water. 

Summary. — (1)  The  method  at  present  promising  best  results  for 
artificial  evaporation  is  that  by  solar  heat  under  glass  well  ventilated. 
A small  portion  of  a greenhouse  or  forcing-house  arranged  for  conserv- 
ing the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  so  located  that  honey  could  be  run  into  the 
shallow  vats  directly  from  the  mouth  of  the  extractor  and  drawn  otf 
from  the  bottom  of  the  vats  into  marketing  receptacles,  should  give  good 
practical  results. 

(2)  Very  thin  honey  or  nectar  will  not  sour  as  quickly  as  supposed 
by  many,  and  may  be  safely  kept  during  any  period  of  cloudy  weather 
we  may  have  during  the  hot  summer  months. 

(3)  The  method  of  exposing  to  air  in  a warm  room  can  not  be 
depended  upon  to  ripen  very  thin  honey,  although  it  may  be  service- 
able for  evaporating  a very  small  percentage  of  water. 

(4)  The  method  of  evaporating  by  artificial  heat  of  stove  or  furnace 
is  expensive  and  troublesome,  requiring  constant  watching  and  care 
and  not  giving  as  good  results  as  had  been  hoped  for. 

(5)  The  possibilities  in  the  line  of  evaporating  honey  for  the  purpose 
of  increasing  the  yield  and  preventing  granulation  are  very  great.  A 
series  of  experiments  to  determine  the  increase  in  production  by  ex- 
tracting freshly  gathered  honey  would  be  next  in  order  and  value. 
When  the  utility  of  this  method  is  fully  demonstrated  supers  with 
fixed  frames  and  extractors  holding  whole  cases  will  be  used  and  other 
apparatus  conformable  to  the  needs  of  the  new  system. 

FEEDING  BACK. 

Feeding  back  extracted  honey  to  secure  the  completion  of  unfinished 
sections  at  the  close  of  the  harvest  is  practiced  by  some  apiarists,  but 
with  varying  financial  success.  Extracted  honey  can  be  transported 
long  distances  with  much  greater  safety  than  can  comb  honey.  For 
this  reason  it  has  been  thought  it  might  be  profitable  to  feed  bees  ex- 
tracted honey  costing  7 or  8 cents  per  pound  to  produce  comb  honey 
selling  at  13  to  15  cents,  locatiug  the  apiary  designed  for  this  purpose 
near  a large  city  or  other  favorable  market.  With  the  idea  of  adding 
light  upon  this  subject,  extracted  honey  was  fed  to  a number  of  colonies 
under  the  following  conditions:  The  hives  were  contracted  and  the 


64 


queens  kept  in  the  brood  apartment  by  means  of  excluding  zinc.  Five 
colonies  were  given  two  crates  each  of  unfinished  sections,  the  sections 
of  the  whole  weighing  113  pounds.  Three  hundred  and  thirty-eight 
pounds  of  honey  were  fed  these  five  colonies  during  twelve  days.  The 
honey  was  thinned  with  12  per  cent  of  water  and  warmed  before  feeding. 
The  amount  of  finished  honey  obtained  was  307  pounds,  or  a gain  of 
254  pounds  by  feeding  338  pounds  of  honey.  The  hives  were  weighed 
both  before  and  after  the  honey  was  fed,  and  a gain  of  36  pounds  dur- 
ing the  feeding  recorded  for  the  five  hives.  The  following  gives  the  re- 
sults from  a financial  view : 


254  pounds  comb  honey  by  feeding,  at  14  cents $35. 5'6 

36  pounds  stored  in  hives,  at  8 cents 2. 88 

38. 44 

Minus  value  of  338  pounds  fed,  at  8 cents 27. 04 

Profit  as  pay  for  labor,  etc 11. 40 


Two  colonies  were  given  crates  of  sections  with  full  sheets  of  foun- 
dation and  were  fed  extracted  honey,  under  the  same  conditions  as  the 
five  colonies  above : 

. Pounds. 


Amount  of  honey  fed  each  colony 66£ 

Colony  No.  1,  finished  comb  honey 41£ 

Colony  No.  1,  gain  in  weight  of  hive 9 

Colony  No.  2,  finished  comb  honey 38 

Colony  No.  2,  gain  in  weight  of  hive 7£ 


Taking  these  two  colonies  as  a basis,  the  following  financial  state- 


ment is  made: 

79|  pounds  comb  honey,  at  14  cents $11. 13 

16|  pounds  honey  stored  in  hives,  at  8 cents 1. 32 

12. 45 

Minus  value  of  133  pounds  honey  fed,  at  8 cents 10. 64 

$1.81 


Deducting  from  this  profit  the  value  of  the  sections  and  foundation 
used,  the  actual  profit,  as  pay  for  labor,  etc.,  is,  at  most,  nominal. 

When  this  whole  experiment  was  begun,  and  during  the  time  it  was 
in  progress,  no  honey  was  gathered  from  the  fields,  but  before  the  seal- 
ing was  all  accomplished  the  fall  honey  flow  began,  and  for  this  reason 
the  experiment  was  ended  and  the  honey  removed  sooner  than  would 
otherwise  have  been  advisable. 

The  results  obtained  in  this  work  or  in  any  experimental  work  of  a 
similar  character  might  vary  under  more  favorable  or  unfavorable  con- 
ditions of  environment,  and  a continuation  in  various  seasons,  and  under 
other  conditions,  would  alone  give  really  reliable  results.  The  above 
trials  are,  howevpr,  very  encouraging,  and  longer  and  varied  work  in 
this  line  is  desirable. 


INDEX, 


Actias  lima,  common  in  Iowa,  44. 

Alesia  fromata,  feeding  on  cabbage  apbis,  13. 
imported  from  Australia,  13. 
probably  established  in  California,  26. 
Amarantus,  web-worm  on,  38. 

Ammonia,  no  improvement  to  Paris  green,  32. 
Anthomyia  sp.,  possibly  a beet  enemy,  40. 
Apanteles  glomeratus,  parasitic  onPieris  rap®,  43. 
Aphis  brassic®,  on  rape  in  Iowa,  46. 

Apiculture,  desirability  of  continuing  experi- 
ments in,  64. 

report  on  experiments  in,  7,  57. 

Army  worm,  appearance  in  Iowa,  44. 

Ash-tree  Sphinx,  in  Nebraska,  41. 

Aspidiotus  aurantii,  fed  upon  by  Scymnus  loph- 
anth®,  15. 

perniciosus,  eaten  by  Scymnus  lopbanth®,  15. 
Bees,  breeding  of,  58. 

removing  queen  to  prevent  swarming,  58. 
Beet  insects,  in  Nebraska,  36. 
web-worm,  injury  by,  37. 
life  history  of,  39. 

Beets,  attacked  by  white  grubs,  37. 

Bill-bugs,  scarcity  of,  in  Missouri,  49. 

plentiful  in  Iowa,  42. 

Blister-beetle,  spotted,  on  beets,  36, 

Blister-beetles  attacking  beets,  36. 

remedies  tried  against,  36. 

Blue-grass  worm  in  Missouri,  53. 

Botrytis  tenella  vs.  Lachnosterna.  47. 

Box-elder  Gracilaria,  in  Missouri,  51. 

Bracon  juglandis,  parasite  of  Loxostege  ma- 
clur®,  53. 

Bruner,  Lawrence,  report  by,  7,  34. 

Cabbage  butterfly,  imported,  rare  in  Iowa,  43. 
Curculio,  in  Missouri,  50. 

Plusia,  plentiful  in  Iowa,  43’. 

Camnnla  pellucida,  in  Nebraska,  35. 
Canker-worms,  outbreak  of,  in  California,  9. 
Carpocapsa  pomonella,  in  California,  30. 
Cecidomyiid,  on  sugar  maples  in  Missouri,  56. 
Cecropia  moth,  in  Nebraska,  41. 

Ceutorhynchus  rap®,  in  Missouri,  50. 
Chenopodium  album,  Anthomyia  sp.  on,  40. 
Epicauta  maculata  on,  36. 
web-worm  on,  38,  39. 

Chinch  bug,  checked  by  rains,  41. 

notes  on,  in  Nebraska,  41. 

Chinch  bugs,  absence  of,  in  Missouri,  49. 
Chrysanthemum,  twelve-spotted  Diabrotica  on, 
50. 

Cladius  pectinicornis,  on  roses  in  Missouri,  50. 
Clover-seed  caterpillar,  plentiful  in  Iowa,  44. 


Coccinella  sanguinea,  parasitised  by  Euphorus 
sculptus,  16. 

Coccinellid,  an  undetermined,  23. 

Coccinellid®,  received  from  Australia,  11. 
Codling  moth,  benefits  of  spraying  for,  33. 
in  California,  30. 
parasites  of,  30,  56. 

Paris  green  for,  32. 
three-brooded  in  California,  30. 

Ccelodasys  unicornis  in  Nebraska,  41. 

Cooper,  Ellwood,  letter  of,  26. 

Coquillett,  D.  W.,  report  by,  7,  9. 

Corn  ear- worm,  on  corn  in  Missouri,  50. 

Cosmos,  twelve-spotted  Diabrotica  damaging,  50. 
Cottony-cushion  scale,  Novius  kcebelei  an  enemy 
of,  26. 

still  controlled  by  Vedalia,  9,  26. 

Crambus  exsiccatus,  injurious  in  Iowa,  44. 

teterrellus,  description  of  egg  and  larva,  54. 
hymenopterous  parasites  of,  54. 
in  Missouri,  53. 

Cruciferous  plants,  enemies  of,  in  Iowa,  43. 
Ctenochiton  depressum,  feeds  sparingly  on  scale- 
insects,  11. 

received  from  New  Zealand,  10. 

Dahlia,  twelve-spotted  Diabrotica  damaging,  50. 
Datana  angusii,  abundant  in  Iowa,  44. 
Deltocephalus  debilis,  life  history  of,  45. 

inimicus,  life  history  of,  45. 

Diabrotica,  twelve-spotted,  injuries  of,  50. 
Diamond-back  moth,  in  Iowa,  43. 

Diedrocephala  mollipes,  winter  conditions  of, 
45. 

Dissosteira  Carolina,  in  coitu  with  D.  longipen- 
nis,  35. 

longipennis,  in  Nebraska,  35. 

Diplosis  sp.,  on  soft  maple,  55. 

Disonycha  collaris,  a spinach  pest,  50. 

Edema  albifrons,  injurious  to  oak  in  Iowa,  44. 
Empusa  grylli,  fungous  disease  of  locusts,  34. 
Entomological  notes  for  1892,  Missouri,  49. 
Entomoplithora,  prevalent  among  locusts,  35. 
Epicauta  maculata,  on  beets,  36. 

pennsylvanica,  on  beets,  36. 

Eriocampa  cerasi,  checked  by  spraying,  32. 
Euphorus  sculptus,  hosts  of,  15,  16. 

parasitic  in  America  and  Australia,  16. 
Experiments  in  apiculture,  1892,  57. 

Fall  web- worm,  in  Nebraska,  41. 

Field  agents,  work  of,  7. 

Flea-beetles,  not  numerous  in  Missouri,  50. 
Fluted  scale,  destroyed  by  Novius  koebelei,  26. 
still  controlled  by  Vedalia,  9. 


19866— No.  30 5 


65 


66 


Fumigating  outfit  for  scale-insects,  purchased  by 
city  of  Riverside,  9. 

Fumigation  for  scale-insects  in  California,  9. 

Fungous  disease  Qf  locusts,  34. 

Gracilaria  negundella,  in  Missouri,  51. 

Grape  Phylloxera,  absence  of,  in  Missouri,  49. 

Grapholitha  interstinctana,  plentiful  in  Iowa,  44. 

Grapta  interrogationis.  conspicuous  in  Iowa,  44. 

Grasses,  Nomopliila  noctuella  swarming  in,  44. 

Grasshoppers,  in  Kansas,  47. 

Green-striped  maple- worm,  in  Nebraska,  41. 

Hadronema  militaris,  attacking  beets,  36. 

Helianthus  annuus,  Psedisca  strenuana  on,  30. 

Heliothis  armiger,  on  corn  in  Missouri,  50. 

Heteropus  ventricosus,  attacking  Leis  confer-  ! 
mis,  23. 

Hippodamia  convergens,  parasitised  by  Euphorus  ! 
sculp  tus,  16. 

Honey,  amouilt  gathered  influenced  by  removal  j 
of  queen,  59. 

consumed  in  secreting  wax,  59. 
evaporation,  by  artificial  heat,  62. 
by  sun  heat,  62. 
experiments  in,  61. 
summary  of  experiments,  63. 
feeding  back,  63. 
planting  for,  60,  61. 

results  of  experiments  in  feeding  back,  64. 

Honey-locust.  Lasioptera  sp.  ( ?)  in  twigs  of,  54. 

Hydrocyanic  acid  gas  treatment,  extension  of,  9. 

Hyperchiria  io,  numerous  in  Iowa,  44. 

Icerya  pnrehasi,  destroyed  by  Novius  kcebelei, 
26. 

still  controlled  by  Yedalia,  9,  26. 

Imported  cabbage  butterfly',  rare  in  Iowa,  43. 

Insect  injuries  in  Nebraska,  34. 

Insects,  beneficial,  $5,000  appropriated  by  Califor- 
nia for  importing,  10. 
from  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  10. 
excessive  rainfall  adverse  to,  49. 
injurious,  scarcity  of,  in  Missouri,  49. 
miscellaneous,  in  Nebraska,  41. 
of  California,  report  on,  9. 
of  Iowa,  report  on,  42. 

Isaria  sp.,  probably  attacking  Coccinellid,  20. 

Jassidae,  destructive  in  Iowa,  44. 

Kerosene  emulsion,  not  effectual  against  walnut 
span-worm,  29. 

Koebele,  Albert,  letters  of,  11,  12,  13,  14. 
second  mission  to  Australia,  7,  10. 

Lachnosterna,  attacking  beets,  37. 

not  affected  by  Botrytis  tenella,  47. 

Ladybirds,  Australian,  importation  of,  10. 
possibly  established,  26. 

Larrabee,  J.  H.,  report  by,  7,57. 

Lasioptera  sp.,  on  honey'  locust,  54. 

Leis  antipodum,  fails  to  attack  scale-insects,  11. 
received  from  New  Zealand,  10. 
conformis,  descriptions  of  egg  and  larva,  22. 

parasitised  by  Heteropus  ventricosus,  23. 
probably  established  in  California,  26. 
received  from  Australia,  12. 

Lepidium  virginicum,  Ceutorhynchus  rapae  on, 
50. 

Leucania  unipuncta,  appearance  in  Iowa,  44. 

Lime  an  improvement  to  Paris  green  spray,  33. 

Locust  mite,  Trombidium  locustarum,  35. 


Locusts,  causes  of  decrease.  35. 
destructive,  in  Nebraska,  34. 

parasites  and  diseases  of,  34. 
fungous  disease  of,  34. 

Loxostege  maclurie,  description,  51. 
on  Osage  orange,  51. 
similalis,  in  Nebraska,  38. 
sticticalis,  attacking  beets,  37. 
life-history  of,  39. 

Lyda?  sp.,on  plums  in  Nebraska,  41. 

Maci’ocentrus  delicatus,  and  Codling  moth,  30. 
hosts  of,  30. 

Mamestra  picta,  frequent  in  Iowa,  44. 
sp.,  on  beets,  40. 

Maple,  soft,  Diplosis  sp.  (?)  on,  55. 

worm,  green -striped,  in  Nebraska,  41. 

Megilla  maculata,  parasitised  by  Euphorus  sculp- 
tus,  16. 

Melanoplus  atlanis,  in  Nebraska,  35. 
killed  by  fungus,  etc.,  35. 
bivittatus,  killed  byr  Entomoplithora,  etc.,  35. 
differentialis  killed  by  Entomoplithora,  etc., 35. 
femur-rubrum,  killed  by  Entomoplithora,  etc., 
35. 

spretus  in  Nebraska,  35. 

Microcera  coccophila,  probable  fungus  attacking 
i Coccinellid,  20. 

i Murtfeldt,  Mary  E.,  report  by,  8,  49. 
i My'zus  persicae  on  plum,  in  Iowa,  46. 
j Nebraska,  insect  injuries  in,  34. 
j Nomopliila  noctuella,  plentiful  in  Iowa,  44. 
j Novius  kcebelei  closely  resembles  Yedalia,  21. 
descriptions  of  early  stages  of,  20. 
established  at  Los  Angeles,  25. 
not  so  efficient  as  Yedalia,  25. 
received  from  Australia,  13. 

Oak,  Edema  albifrons  on,  44. 
walnut  span-worm  on,  27. 

Orange,  beneficial  insects  imported  for,  10. 

Orcus  australasise,  description  of  early  stages 
of,  16. 

established  at  Los  Angeles,  25. 
probably  more  beneficial  than  other  impor- 
tations, 9. 

received  from  Australia,  12. 
chalybeus,  descriptions  of  early  stages  of,  19. 
established  at  Los  Angeles,  25. 
from  Australia,  12. 
fungus  on,  20. 

bilunulatus  from  Australia,  14. 

Osage  Orange  Pyralid,  description,  51. 
destructiveness  in  Missouri,  51. 
parasites  of,  53. 

Osborn,  Herbert,  report  by,  8,  42. 

Piedisoa  strenuana,  host  of  Macrocentrus  deli- 
catus, 30. 

Papilio  asterias,  abundant  in  Iowa,  44. 
cresphontes,  abundant  in  Iowa,  44. 
turnus,  abundant  in  Iowa,  44. 

Parasites  of  Codling  moth,  30. 
scarce  in  Missouri,  56. 
of  Plum  curculio,  scarce  in  Missouri,  56. 

Paris  green,  against  walnut  span-worm,  29. 
for  codling  moth,  32. 
spray  improved  by  lime,  33. 
not  improved  by  ammonia,  32. 
proportions  for,  32, 


67 


Pear  slug  checked  by  sprayiDg,  32. 

-tree  saw-fly  in  Nebraska,  41. 

Pepper-grass,  wild,  cabbage  curculio  on,  50. 
Perimegatoma  variegatum  vs.  codling  moth,  30. 
Pieris  rapae,  parasites  of,  in  Iowa,  43. 
rare  in  Iowa,  43. 

Pimpla  annulipes  and  codling  moth,  30. 
Phyliotreta  sinuata,  notnmnerous  inMissouri,  50. 
Plant-lice,  plentiful  in  Iowa,  46. 

Plum  curculio,  scarcity  of  parasites  of,  56. 

wild,  Myzus  persicae  on,  46. 

Plusia  brassicae,  plentiful  in  Iowa,  43. 

Plutella  cruciferarum,  in  Iowa,  43. 

Podisus  spinosus,  enemy  of  Loxostegemaclurte,  53. 
Potato  stalk  weevil  in  Iowa,  43. 

Prickly  ash,  Papilio  cresphontes  on,  44. 
Pteroiualus  puparum,  parasite  on  Pieris  rapae,  43. 
Punic  bees,  characteristics  of,  58. 

Quercus  agrifolia,  walnut  span-worm  on,  27. 

Rape,  Aphis  brassicae  on,  46. 

Red  scale,  fed  upon  by  Scymuus  lophanthae,  15. 
Roses,  attacked  by  Cladius  pectinicornis,  50. 

San  J os6  scale,  fed  upon  by  Scymnus  lophanthae,  15. 
Scale-insects,  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  for,  9. 
Schizoneura  lanigera,  fed  upon  by  Scymnus  lo- 
phanthae, 15. 

Scymnid8,  black,  from  Australia,  13, 14. 

Scymnus  flavihirtus,  feeds  sparingly  on  scale-in- 
sects, 11. 

received  from  New  Zealand,  10. 
lophanthae,  feeding  on  scales,  15. 
from  Australia,  14. 

Silpha  opaca,  a possible  beet  enemy,  40. 
Soldier-bug,  spined,  enemy  of  Loxostegemaclurae, 
53. 

Span-worm,  walnut,  description  of,  28. 
enemies  and  parasites,  29. 


Span-  worm,  walnut — Continued, 
in  California,  26,  27. 
remedies  for,  29. 

Span-worms,  injurious  in  California,  9. 
Sphenophorus  parvulus,  threatening  corn,  42. 

ochreus,  in  Iowa,  42. 

Spinach,  Disonycha  collaris  on,  50. 

Spraying  for  Codling  moth,  32. 
benefits  of,  33. 

Sunflower,  Paedisca  strcnuana  on,  30. 

Sweet  clover  as  silage  plant,  61. 

Tent-caterpillars,  injurious  in  Nebraska,  41. 
Thalpochares  cocciphaga,  descriptions  of  early 
stages  of,  24. 

imported  from  Australia,  12. 
parasitised  by  Bracon  sp.,  15. 

Trichobaris  trinotata,  in  Iowa,  43. 

Trogoderma  tarsale,  not  an  enemy  of  codling 
moth,  30. 

Trombidium  locustarum,  locust  mite,  35. 
Tunisian  or  Punic  bees,  characteristics  of,  58. 
Tussock  moth,  in  Nebraska,  41. 

Twelve-spotted  Diabrotica  in  flower-gardens,  50. 
Yanessa  antiopa,  plentiful  in  Iowa,  44. 

Yedalia  cardinalis,  sent  to  Egypt,  9. 
sent  to  New  Zealand,  9. 
sent  to  South  Africa,  9. 

Walnut  Datana  in  Nebraska,  41. 

Walnut,  English,  insects  on,  26. 

Walnut  span-worm.  See  Span-worm. 

Wax  secretion,  experiment  in,  59. 

Webster,  F.  M.,  field  work  of,  7. 

Web-worm,  garden,  in  Nebraska,  38. 

Web-worms  attacking  beets,  37,  38. 

White  grubs  attacking  beets,  37. 

Woolly  aphis,  eaten  by  Scymnus  lophanthae,  15. 
Zinias,  damaged  by  twelve-spotted  Diabrotica,  50. 


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